Mexico City s. air pollution problem and possible solutions

Mexico City´s air pollution problem and possible solutions A Group Project at Cemus in Uppsala, by Alsing M, Biström J, Fröding T, Kahr K and Zhang Y...
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Mexico City´s air pollution problem and possible solutions

A Group Project at Cemus in Uppsala, by Alsing M, Biström J, Fröding T, Kahr K and Zhang Y, 23 of november 2010

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Table of content Introduction............................................... 3 General facts about Mexico City............................... 3 The problems of Mexico City and our chosen challenge................................................... 4 Methodology........................................................... 5 What has been done so far...................................... 6

Individual parts........................................... 7 The Physical Capital................................................ 7 The Human Capital.................................................. 8 Social Capital.........................................................10 Natural capital........................................................11 Economic capital....................................................13

Conclusion.............................................. 15 Common solutions.................................................16 Answer to the research question.............................16

Reference list........................................... 17 Internet references:.................................................17 Printed references:................................................. 20 Lectures............................................................... 21

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Introduction The purpose of this paper is to investigate a challenge related to sustainability and to present possible solutions to tackle that challenge. This will be done from five different perspectives, which will be described in the methodology part. In this introduction section we will give some facts about Mexico City, its problems and the challenge we have chosen. The introduction will be followed by chapters for each capital written by its representative. All of the chapters attempt to deal with our chosen challenge from the specific angle that each person represents.

General facts about Mexico City Mexico City is the capital of Mexico and is located in the geographic and historic center of the country (Cuidad de Mexico). The city is surrounded by mountains and lies in the Valley of Mexico, which was once a lake (Ketchman). Mexico City is home to about 20 million people spread over a size of 1,485 square kilometers and therefore one of the largest cities in the world (Fenton 2009). Mexico is  the third largest Latin American country and a country of rich cultural diversity (Fenton 2009).The official language is Spanish and spoken from the majority of Mexicans. More than 90 % of the population are members of the catholic religion, which makes it the second largest catholic country in the world (Fenton 2009).Mexico City was founded in the middle of the 14th century. It was already the Aztec capital until the 1500s and under Spanish rule until the early nineteenth century (Ketchman). Mexico City produces one third of Mexico’s GNP (Cuidad de Mexico). Furthermore one third of the revenues in Mexico come from the production and export of oil. Other export goods are sugar, coffee and cotton. Some areas in the country are in addition rich of minerals, such as silver, copper and lead (Fenton 2009).

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The problems of Mexico City and our chosen challenge Two of the main problems Mexico city is facing are air pollution and land shortage. Two main reasons for the appearance of air pollution are industries and the large amount of cars on the city roads. But one factor that makes the problem worse is the geographical one. Since the city is situated in a valley, the cold air from the surrounding mountains and volcanoes prevent the contamination to rise further up in the atmosphere by serving as a lid over the city. Thus, the city council has during the past 20 years been working on the improvement of the air quality and the efforts have given results. Before the ozone level were above the Mexican standard 333 days of the year, nowadays this number is 185 days. (The Independent, 2010) 59 percent of the land area in Mexico City Federal District is protected for conservation. This makes the availability of land scarce, and the protected areas are in danger because of illegal development, logging and fires. (City mayors Environment, 2010) Related to the air pollution problem is the traffic. “Mexico City’s traffic is worse than Moscow and New Delhi and is only getting worse.” (Latin Business Chronicle, 2010) The city has a large population while the infrastructure is sometimes poor and the transport system is insufficient in transporting all the citizens. Its estimated that 7-8 million cars move on the streets of the city every day. People have gotten used to spending hours in commuting to and from work. Although there has been much done in this area the past years, more needs to be done to solve the transport problem. (China daily, 2010) In this paper, we will focus on the air pollution and solutions on how to reduce it. As mentioned above a major part of the air pollution is caused by vehicles, so we decided to focus on how it would be possible to reduce the air pollution by lessening the car use. More specifically, our research question is the following: Which possible solutions are there to reduce Mexico City´s air pollution from personal transportation?

