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Movement and Its Implication for Individuals With Disabilities John M. Dunn and Claudine Sherrill The value of participating in movement-related activities has been justified for many reasons. Some, for example, have claimed that by moving, individuals enhance their overall level of fitness, have fun, and leam new skills. Others point out, however, that movement is important because of its contributions to overall development or the enhancement of the individual's ability to improve cognitive skills, particularly in the areas of reading or understanding abstract concepts associated with skills in mathematics. The latter, for example, was a very common set of values associated with perceptual-motor theorists such as Kephart and Getman (Dunn & Fait, 1989). The theme of movement as a means to some other end, particularly as applied to individuals with disabilities, has been used many times as justification for promoting physical activity programs for those with special needs. In earlier years, for example, Sir Ludwig Guttmann, a physician and one of the early leaders in promoting sport and physical activity for individuals with disabilities, argued that sport could be used as a psychological aid in helping war-injured soldiers hasten their recovery. It was Guttmann (1976) who argued that soldiers with World War I1 related spinal cord injuries could not rely only on surgical and medical intervention. Despite the best medical treatment, soldiers with spinal cord injuries were dying at a rate much higher than expected. Guttmann postulated that participation in vigorous activity might be helpful in assisting individuals with spinal injuries be more positive in their outlook toward the future. Although quantitative data to support Guttmann's hypotheses are sparse, there is a rich source of qualitative data that affirms his belief in the curative value of physical activity. Guttmann's work is clearly a pioneer effort in support of sport and movement activities toward enhancing the lives of individuals with disabilities (Guttman, 1976). The term disability includes a very diverse population. Individuals with sensory, orthopedic, and cognitive disorders are covered under this umbrella. The nature of the disability, its severity, and the time of its occurrence challenge individuals who study, write, and speak about those with disabilities. Few have the knowledge base and experience to speak with confidence on more than two or three of the broad disability categories identified by the federal government as eligible for special education and lifespan-adapted physical activity services (e.g., mental retardation, orthopedic impairments, autism, blindness, other health impairments). It is noteworthy that the latter includes such conditions as weight and John M. Dunn is with the College of Health at the University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112. Claudine Shemll is with the Kinesiology Department at the Texas Woman's University, Denton, TX 76204.

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nutrition problems, asthma, diabetes, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections. It is also difficult to generalize findings from one disability to another and from different life stages. Most persons do not consider the possibility of personal disablement, but it is likely that many of us will experience a disability of a temporary or permanent nature. One out of six individuals in peaceful, industrial nations copes with personal disability at some time in his or her life (Shapiro, 1993). The probability of experiencing a disability increases to 50% or higher after the age of 65 (Shemll, in press; Skinner, 1989). Our understanding of the nature of a disability and its impact on the individual is only now beginning to receive the attention deserved. In the United States, 1975 marks the year that federal legislation was enacted to ensure that individuals with disabilities would receive instruction in physical education, sport, and related movement activities. Several significant federal laws have begun to change attitudes and practices. Public Law (PL) 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, mandated that physical education must be taught to all students with disabilities. Since 1990, PL 94-142 has been called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Part B. IDEA contains many parts and is reauthorized about every 3 years and assigned a new number. The funding of university professional preparation programs in adapted physical education and therapeutic recreation, for example, comes from Part D of IDEA. Public Law 93-112, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, made it clear that all students with disabilities would be entitled to the same opportunities as other students to participate in sport, including interscholastic competition (Appenzeller, 1983; Dougherty, Auxter, Goldberger, & Heinzmane, 1994). The Amateur Sports Act of 1978, PL 95-606, specified that individuals with disabilities were to be included in efforts to promote amateur athletics in the USA. The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) Constitution was revised, and the following statement was added to the "Objects and Purpose7'section of the USOC Constitution: To encourage and provide assistance to amateur athletic programs and competition for individuals with disabilities, including where feasible, the expansion of opportunities for meaningful participation by disabled individuals in programs of athletic competition for able-bodied individuals. Subsequently, funding has been allocated to disability sport organizations affiliated with the USOC that participate in the Paralympic sport movement (DePauw & Gavron, 1995). The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA; PL 101-336), enacted in 1990, addresses discrimination in five areas: (a) employment in the private sector, (b) public accommodations, (c) public services, (d) transportation, and (e) telecommunications. This law obviously has many applications to physical activity settings (Block, 1995). The rationale for passage of these and similar laws emphasizes that individuals with disabilities are entitled to the same basic civil rights as all other individuals. The irony of this, of course, is that legislators, in passing these laws, extended to students with disabilities rights not accorded to their nondisabled peers. For example, PL 94-142, or IDEA Part B, is the only instance in which the federal government has mandated the provision of physical education for any population, a fact that is not well understood by many professionals in our field!

