Motivational Design for Learning and Performance

John M. Keller

Motivational Design for Learning and Performance The ARCS Model Approach

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John M. Keller Instructional Systems Program Florida State University 3204G Stone Building Tallahassee, FL 32306-4453 USA [email protected]

ISBN 978-1-4419-1249-7 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-1250-3 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1250-3 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: 2009938709 # Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC 2010 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

This book is dedicated to Cecilia

Preface What are the critical components of learner motivation? What is the responsibility of a designer, instructor, counselor, coach, or parent for learner motivation?  How can you determine what motivational tactics to use and when to use them?  

It is customary to begin a book or major article about motivation by pointing out that it is a powerful influence on performance and that it is a complex aspect of human behavior. This book is no exception in that regard. Both of these generalizations are quite true, but it is also the case that having knowledge about motivational concepts and theories is seldom sufficient for a person who is trying to design learning environments that will stimulate and sustain their students’ motivation. This book has been written for people who are involved in designing or delivering instruction. This includes instructional designers, performance technologists, trainers, teachers, curriculum developers, and anyone else who is responsible for stimulating and sustaining peoples’ motivation to learn. The principles and methods in this book can be used by any of these people in school settings as well as private, public, and military sector training design and delivery. Furthermore, the approaches described in this book have been used in many international settings. One final point is that there are no prerequisites for students or professionals who use this book. It assumes no background in psychological or pedagogical theory.

Purpose The aim of this book is to provide an introduction to the concept of motivational design and to then support it with knowledge of motivational concepts and theories, a systematic motivational design process, and tools to support motivational design activities. Motivational researchers have produced numerous strategies for stimulating or changing one or more specific components of learner motivation and all of them are useful within their specific area of application. However, the goal of this book is to present a generalized, systematic approach that is holistic in nature with regard to the various aspects of learner motivation. The book aims at being ‘‘selfsufficient’’ in that it provides a sufficient understanding of motivational vii

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concepts and theories to support the motivational design process and a thorough explanation of the design process itself. Another goal of this book is to assist the reader in understanding motivational concepts within a framework that is broader than formal psychological research. Any reflection or research into the ‘‘why’’ questions concerning why people do what they do are motivational questions, and efforts to answer these questions are not restricted to any particular area of human inquiry. Scholars, philosophers, poets, novelists, and others have contributed much to our understandings of these questions. Science leads toward demonstrable principles but the other sources of knowledge can make valuable contributions to insight, understanding, and empathy. Clinicians, in the broad sense of the concept to include designers, teachers, and others, benefit from being able to interpret people’s behaviors within the context of their values and experiences. I am convinced from long experience that it is helpful in understanding the richness of psychological concepts to see how they have been articulated by people with different perspectives and in different eras. Thus, there is a small amount of this type of cultural and intellectual background in the chapters where the foundational psychological concepts are described (Chapters 4 ¯ 7), but the primary focus is on validated psychological constructs that are most relevant to creating motivating learning environments and motivated learners.

Background My purpose in writing this book is to provide a validated, theoretically based, procedural approach to analyzing motivational problems and designing solutions. As illustrated by the various sections of this book, this approach has a long history of development, it has been implemented and validated in many different contexts, and it is already familiar to a large number of educators and educational researchers in many parts of the world. Some parts of the book contain material that I have developed and revised over many years and other parts describe recent developments. A fundamental assumption of my approach is that motivational design is a problem-solving process that proceeds from a rational analysis of the problems to the development of motivational strategies that are appropriate for those problems. This approach is not grounded in a particular psychological school of thought. Rather, it integrates virtually all of them by using systems theory and certain superordinate concepts to give each theory a place in the overall process where it provides the best explanations for relationships in that context. This organizational and conceptual structure is described in the first three chapters.

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Organization There are four parts to this book. The first part, Chapters 1, 2, and 3, contains descriptions of what is meant by motivation, especially in the context of learning, and to provide an in-depth explanation of what is meant by motivational design. This is followed by an explanation of the ARCS model which is the motivational theory and design process that provides the primary frame of reference in this book. ‘‘ARCS’’ is an acronym for Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. Each of these concepts represents a cluster of related motivational concepts and theories. The ARCS model consists of this integration of research and best practices for motivation and a systematic approach to applying this knowledge to motivational problem solving. In the second major part of the book (Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7) there is a chapter for each of the four major components of the ARCS model. Together, these chapters provide a comprehensive summary of current and historically important motivational concepts and theories. Each chapter has a psychological foundations component that includes motivational concepts and theories that are relevant to that section. Each of these chapters also has a section containing a set of subcategories based on the major concepts in the chapter and examples of motivational strategies and tactics. The third part of the book (Chapters 8, 9, and 10) describes the systematic motivational design process. This process is explained in detail and illustrated with procedural guides in the form of worksheets. The first two of these chapters include two embedded examples that illustrate how to use the templates and one of these examples extends into Chapter 10. The final part of the book (Chapters 11 and 12) contains auxiliary information including alternative approaches to motivational design depending on the setting in which it is being used; tools such as checklists and measurement instruments to assist in application and research; ways of using the design process in a variety of delivery systems including online instructorled and self-directed settings. Several recent areas of research that have promise for stimulating additional research are also included.