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Methodology The challenge will be approached through different capitals. The different capitals are human, natural, economic, social, cultural and physical. These different capitals are represented by different actors in society with different perspectives on the problem. The human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, competencies and other attributes embodied in individuals that facilitate the creation of personal, social and economic well being (Roseland and Connelly, 2005, p. 8). Human capital is formed consciously through training and education and unconsciously through experience (Roseland and Connelly, 2005). The representative of human capital is a university professor working in happiness studies. Physical capital is the built environment and the machinery, the stock of material resources (Roseland and Connelly, 2005, p. 8). Physical capital is represented by a city planner interested in the BRT system. Natural capital consists of the renewable and non renewable resources and the capacity of natural systems to absorb pollutants (Roseland and Connelly, 2005, p. 5). Natural capital can be represented by someone who is concerned in nature. In this paper it is represented by an investigative journalist specialized in environmental issues. Social capital consist of the relationships, norms networks and connections that facilitate collective action (Roseland and Connelly, 2005, p. 9). The social capital is represented by a person from a NGO working to reduce poverty. Economic capital is the resource allocation and the way we make decisions about it. (Roseland and Connelly, 2005, p. 8) Economic capital is represented by the mayor of Mexico City. The sixth capital is cultural capital. Cultural capital is the shared traditions, customs, values and history. In this paper cultural capital is not represented and will thus not be considered.

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What has been done so far CTS Mexico (a non governmental organization devoted to fixing a sustainable public transportation system in Mexico) together with  the Mexico city government and the mayor has, until today, developed two Bus Rapid Transit system on two of the most trafficked avenues in the central parts of Mexico City (Embarq. 2009?). A third line, supposed to transport 100 000 persons, is in the building phase now and planned to be finished in the first or second quarter of 2011 (Balboa. 2010). Mexico City has adopted a document called the Climate Action Program which contains very ambitious goals for how to reduce the green house gas emissions by 12% between 2008 and 2012. In the action plan a total of 9 BRT lines is planned (Ebrard Casaubon et al. 2008). The BRT system is a fast moving public transportation concept, it might be compared to an aboveground subway system, as Robert P Walzer (2009) wrote in a New York Times article. The buses used are efficient and relatively low emitting buses compared to the ordinary Mexico City microbuses. The BRT system is according to Walzer (2009) transporting approximately 450 000 persons every day and reducing the CO2 emmisions by approximately 60 000 to 80 000 tons a year. It has reduced the accidents on the road with ca 30% and “encouraged an estimated 6% shift from private vehicles to public transport” all according to an Embarq article (2009). The BRT system is appreciated by people using it, because it is safe, comfortable and fast (Embarq. 2009?). Mexico City also has one of the most extensive subway systems in the world, totalling 201.7 km and responsible for 5 million rides a day. The Mexico City Metro, as it´s called, consists of 11 different lines and a 12th line is on the way. There is also one light rail way complementing the subway in the southern parts of the city, it is 18 km and has 18 stations (Schwand. 2007). Mexico City has also made efforts to make more people travel by bike or foot. One effort in changing peoples mindsets towards biking is that some of the biggest avenues in the centre is closed for cars on Sundays. The City has planned to make more bike paths but the city´s money has not been as good as planned, so the big investments has not been made yet (Schroeder 2010). They’ve also launched two bike sharing programs where citizens can hire a bike to a cheap price (Alvardo 2010).