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Why did our congressional leaders see fit to require physical education for students with disabilities? Did they view movement-related activities as having some inherent benefit to students with special needs? Were they being responsive to requests and input from parents andlor children with disabilities? Were they conversant with literature extolling the benefits of such programs? The answer, of course, is not clear. As participants in the process leading to the passage of PL 94142, our observations lead us to conclude that senators, representatives, and other aides were influenced by personal testimony from parents of children with disabilities, input from individuals with disabilities, and advocates who cared. Congressional leaders recognized that civil rights legislation, if applied appropriately, must include all minority groups (i.e., all citizens who are denied basic fundamental rights).

Disability: Its Meaning Before continuing further, it is important to define the term disability and clarify some of the sensitivities associated with the use of this term. Throughout history a variety of terms have been used to refer to those with disabilities (e.g., moron, crippled, spastic, retard, handicapped). Any name assigned to a group communicates much about how the assignor perceives the individual. This, of course, affects the feelings of individuals with disabilities, as is true of other categorical labels for race, ethnicity, religion, sex, gender, appearance, and performance (Home, 1985). The World Health Organization (1980) has provided a helpful and definitive statement on the use of terms commonly used to identify individuals with disabilities. It offers the following: Impairment: Any disturbance of, or interference with, the normal structure and function of the body. Disability: The loss or reduction of functional ability andlor activity. Handicap: A condition produced by societal and environmental barriers.

Although some have viewed these definitions as helpful, many have criticized that the definitions are negative and developed by able-bodied individuals (Barton, 1993; Shapiro, 1993).Nevertheless, the term disability has become widely accepted as the preferred term, receiving wide acceptance by members of the disability community. Impairment is perceived as a synonym, but the term handicap is viewed as offensive by many individuals with disabilities. It is equally important to emphasize that person-first terminology should be used in referencing individuals with disabilities.The American Psychological Association (1994) has clarified that the term disabled should not be used as an adjective to modify a noun. This means, for example, that the noun should be placed first, so that the appropriate phrase becomes individuals with disabilities, or John is an individual with cerebral palsy. There is an exception to this rule. Members of the deaf community argue that those who are deaf represent a linguistically different culture separate from the hearing-speaking world, not a disability (Stewart, 1991). The challenge is to view disability in ways that promote individuality and individualization rather than reinforcing negative views, which historically have been associated with certain categorical differences (Barton, 1993; Wright, 1983).

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Organizations that Promote Sport and Physical Activity Several disability sport organizations are affiliated directly with the USOC. A brief introduction to these organizations should prove helpful in highlighting the heterogeneity of individuals with disabilities and in fostering an understanding of some of the challenges associated in assigning meaning to movement and activity for individuals with disabilities.

American Athletic Association for the Deaf (AAAD) The AAAD was founded in 1945 in Akron, Ohio. The purpose of this organization is to foster and regulate competition, develop uniform rules, and promote interclub competition. A primary function of the AAAD is to participate in the World Summer and Winter Games for the Deaf and the Pan American Games for the Deaf. Participation in AAAD-sponsored events requires that the individual have a hearing loss of 55 decibels or greater in the better ear. There is only one classification,with all athletes competing together. The AAAD is somewhat unique among sport organizations for athletes with disabilities in that all of the management personnel must be deaf.