Acknowledgments I am grateful to numerous people who have contributed to the development of my ideas during the past 30 years since I published my first paper on this topic which eventually resulted in what is now called the ARCS model. It is difficult to identify everyone and as always when compiling a list such as this it is all too easy to omit someone who should be included. Before I even present my list, I will apologize for that! Some of the people whose influence has been strongest due to their contributions to my ideas, their work with me as collaborators, and their research which led to confirmation of various aspects of the ARCS model are, in no particular order, Katsuaki Suzuki, Chan Min Kim, Markus Deimann, Hermann Astleitner, Seung-Yoon Oh, Tom Kopp, Sang Ho Song, Ruth Small, Bonnie Armstrong, Sanghoon Park, Bernie Dodge, and Tim Kane. I also want to express my deep appreciation to my wife, Cecilia, for her careful review of the text, her help with preparation of the final manuscript, and for enabling me to spend enormous amounts of my time on this manuscript.

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Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xi

Chapter 1: The Study of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What is Motivation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ARCS-V: An Expansion of the Traditional ARCS Model . . . . . . . . . Conceptual Challenges in the Study of Motivation . . . . . . . . . Affective vs. Cognitive Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trait vs. State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 2 3 7 12 12 13 17 19

Chapter 2: What is Motivational Design? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Design Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Person-Centered Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environmentally Centered Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interaction-Centered Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Omnibus Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process Versus Models: Benefits of a Holistic, Systems Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design Challenges With Regard to Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Isolating and Defining the Motivational Problems. . . . . . . . . . Deciding Whether to Change the Person or the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Limitations of Motivational Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21 21 21 22 26 26 31 33 34

Chapter 3: The Arcs Model of Motivational Design . . . . . . . . . . . Forethoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35 35 37 37 38 39 43 43 44

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Categories of the ARCS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subcategories and Major Supporting Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attention Getting Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relevance Producing Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Confidence Building Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satisfaction-Generating Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationships Among the Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Systematic Process of Motivational Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integration of Motivational Design and Instructional Design . . . . ARCS and ISD: Point-by-Point Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Applying the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44 46 47 47 48 50 52 54 55 56 65 68 73 74

Chapter 4: Generating and Sustaining Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychological Basis for Attention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arousal Theory and Early Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Curiosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boredom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sensation Seeking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategies for Attention and Curiosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.1. Capture Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2. Stimulate Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.3. Maintain Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75 75 75 75 76 77 88 91 92 93 94 95 96

Chapter 5: Establishing and Supporting Relevance . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Is Meant By Relevance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychological Basis for Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Goal Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Future Orientation and Future Time Perspective . . . . . . . . . . Goal Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intrinsic Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategies for Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R.1. Relate to Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R.2. Match Interests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97 97 98 98 99 99 105 109 112 113 117 120 125 125 126 128

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R.3. Tie to Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Chapter 6: Building Confidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forethoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychological Basis for Confidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Locus of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Origin¯Pawn Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effects of Self-Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attribution Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Fulfilling Prophecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teacher (Manager) Self-Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learned Helplessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Learned Optimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ability Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategies for Building Confidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.1. Success Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2. Success Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3. Personal Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135 135 135 137 138 143 146 149 150 151 154 156 157 157 158 158 159 160 161 163

Chapter 7: Managing Outcomes for Satisfaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychological Basis for Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reinforcement and Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship Between Extrinsic Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cognitive Evaluation and Satisfaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategies to Promote Feelings of Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . S.1. Intrinsic Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S.2. Rewarding Outcomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S.3. Fair Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

165 165 165 167 167

Chapter 8: Identifying Motivational Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction: Beginning the Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 1: Obtain Course Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 1: Obtain Course Information . . . .

193 193 193 197 197 198

175 178 188 188 188 190 192 192

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Sample Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 2: Obtain Audience Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 2: Obtain Audience Information . . Sample Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 3: Analyze Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 3: Audience Analysis . . . . . . . . . . Sample Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 4: Analyze Existing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 4 ¯ Analyze Existing Materials . . . . Sample Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

202 204 206 206 206 208 210 210 210 211 217 222 222 222 223 225 229

Chapter 9: Identifying Motivational Goals and Tactics . . . . . . . . Forethoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 5: List Objectives and Assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 5: List Objectives and Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 6: List Potential Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 6: List Potential Tactics . . . . . . . . Sample Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 7: Select and Design Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 7: Select and Design Tactics . . . . . Sample Worksheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

231 231 232 235 235

Integrating Motivational and Instructional Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 8: Integrate with Instructional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 8 ¯ Detailed Lesson Plan. . . . . . . .