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Individual parts The Physical Capital Generally, lack of comprehensive urban plan, Mexico City is facing a series of pressing issues caused by existing transportation system. The heavy circulation of road vehicles, poor maintenance of their engines and traffic jams, insufficient complementary public transportation methods, together with the climate and geological conditions have aggravated the air pollution in Mexico City (Schteingart, 1989). Since Mexico City is thickly populated, even if a small amount of people choose to use private vehicle it is causing serious traffic problems. The growing mass of automobiles leads to greatly inefficient energy consumption: the gasoline used by the private vehicles is three times as much as the public transportation. As a result, car emission causes even worse air pollution to the megalopolis. Therefore, as an urban planner, the establishment of an efficient, affordable, secure and comfortable public transportation system is a major solution to alleviate the air pollution in Mexico City. Since the development of the transportation system to a large extent is based on the fast increasing of private vehicles, the corporation or coordination between public transportation and private automobiles is rather poor (Schteingart, 1989). Besides, according to the interview with local people, why local residents do not choose to use public transportation is because the public transport systems are insecure, overcrowded and chaotic. Thus, the bus rapid transit (BRT) system is highly encouraged to be built in Mexico City. Providing an example of the BRT system, the metro bus project, operated in 2005, moves ‘263,000 people daily at an average speed of 19 kilometers per hour along the famed Avenida Insurgentes’ (Oko and Forres, 2006). The metro bus project is rather successful in reducing commuter time, congestion in the main roads as well as reducing car emission (Oko and Forres, 2006). Besides, special measurements should be taken to handle the security issue of the BRT system. In certain areas and at certain hours, a series of vandalism happened at some bus stations or units. The major objective is to make ‘a city street equipped to handle strangers and to make a

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safety asset out of presence of strangers’ near the BRT station (Jacobs, 1993). That is, there must be eyes upon the street. Eyes belong to the local residents in the nearby buildings, the users of the sidewalk. Therefore, more bars, cinemas or other public facilities should be placed on the street near the BRT station to have more people use the street and induce the local people in the nearby buildings observe the street (Jacobs, 1993). As a result, the security of the station can be maintained by these natural proprietors of the street (Jacobs, 1993). Additional, the BRT system should not only be established within the metropolitan zone but also on the city’s periphery. Because nearly a third of all the person-trips take place at the suburban areas, where the public transportation infrastructure is rather poor (Schteingart, 1989). Although it is possible to make a general plan for the improvement of the public transportation system, it is highly recommended to make a more detailed metro bus line plan than just one general plan for the whole Mexico City. Besides, the differences of neighbourhoods, mainly economical difference, should be taken into consideration during the public transportation planning for the rural area, as well as the future population growth within certain areas. Although, the fast urbanisation trend will not slow down, the urban population should be restricted within the urban area; least of all the ecological conservation area should be used for urbanisation. Furthermore, during the establishment of new public transportation systems, the participation of the local transportation authorities, the city’s bus owners and operators is important for reducing interest conflicts between different stakeholders and ensuring the further smooth operation of these systems. However, the traditional spatial planning in Mexico City, which only includes the physical aspect, could not successfully meet the increasing demands caused by a fast urbanisation process. Therefore, a more interdisciplinary planning process is urgently needed to make all the major stakeholders participate into the process.

The Human Capital I am a professor at the University of Mexico City and recently working on a research about happiness. As I try to find out what makes people happy and unhappy, it is important to consider different factors, which are contributing to happiness, but also to look at what is good for the people and what can be done to improve the situation of living in a highly air polluted city like Mexico City. As researches have shown, happiness can be closely related to external conditions