Disabled Sports USA (DS/USA) The DSIUSA, founded in 1967, was originally known as National Handicapped Sports (NHS) until 1995. The organization conduct. national competition in winter sports but also works year round to promote various kinds of fitness and wellness activities for individuals with special needs. NHS is different from most other organizations in the United States that promote sport for athletes with disabilities in that it is sport-specific and not disability-specific.

Special Olympics In 1968, the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., Foundation, with the guidance of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, founded the Special Olympics. This organization is designed to promote and conduct local, regional, national, and international sport experiences for athletes with mental retardation. Individuals 8 years of age or older, with an intelligence quotient of less than 75 are eligible to participate. Competition divisions adjusted for age and ability have been established. The philosophy of Special Olympics supports the belief that striving is more important than success, and that determination is more important than winning.

United States Association for Blind Athletes (USABA) In 1976 the USABA was formed to promote opportunities for athletes with visual impairments to participate in regional, national, and international competition. The impetus for forming the USABA began in 1975 when the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD) announced that the 1976 Olympics of the Physically Disabled would for the first time include athletes with visual impairments. Three classification categories have been established to permit equal competition of participants.

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United States Cerebral Palsy Athletic Association (USCPAA) The USCPAA was founded in 1978 under the name of the National Association for Sports for Cerebral Palsy. The USCPAA's purpose is to promote competitive sport programs and recreational opportunities for persons with cerebral palsy, head trauma, and other conditions resulting from damage to the brain. Because individuals with cerebral palsy have such diverse functional abilities, the USCPAA has implemented an eight-category classification system that is sensitive to the participant's type of cerebral palsy, degree of involvement, and mode of ambulation. This assessment system is used to help equalize opportunity to win during competition.

Wheelchair Sports, USA Wheelchair Sports, USA, founded in 1959 as the National Wheelchair Athletic Association, is the primary organization that promotes sport experiences for individuals with spinal cord injuries, amputations, and polio. Wheelchair Sports, USA is the umbrella term for various wheelchair sports organizations including the national governing bodies for American WheelchairArchers, American Wheelchair Table Tennis, National Wheelchair Basketball Association, National Wheelchair Shooting Association, U.S. Quad Rugby, U.S. Wheelchair Swimming, U.S. Wheelchair Weightlifting, and Wheelchair Athletics (track and field). Because of the variety of sport offerings and philosophies, each association classifies athletes in a different way.

DwatfAthletic Association of America (DAAA) The DAAA was founded in 1986 to develop, promote, and provide quality amateur sport opportunities for dwarfs (adults who are no taller than 4 feet, 10 inches and short stature children whose conditions are caused by the chondrodystrophies and related disorders). These disability sport organizations represent only those that are affiliated with the USOC and the Paralympic movement. Many other disability sport organizations exist. Although there are similarities in the structure and function of these groups, there are major differences too. Some organizations are disability-specific, whereas others are cross-disability. The range of activities offered and the goals of the organizations also differ. Some of these differences help to highlight that individuals with disabilities vary considerably by category. At the individual Ievel, of course, the differences are dramatic. Despite the passage of legislation and the availability of an increasing number of sport organizations, proportionately fewer individuals with disabilities participate in physical activity than the able-bodied (Brown & Gordon, 1987;SchmidtGotz, Doll-Tepper, & Lienert, 1994). Possible reasons for the low participation rate include fewer opportunities to be socialized into sport, difficulty in accessing programs and facilities, lack of support and encouragement, and attitudes that discourage participants from regular sport and exercise settings (Sherrill & Williams, 1995).

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Views Concerning People With Disabilities Individuals have struggled over the years to understand people with disabilities. Historically, some have argued that society has evolved through various eras in its treatment of those who are disabled. Following is a brief account of these eras.

Extermination In ancient times, it was the practice to destroy the life of any individual who was viewed as significantly different from others. This was justified or thought right for several reasons, including religious beliefs. Individuals with disfigurements, for example, were viewed as representing an evil sign; it was necessary, therefore, to sacrifice or remove such individuals. Proponents of genetic engineering offer a more modern view of the desire to "rid or exterminate anything that might interfere with ideal or "normal" development.

