Mineral and Thermal Groundwater Resources

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Mineral and Thermal Groundwater Resources

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A s e r v j c e o f w

Mineral and Thermal Groundwate r Resource s

Marius Albu Professorof Hydraulics and Mineral ResourceManagement University of Bucharest Romania

David Banks Head of the GeologicalSurvey Sectionfor Geochemistry Trondheim Norway

and Harriet Nash Principal Hydrogeologist War dell Armstrong UK

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

First edition 1997 © 1997 M . Albu, D. Banks and H . Nash Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1997 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1997

Typeset in 10/12 Times by Academic & Technical Typesetting, Bristol ISBN 978-94-010-6470-5 ISBN 978-94-011-5846-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-5846-6

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the U K Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the U K , or in acccordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the U K . Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

(oo) Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 and ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1984 (Permanence of Paper).

Contents

List of contributors Acknowledgments Introduction

IX

Xll

Xlll

Part One Mineral and Thermal Groundwater Resources Marius Albu, David Banks and Harriet Nash 1

History of mineral and thermal waters 1.1 Therapeutic waters 1.2 Mineral extraction from ground waters 1.3 Bottling of mineral waters 1.4 Energy from thermal waters

3 4 12 14 19

2

Uses of mineral and thermal waters 2.1 Mineral waters 2.2 Therapeutic spas 2.3 Regulations governing mineral and bottled waters 2.4 Geothermal energy

21

3 Hydrogeochemistry and origin of mineral waters 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Chemical evolution of groundwater 3.3 Hydrochemical principles 3.4 Evolution of groundwater in a stratabound aquifer 3.5 Evolution of groundwater in crystalline rocks 3.6 Radioactive mineral waters 3.7 Categories of mineral waters

21 23 33 39 48

48 49 56 70 76 78 87

Contents

VI

3.8 Isotope hydrochemistry, water origins and groundwater dating

92

4 Thermal water systems 4.1 Heat production and heat flow 4.2 Heat transport 4.3 Geothermal systems 4.4 Thermal water systems 4.5 Origins and chemistry of thermal waters

101 101 104 105 107 118

5 Investigation of mineral and thermal water systems 5.1 Stages of investigation 5.2 The resource base 5.3 Exploration 5.4 Estimation of the potential yield of mineral waters 5.5 Methods for estimating the quantity of heat stored in

119 119 121 121 134

thermal water systems

6 Modelling of groundwater systems 6.1 Conceptual models 6.2 Constructing a model 6.3 Fundamental equations 6.4 Analytical modelling 6.5

7

Numerical modelling

141 145 145 146 149 151 151

6.6 Comparison of modelling methods

159

Exploitation and management of mineral and thermal waters 7.1 Abstraction of mineral waters 7.2 Abstraction of thermal waters 7.3 Drilling and borehole construction 7.4 Scaling and corrosion 7.5 Transport 7.6 Heat recoverability 7.7 Heat regeneration 7.8 Resource management

161 161 162 163 165 169 169 174 179

8 Environmental issues and conservation

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

Anthropogenic impacts Concerns of mineral water exploitation Protection of mineral water resources Impacts of exploitation of thermal waters Operational characterization of resource conservation

190 190 192

192

194 197

Contents

VB

Part Two Case Studies 9

Geothermal energy in Iceland Hjalti Franzson, Jens T6masson, Guorun Sverrisd6ttir and Freysteinn Sigurosson 9.1 Geological outline 9.2 Geothermal activity, hydrogeology and chemistry 9.3 History of exploitation of geothermal resources 9.4 Case studies Acknowledgments

10 The spas of England David Banks 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7

Introduction The spas of London and Surrey The 'wyches' of Mercia and Cheshire Other Mercian spas Spas of the Carboniferous limestone of the White Peak Harrogate spas Bath

11 Geothermal and mineral water resources of Lithuania Vytautas Juodkazis, Povilas Suveizdis and Vita Rasteniene 11.1 Geological context 11.2 Mineral waters of Lithuania 11.3 Geothermal energy

12 Natural mineral waters of Mineralnye Vody region of north Caucasus, CIS John Ferry 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Geography 12.3 Geology 12.4 Hydrogeology 12.5 Narzan bottled water source 12.6 Resource management 12.7 Narzan water quality

13 Geological, hydrochemical, regulatory and economic aspects of natural packaged water production: Nordland County, Norway

Arve Misund and Patrice de Caritat 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Methodology

205 205 207 213 214 234

235 235 237 241 243 247 266 273

281 281 281 303

317 317 319 320 321 325 327 328

331 331 333

Contents

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13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8

Geology and hydrogeology Spring water, mineral water or packaged water? Hydrogeochemistry Logistical considerations Export possibilities Discussion and conclusions Acknowledgments

14 The mineral and thermal waters of the Krusne Hory rift valley,

334 347 349 351 353 355 356

Czech Republic Zbynek Hrkal 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Karlovy Vary 14.3 Marianske Lazne 14.4 Frantiskovy Lazne 14.5 Hajek-Soos 14.6 Jachymov

357

15 The spa of Buzia§, Romania

376

Mircea U. Feru and Adrian Feru 15.1 Position and brief history 15.2 Geology and occurrence of groundwater 15.3 The mineral water resource 15.4 Exploitation of mineral waters 15.5 Utilization of mineral waters 15.6 Optimization of exploitation 15.7 Protection and conservation of sources