236 238 240 241 241 241 242 248 248 248 250 253 253

Chapter 10:

255 255 255 256 256 257

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Example of a Detailed Lesson Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 9: Select and Develop Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 9 ¯ Select and Develop Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step 10: Evaluation and Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions for Worksheet 10 ¯ Evaluation and Revision. . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

261 262 262 262 263 263 263 263 265

Chapter 11: Tools to Support Motivational Design . . . . . . . . . . . Forethought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Design Matrix: A Simplified Approach . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application in Motivationally Adaptive Instruction . . . . . . . . . Application in Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Idea Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ARCS-Based Measures of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Course Interest Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructional Materials Motivation Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Status of the CIS and IMMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Tactics Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Delivery Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

267 267 268 269 269 271 272 274 274 276 277 277 278 278 282 286 286 286 292 292 292 295 295

Chapter 12: Motivational Design Research and Development . . . Forethoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructor-Facilitated Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online Instructor-Facilitated Learning Environments . . . . . . . Self-Directed Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivationally Adaptive Computer-Based Instruction . . . . . . . Pedagogical Agents (Agent-Facilitated Computer-Based Instruction). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

297 297 297 300 303 307 310 311 315

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Contents

Reusable Motivational Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motivational Design of Job Aids and Manuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

316 318 323

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

325

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

345

Tables Table 1.1. The 16 Personality Factors of Cattell (Extracted from Cattell & Cattell, 1995). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 1.2. The ‘‘Big Five’’ Personality Characteristics (Sources: McCrae & John, 1992, pp. 178-179; Paunonen & Ashton, 2001, p. 529). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 2.1. Self-Regulatory Strategies and Examples.. . . . . . . . . . . Table 3.1. ARCS Model Categories, Definitions, and Process Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 3.2. Motivational Design Activities and Process Questions. . . Table 3.3. Description of Anticipated Audience Motivation at a Professional Meeting.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 3.4. Motivational Objectives and Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 3.5. The Parallel Processes of Motivational and Instructional Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 3.6. Integrating the Motivational and Instructional Design (Adapted from Main, 1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 4.1. Subcategories, Process Questions, and Main Supporting Strategies for Attention.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 5.1. Examples of Instincts Listed by James (1890) and McDougall (1908). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 5.2. A Taxonomy of Human Motivation According to Deci and Ryan (Based on Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). . . . . . . . . Table 5.3. Independent Variables and Levels (Based on Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider, & Shernoff, 2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 5.4. General Summary of Major Findings in Shernoff et al. (Based on Shernoff, Csikszentmihalyi, Schneider, & Shernoff, 2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 5.5. Subcategories, Process Questions, and Main Supporting Strategies for Relevance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 5.6. An Example of Linking the Unfamiliar to the Familiar. . . Table 6.1. Indicators of Origin and Pawn Characteristics in Content Analysis (Based on Westbrook & Viney, 1980).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 6.2: Weiner’s Attributional Elements in Relation to Stability and Locus of Control (Based on Weiner, 1992; Weiner, 1974). . . . . Table 6.3. Subcategories, Process Questions, and Main Supporting Strategies for Confidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 6.4. A Strategy for Helping Reduce Learner Stress. . . . . . . .

14

14 30 45 59 61 63 66 67 92 100 119 122

123 126 132 145 150 159 161

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xx

Tables

Table 7.1. A Three Phase Study of Attitudes and Affect in Relation to Dissonance (Based on Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959).. . . . . . . . . . . Table 7.2. Subcategories, Process Questions, and Main Supporting Strategies for Satisfaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.1. Summary of Motivational Design in Relation to Instructional Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.2. Motivational Design Worksheet 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.3. Worksheet 1 Course Information Example: Corporate Training Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.4. Worksheet 1 Example: Elementary School Gifted and Talented Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.5. Motivational Design Worksheet 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.6. Worksheet 2 Audience Information Example: Corporate Training Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.7. Worksheet 2 Audience Information Example: Elementary School Gifted and Talented Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.8. Motivational Design Worksheet 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.9. Worksheet 3 Audience Analysis Example: Corporate Training Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.10. Worksheet 3 Audience Analysis Example: Elementary School Gifted and Talented Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.11. Motivational Design Worksheet 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.12. Worksheet 4 Current Materials Analysis Example: Corporate Training Environment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 8.13. Worksheet 4 Current Materials Analysis Example: Elementary School Gifted and Talented Class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.1. Motivational Design Worksheet 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.2. Worksheet 5 Motivational Objectives and Assessments Example: Corporate Training Environment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.3. Worksheet 5 Motivational Objectives and Assessments Example: Elementary School Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.4. Motivational Design Worksheet 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.5. Worksheet 6 Preliminary Design Example: Corporate Training Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.6. Worksheet 6 Preliminary Design Example: Elementary School Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.7. Motivational Design Worksheet 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.8. Worksheet 7 Final Design Example: Corporate Training Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 9.9. Worksheet 7 Final Design Example: Elementary School Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 10.1. Motivational Design Worksheet 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 10.2. Worksheet 8 Detailed Lesson Plan: Elementary School Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 10.3. Motivational Design Worksheet 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