Ridicule Earlier societies were prone to ridicule and taunt those who were disabled in some way. Many of the court jesters were individuals with different appearances or mental functions (e.g., dwarfs, hunchbacks, people with MR). Individuals with disabilities are frequently subjected to rude and ignorant comments. Our language is replete with expressions that tend to make light of those with disabilities (blind as a bat, retard, etc.).

Institutionalization Up to the early 1900s, it was very common to institutionalize any individual who somehow deviated significantly from the norm. Although this was viewed as the humane thing to do, many acknowledge that institutions were created to protect the able-bodied from those with disabilities. Today, we recognize that this type of treatment is a form of stigmatization (Hockenberry, 1995; Oliver, 1990; Wolfensberger, 1972). Stigmatization refers to discriminatory or unjust treatment directed toward persons perceived as different (Goffman, 1963). The view of the difference is such that those who deviate from the norm are perceived by others as dangerous, inferior, not quite human, and in need of being placed away-institutionalized.

Education In more modern times, our view of those with disabilities has helped us'to understand that educating these individuals leads to productive citizens. To a large extent, however, those with disabilities continue to lag far behind in overall education. Approximately 40% of this population lacks a high school diploma, and less than 9% have a college degree, compared with 23% of all Americans in that age range (Bowe, 1990). The lack of adequate education affects employment, income, and independence. Without employment, self-esteem is affected (Rosenberg & Pearlin, 1982).

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Self-Realization Individuals with disabilities are increasingly accepted as individuals without focusing on, or generalizing about, the disability. This is evident, for instance, in efforts to promote programs that integrate those with disabilities into all facets of life, including schools, employment, and recreation (Dattilo, 1994; Stein, 1991; Wilhite & Wayne, 1995). To a large extent, however, individuals with disabilities are still viewed by many as a "class or category" with little appreciation or understanding of the unique nature of each person, regardless of the disability. As observed by Shemll(1993; in press), this tendency to categorize all individuals with disabilities, or stereotyping, is a particularly hurtful type of prejudice that further contributes to the depersonalization of individuals with disabilities.

Value of Movement for Individuals With Disabilities Why do people with disabilities engage in sport and related movements? What benefits accrue to them as a result of their participation? Answering these questions is one purpose of the paper. Responding with confidence, however, is challenging because the population in question is very heterogeneous, and many variables influence views of disability, including type, severity, and age of onset. Unfortunately, very little research addresses these questions specifically. Some of the commonly stated reasons and references that frequently appear in literature reviews support the observations that follow.

Health and Fitness Participation in physical activity makes an important contribution to the health and fitness of individuals with disabilities (DePauw & Gavron, 1995; Rimmer, 1994; Shephard, 1990). Although the amount of information is limited, studies suggest that the fitness levels of individuals with disabilities are lower than those of their nondisabled peers. Some of the factors that interfere with the health of individuals with disabilities include deficiencies in nutrition, sedentary lifestyles, and hereditary factors (Dunn & Fait, 1989). Individuals with Down Syndrome, for example, are much more likely than the general population to experience heartrelated disorders, pneumonia, and infectious diseases (Eyman, Grossman, Tajan, & Miller, 1987; Rimmer, 1994). It is essential, therefore, that special efforts be made to help these individuals develop effective exercise strategies. We know that the various populations with disabilities, including those with severe cognitive disorders, can learn to engage in appropriate activities (Rintala, Dunn, McCubbin, & Quinn, 1992; Rintala, McCubbin, & Dunn, 1995). Shemll(1986) reported that athletes with cerebral palsy and visual impairments ranked fitness first in identifying the contribution of sport to their lives. Similar findings have been reported by Brasile and Hedrick (1991), Crocker and Bouffard (1992), and White and Duda (1993).