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such as climate and so a city with clean air can be a major contribution to happiness (Wood, 2009). Transport is one main factor, which should be taken into account, when thinking about people’s happiness related to clean air. Several problems are caused by the ongoing rapid motorization combined with an insufficient urban transport system as well as traffic management and infrastructure. The main problems for the inhabitants of Mexico City due to that are therefore accidents, health problems, noise and congestion (Environmental Software and Services, 2002). As shown by Max Neef health and protection are basic needs for humans and therefore necessary for a well being (Hofsteder et al. 2005). It is very urgent to find a solution when each day about 600 new cars enter the streets of Mexico City (EMBARQ). An initial step in the right direction is to improve the public transport system. If more buses are available and even running more frequently, more people might consider taking a bus, because there would be less inconvenience caused due to waiting time and crowds of people, which affect a person’s happiness negatively. A better public transport system could lead to less traffic and therefore to more happiness, because people are no longer stuck in traffic jams, waiting alone in their cars and the possibility of socializing while sitting on a bus next to a stranger is also given (Wallis, 2005). Furthermore the fact of mobility could be for many people, especially in rural areas, a feeling of more freedom. For that reason the public transport system also has to be extended to the outer parts of a city. Additionally to these positive influences mentioned, a more developed public transport system creates further jobs, which could cut down the unemployment rate. Mexico City started already in the right direction with the implementation of the Metrobus system, which lead to an improvement of mobility by 50 %, a reduction in accidents by 30 % and a shift from private vehicles use to public transport by 6 % (EMBARQ). My vision is a happier people, who can live without being worried about their health because of polluted air they have to inhale anytime being outside. One possible solution for a less polluted air could be the introduction of biogas buses, which sharply reduce the gas emissions responsible for air pollution. An advantage that comes with the use of biogas for public means of transport is that it combines waste management with fuel production (Jobson). Former experiences have shown that it takes many years to establish a new source of energy, but this does not apply for renewable energy sources, like biogas (Girardet 2007). So it would be even better for the inhabitant’s health to use biogas for the new implemented metro buses in Mexico City and maybe give an opportunity to save lives (EMBARQ).

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As most people are aware of the problems planet earth is facing, it is necessary additional to a deeper approach in form of education like lectures and presenting information to show people what they can do themselves to contribute to a reduction in air pollution. First people need information about what exactly is happening and what causes all the pollution, but it is also important to offer a ”learning by doing” approach. In addition people who are affected by a decision should be given the possibility of participating in decision making processes (Roseland et al. 2005). This could be given by projects involving members of a community. Schools, universities and also the government should try to encourage people to take more care about the place they are living in. So there should also be a more intensive corporation between researchers, educators and the city or government. That might give a direct connection between scientific work or research and applying or showing results to the public. If all of those reasons are not enough to decide for a public mean of transport instead of a private vehicle, there can be other ways introduced of how to encourage people e.g. congestion tax or free public transport.

Social Capital As a representative for an organisation adressing poor people’s issues this is my view of the problems and solutions for the challenge of air pollution and its effects in Mexico City. The air pollution in Mexico City, is making the citizens ill. It is estimated that the residents lose 2.5 million working days every year because of health problems produced by particle matters. (Decease Control Priorities Project, 2007) Poor inhabitants of Mexico City do not have the same ability to pay for health services as richer people do, and that makes them more vulnerable to the pollution. The air pollution is for the most part created by the overwhelming car traffic in the region, every day 600 new cars enter the streets of Mexico City,(EMBARQ) this is not sustainable neither when it comes to environment and air quality nor when it comes to the health of the people. When citizens get ill they do not have the same ability to support themselves or their relatives, which in turn can lead to poverty. It is therefore utterly important to fight the causes of air pollution in Mexico City. A certain fact is that cities with the highest use of public transport have the lowest emissions of greenhouse gases. (Roseland, 2005. p. 108) Thus there should be a reduction in the amount of

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cars and instead there has to be more public transportation. There are several ways to do that. One is to ban cars on certain streets in the city and only allow public transport and means of transport that doesn’t create any pollution, like bikes. But for these things there is an urgent need for infrastructure. There is a need for biking trails and walking paths. The public transport in Mexico City is well used, in fact it is overcrowded. So therefore there is a pressing need for a development of the transport system, we need more buses, trams and metro and good roads and rails for them. There should be fares for cars entering and driving in the city, those funds can be used for paying hospital fees for those who have been affected with respiratory illness and cannot afford health care. It is also important to make a transition from fossil fuels and change technology to renewable ones since there cannot be a complete elimination of harmful pollution from fossil fuels. There is a wish that people should not have to travel very far to jobs. Much time is being spent on buses and trains away from family and loved ones. Traveling far can make people getting more excluded from the local community, and it do not contribute to a pleasant and lively neighborhood. (Putnam, 2000, pp. 211-214) Many poor people live in the outskirts of the city, far away from communications, my most important point to make is that the public transportation need to be extended into these areas. Many of the people living in these outer parts of the city, the barrios, don’t even have much possibility to transport themselves in to the city center because of lack of public transportation. This makes them feel physically excluded from the rest of the city, and it also makes it more difficult for them to go to different locations looking for jobs. When asked, people in the barrios express that access to public transport and to the city are the most pressing needs they have. (World Bank, 2005. p. 152)