16 Optimization of exploitation of geothermal reservoirs in the Pannonian Basin, Romania Horia Mitrofan and Viorel Serbu 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Reservoir characteristics 16.3 Specific management approaches 16.4 Single well analysis 16.5 Well field analysis 16.6 Final Remarks Acknowledgments

357 361 366 371 373 374

376 377 378 384 386 386 387

389 389 390 392 394 400 403 405

References

406

Index

431

Contributors Marius Albu University of Bucharest, Department of Hydrogeology, 6 Traian Vuai, Bucharest, Romania David Banks Geological Survey of Norway, PO Box 3006 Lade, N-7002 Trondheim, Norway Patrice de Caritat Geological Survey of Norway, PO Box 3006 Lade, N-7002 Trondheim, Norway John Ferry Geraghty & Miller International, Conqueror House, Vision Park, Cambridge CB4 4ZR,

UK

Adrian Feru Masina de Paine Str. 39, Ap.33, 72213 Bucharest, Romania Mircea U. Feru Masina de Paine Str. 39, Ap.33, 72213 Bucharest, Romania

x

Contributors

Hjalti Franzson Orkustofnun (Icelandic National Energy Authority), Grensavegur 9, 108 Reykjavik, Iceland Zbynek Hrkal Department of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Charles University, Albertov 6, 128 43 Prague 2, Czech Republic Vytautas Juodkazis Department of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Vilnius University, M-K Ciurlionio Str. 21, 232009 Vilnius, Lithuania Arve Misund Geological Survey of Norway, PO Box 3006 Lade, N-7002 Trondheim, Norway Horia Mitrofan RAMINR.A., Mendeleev Str 34-36, Bucharest 1, Romania Harriet Nash Wardell Armstrong, Lancaster Building, High Street, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire ST5 IPQ, UK Vita Rasteniene Institute of Geology, Sevcenkos 13, 2600 Vilnius, Lithuania

Contributors Viorel Serbu Data Expert, Av. Alex. Serbiinescu Str 49/22D, Bucharest 5, Romania Freysteinn Sigun)sson Orkustofnun (Icelandic National Energy Authority), Grensivegur 9, 108 Reykjavik, Iceland Povilas Suveizdis Institute of Geology, Sevcenkos 13, 2600 Vilnius, Lithuania Guorun Sverrisd6ttir Orkustofnun (Icelandic National Energy Authority), Grensivegur 9, 108 Reykjavik, Iceland Jens T6masson Orkustofnun (Icelandic National Energy Authority), Grensivegur 9, 108 Reykjavik, Iceland

Xl

Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank the following for providing information for the book, for critically reading the text, for editorial assistance and for assisting with preparation of figures: • Gustav Akerblom (Statens Stn'ilskyddsinstitut, Stockholm); • Keith Ball, John Barker, Peter Dunkley, Mike Edmunds and Dave Talbot (British Geological Survey); • Petre Bomboe (University of Bucharest); • Simon Bottrell (Leeds University); • Mr Alan Bower of Wakefield; • British Council, Bucharest; • Mike Bryant (Devonshire Royal Hospital, Buxton); • Willie Burgess (University College, London); • James and David Creedy; • Judith Dono and Judith Mason; • Gerald Fitzmaurice (Harrogate Borough Council); • Hjalti Franzson (Orkustofnun, Iceland); • Greenpeace UK; • Ola Hane, Arve Misund, Clemens Reimann and Helge Skarphagen (Norges Geologiske Undersekelse); • Geoffrey Kellaway; • Markus Leosson (Karlsruhe University); • Joe McCall (AGID); • Mr Richard Marpole of Buxton; • Patrick Muffler (USGS); • Dr Frank Nash and Betty Nash; • Barry Pigott and Mike Cooper (Sheffield University); • Dr Andrei Sennov (University of St Petersburg and Sofdec); • Leslie Smith (University of British Columbia); • The Tourist Information Offices of Droitwich, Leamington Spa and Tunbridge Wells; • Paul Younger (Newcastle University); • Andrei Zverev (NIl Biology and Biophysical Institute, Tomsk) and colleagues; and most importantly, Dr Richard Downing who kindly reviewed much of the text.

Introduction Is it not generally believed that our town is a healthy place . .. a place highly commended on this score both for the sick andfor the healthy? .. And then these Baths - the so-called 'artery' of the town, or the 'nerve centre' ... Do you know what they are in reality, these great and splendid and glorious Baths that have cost so much money? .. A most serious danger to health! All that filth up in Melledal, where there's such an awful stench - it's all seeping into the pipes that lead to the pump-room! Henrik Ibsen, An Enemy of the People, 1882

Henrik Ibsen gave the 'truth about mineral water' more than 100 years ago in An Enemy of the People. His examples came not from the decadent bathing spas of Bohemia or Victorian Britain, but from the very edge of polite society, subarctic Norway! His masterpiece illustrates the central role that groundwaters and, in particular, mineral waters have played in the history of humanity: their economic importance for towns, their magnetism for pilgrims searching for cures, the political intrigues, the arguments over purported beneficent or maleficent health effects and, finally, their contamination by anthropogenic activity, in Ibsen's case by wastes from a tannery. This book addresses the occurrence, properties and uses of mineral and thermal groundwaters. The use of these resources for heating, personal hygiene, curative and recreational purposes is deeply integrated in the history of civilization. Many such water sources thus had early religious, cultural, scientific and economic significance (Figure 1.1). Research related to mineral waters played an important role in the advances of science and technology. Examples include the work of Paracelsus on the chemistry of spring waters at Frantiskovy L