Contributions to Activities of Daily Living Many individuals with disabilities engage in movement-related activities because they know that life's daily activities require the use of appropriate musculature. Daily tasks such as rising from bed, getting dressed, and preparing for work require different forms of movement. For individuals with disabilities, some of

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these activities typically considered routine require preliminary planning and intense effort to execute. Individuals who use wheelchairs, for instance, learn quickly that they must maintain an appropriate level of upper body strength or be further restricted in their mobility. A specific example might help to illustrate the importance of movement to daily life. Agrowing body of literature supports the observation that individuals with multiple sclerosis are more likely than the general public or others with chronic illness to experience psychological problems, particularly depression (Gary, Horvath, Joffe, Lippert, & Sawa, 1987; Minden, Orav, & Reich, 1987). The etiology of depression remains unclear but is associated with the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors. O'Brien (1993) argues that, because multiple sclerosis occurs in young adulthood during peak years of career development and family life, individuals are faced with many challenges, including the-loss of physical independence. Thus developing strategies to cope with the disease is a major goal of treatment. Mental health professionals have become very interested in the relationship of physical fitness to depression, recognizing that research generally suggests that higher levels of physical condition are accompanied by lower levels of depression (Doyne, Chambless, & Beutler, 1983).

Finding and Sustaining Employment The ability to perform part-time or full-time work may be the deciding factor between earning one's own income or being dependent on others for financial resources. Those with disabilities know that their success in getting and keeping a job is directly attributable to their ability to sustain work over a period of time. Many learn, therefore, that job-related success is connected to overall levels of fitness, ability to concentrate, and general level of energy. Participating in physical activity programs, therefore, is viewed as a life necessity for many with disabilities.

Fun and Enjoyment Many individuals with disabilities engage in sport, movement, and other forms of physical activity because to do so is fun and enjoyable (Sherrill & Williams, 1995). We see, therefore, people with disabilities participating in team sports such as wheelchair basketball as well as many vigorous outdoor activities, including mountain climbing and cross-country skiing. Some have questioned why individuals with disabilities, such as a downhill skier with cerebral palsy, should subject himself/herself to possible injury. The answer, of course, is that the activity is fun, and many individuals with disabilitiesfind challenging themselves to be physically enjoyable. Cooper (1984) reported that the most frequent reason athletes with cerebral palsy participated in sport was challenge of competition. Fun and enjoyment were identified as the second primary reasons.

Normalization Sport has been recognized by several authorities as an important institution within society. Individuals with disabilities, therefore, striving to be part of society, recognize that participation in sport will help them to integrate more fully into family and community activities and thus be normalized (DePauw & Gavron, 1995). Students with visual impairments, for example, can use their proficiency in swimming not only to compete but, perhaps more importantly, to be a welcomed addition to all water activities enjoyed by their families.

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Individuals with disabilities also use sport as a socializing agent to assure others that, although they have impairments, they are not ill. There is a general tendency for the public, educators, and medical personnel to equate the terms disability and sickness. This misconception is quickly destroyed when individuals with disabilities are observed strenuously participating in sport forms common to the general public. The ultimate form of integration for individuals with disabilities is to participate with nondisabled people in activities in which their disability does not interfere with their own or the team's performance. Many examples are found in sport in which people with disabilities have successfully participated or competed with the nondisabled (Sherrill & Williams, 1995).

Enhancing Concept of Self Many individuals with disabilities believe that sport and physical activity contribute to a positive self-concept. Hutzler and Bar-Eli (1993), in a review of self-concept and self-esteem research, concluded that In general, the studies reviewed reveal significant positive changes varying in intensity and duration in the self-concept of disabled populations after sports participation sessions. In addition, significantly higher values of self-concept were observed among disabled people regularly participating in sports compared with sedentary, inactive disabled individuals. (p. 221)

Hutzler and Bar-Eli cautioned, however, that most of the studies reviewed by them had weak sampling andfor research designs. Williams (1994) concurred, suggesting "that the study of disability sport socialization is in its infancy and in urgent need of an adequate theoretical foundation" (p. 14). Wright, a pioneer in studying the psychological implications of disabilities, suggested that it is the personal meaning of a disability that is important in self-concept formation rather than the disability itself. Success in sport proves helpful in enhancing personal or self-concept formation.