180 189 194 197 203 205 207 208 209 212 218 220 223 225 227 236 238 240 241 243 245 249 251 252 257 258 262

Tables

Table 10.4. Motivational Design Worksheet 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.1. Report Matrix to Support Simplified Design Process (adapted from Suzuki & Keller, 1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.2. Design Factor Categories from Visser (1998). . . . . . . . Table 11.3. Motivational Idea Worksheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.4 The Course Interest Survey Instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.5. Scoring Guide for the Course Interest Survey (CIS). . . . Table 11.6. CIS Internal Consistency Estimates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.7. CIS Correlations with Course Grade and GPA. . . . . . . . Table 11.8. The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey Instrument.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.9. IMMS Scoring Guide.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.10. IMMSS Reliability Estimates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.11. The Motivational Tactics Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 11.12. List of Items in the Motivational Delivery Checklist. . . Table 12.1. Samples of Individualized Motivational Messages. . . . . Table 12.2. Job Aid for Motivational Design of Job Aids (Based on Tilaro & Rossett, 1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xxi

264 270 274 275 279 280 281 282 283 285 285 287 293 305 319

Figures Figure 1.1. Coffee Shop Conversation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 1.2. Keller’s Macro Model of Motivation and Performance (Adapted from Keller, 1979, 1983b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 1.3. Modification of Keller’s Macro Model to Include Commitment and Volition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 1.4. Illustration of Trait (Carlos) Versus State (Karl) Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 2.1. Leaves or a Rock? Leaves created from Arts and Letters Rock is from a personal photograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 2.2. Motivational Design as a Subset of Instructional and Learning Environment Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 2.3. Curvilinear Relationship Between Arousal/Motivation and Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 3.1. Motivational Likes and Dislikes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 3.2. Steps in the ARCS Motivational Design Process. . . . . . . Figure 3.3. Graph of Audience Analysis Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 3.4. Illustration of Audience Motivation at a Professional Meeting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 3.5. Relationships Between Motivational and Instructional Design (Based on Okey & Santiago, 1991, p. 18). . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 3.6. Point-by-Point Interfaces Between Motivational and Instructional Design Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 4.1. Attitudes Toward Curiosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 4.2. Carl Jung on Boredom (Source: Personal Collection). . . Figure 5.1. Trying to Answer the Relevance Question.. . . . . . . . . . Figure 5.2. Illustration of a Goal Shift on Diet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 5.3. Example of Lewin’s Life Space Representation (Based on Lewin, 1935). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 5.4. Examples of Regional Activities and Attitudes.. . . . . . . Figure 5.5. Correlation of Attitude toward Future and Perceived Instrumentality with Motivation To Study (Based on Data from Van Calster, Lens, & Nuttin, 1987). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 5.6. Relevant Versus Irrelevant Illustrations in a Lesson About Hurricane Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 5.7. Hooking Into Learner’s Concerns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 6.1. Pondering Difficult Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 6 10 15 21 24 36 43 57 61 62 68 69 78 89 97 102 104 105

110 116 129 135

xxiii

xxiv

Figure 6.2. Relationship of Locus of Control & Self-Efficacy to Behavior and Outcomes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 6.3. Example of a Group Motivational Message to Boost Confidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.1. Effects of Feedback on Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.2. Balanced Versus Imbalanced States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.3. Illustrations of Perceived Equitable Versus Inequitable Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.4. Examples of Inexpensive Extrinsic Rewards. . . . . . . . . Figure 8.1. Is Motivational Design Mechanistic?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 8.2. Curvilinear Dynamics of Learner Motivation. . . . . . . . . Figure 8.3. Sample Audience Analysis Graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 10.1. Developing the Blue Print. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 11.1. Orderly Progression or Unpredictable Adventure? . . . . Figure 12.1. The Quest for Motivational Solutions! . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 12.2. Example of an Individualized Motivational Message to Boost Confidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figures

149 163 165 184 186 191 193 211 216 255 267 297 301