Empowerment Some researchers have attempted to assess the meaning of sport and physical activity from the perspective of the individual with a disability. Pioneer work in this area has been conducted by Sherrill. In interviews with over 300 athletes with cerebral palsy or visual impairments, Sherrill (1986) concluded that almost all athletes believed sports were a means of affirming their competence and helping others to focus on their abilities rather than disabilities. A review of literature by Shenill and Williams (1995) revealed that sport was viewed by many athletes as a vehicle to overcome barriers and to change social status and lifestyle. Sherrill's qualitative and quantitative findings have led her to conclude the following, which are summarized in a comprehensive literature review by Sherrill and Williams (1995, pp. 9-10): 1. Psychosocial perspectives with regard to meaning to sport are unique to each individual's evolving biography and ever-changing ecology. 2. Within this framework of uniqueness, time of onset (congenital vs. acquired) and severity of disability are the two most important variables that continuously interact in shaping disability sport meanings and careers. These interwoven variables make athletes with disabilities different in psychosocial

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complexity from athletes without disabilities because these variables give different meanings to chailenge, competition, barriers, and challenge of competition. 3. The growth through adversity phenomenon (Paulsen, French, & Sherrill, 1991; Sherrill, Silliman, Gench, & Hinson, 1990) is a central influence in the lives of individuals with disabilities and contributes strongly to meanings of sport and other competence-oriented endeavors. 4. Stigmatization, stereotyping, and prejudice (as concerns in the lives of individuals with CP and VI) affect the meaning of sports and the ways athletes perceive themselves and other athletes (Sherrill, 1986,1989,1993). Ahierarchy of stigmatized conditions exists within disability sport that is similar to that in ablebodied society (Tringo, 1970; Yuker, 1988). Individuals with severe CPand learning difficulties or disabilities (called mental retardation in the United States) are consistently lowest in this hierarchy, whereas the position of athletes with VI seems to fluctuate. Athletes with CP and VI perceive ambiguity, avoidance, or both in actions of athletes with other disabilities and in society at large. These perceptions seem to intensify the need to validate self through sport. 5. The meaning of sport is inextricably linked with the ongoing process of self-actualization as described by Maslow (1954), Shostrom (1974), and Sherrill (1993). This link is affective as well as cognitive. Thus, sport is valued and enjoyed for its own sake, but is concurrently viewed as a means for achieving a wide variety of goals. Self-actualization, as process and product, is synonymous with empowerment,the popular mandate of the 1990s. Of particular importance in selfactualization is inner-directedness.

Contributions of Individuals with Disabilities to the Value of Movement for Others There is little doubt that sport and related movement activities contribute in many ways to the lives of individuals with disabilities. Through their active participation in physical activity, individuals with disabilities contribute much to our general understanding of movement and its meaning. We see, for example, courageous examples of individualsovercoming major life obstacles to accomplish what many take for granted. People with disabilities also enrich our understanding of movement and the technical skills required to move large as well as small musculature. Classification theory is being developed, for example, to clarify with some degree of precision types of abilities that can be clustered together for instruction, training, and competition (Sherrill, 1993). As young people with mental retardation have engaged in sport, our understandings of the rules and structure of selected sports have expanded. How for example, do we explain the use of the starter gun, staggered starts, and sport jargon such as touchdown, time out, and strike? Efforts to understand various ways of thinking and means of processing information have helped many become better teachers and human beings. For example, much of our recent improvements in how to physically educate young children, (e.g., developmentally appropriate practices, generalization to lifespan practices, individualization of instruction) are directly attributable to concepts that have emerged from efforts to teach children with disabilities. Principals, teachers, and school board members have enhanced their understanding and appreciation for physical activity and the process of teaching and learning skills in the psychomotor domain as they have watched individuals with disabilities perform sport and

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contributions, as a worthy end in itself. And although the loss of any movement capability presents new challenges, the fight to retain and enhance that which remains is a desirable goal in its own right.

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