Natural capital The air pollution affects the natural capital in lots of ways. It produces acid rains, which causes some damages to trees and makes the soil and water in lakes etc acid which makes it impossible for some fish and creatures to live there (MassDep). Heavy exposure of air pollution chemicals can also contribute to for example birth artifacts in some creatures offspring, especially those high up in the food chain. Since many of the toxic

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chemicals do biomagnify (MassDEP). The ground level ozone also have a lot of negative impacts. In to high concentrations it is irritating to our lungs, sometimes causing inflammations and reduced lung function(Institutet för miljömedicin. 2009?). It also puts stress on plants and can therefore make the harvests smaller, since the plants resistance to disease, pests and harsh weather, is reduced (MassDEP). The natural capital is also affected by the big complications from the global warming such as increased numbers of storms, extreme temperatures, floods etc(Elmqvsit Thomas Lecture 2010). According to Mexico City´s action plan (Ebrard Casaubon et al. 2008) they are already seeing different rain patterns, higher temperatures and increased frequency of high impact weather phenomenas . At the same time that plants and trees may be stressed from air pollution it can act as a sink for some air pollutants and also transforms carbon dioxide to oxygen, creating better air for us. For example a Douglas-fir tree can remove 18kg of sulfur dioxide per year without harm to itself (Roseland. 2005 p47). Another interesting example is a study in New York which showed that a doubling of the numbers of trees in an area led to a 25% reduction of asthma among children. Thomas Elmqvist (Lecture 2010). Elmqvist also says that studies in the UK and USA has showed strong links between good accessibility to green areas and decreased obesity and increased indicators of better health. The fact that the plants and tress is improving our air quality and well being makes them really valuable in our cities. Therefore i would like the amount of space that is required for the RBT building, and other infrastructure projects, to be kept to a minimum so that we do not have to cut down so many trees. To make place for the RBT you might widen the road to make space for the extra lane, another approach which might be better for the environment is that you instead of widening the road, just transforms a car lane into the RBT lane. By worsening the conditions for the cars we create an increased incentive to start using public transportation instead. According to a quotation in Roselands book Toward Sustainable Communities (2005) it is possible if one builds a better infrastructure to tackle congestion problems, the better roads might increase the number of cars entering the market and therefore you will have the same problems again sooner or later. If we also introduces congestion taxes and biking only roads we have even more incentives.

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Today the buses in Mexico City is driven on diesel. Diesel is a toxic and non renewable fuel so Mexico City should make efforts to change their energy consumption to contain more renewable energy sources. Biogas buses has much healthier exhaust gases than ordinary petroleum fuels and has very low net green house gas emissions (sometimes even a negative net value) if you produce it by compost or manure (Kajolinna T, Arnold M. 2009). Mexico City produces 700tons of organic waste every day so there is definitely some potential there. If Mexico City introduced a compost recycling program that would also result in putting less stress on the garbage dumps, since the byproduct of producing bio gas is perfectly good topsoil. It is also possible to make biogas from covering up landfills wich contains biodegradable stuff something that Mexico city has planned in their action plan. According to the plan the covering of a land fill called Bordo Poniente Stage 4 will reduce the annual green house gas emissions with an amount methan gas equal to the emissions from 1,400,000tons carbon dioxide (Ebrard Casaubon M et al. 2008). To be able to use other renewable energy sources such as wind power, solar energy and maybe electricity made from the biogas Mexico City should invest in electric trams or trolleys. Trams or trolleys can not only be used as a really efficient way of commuting it can also help making less cargo trucks go in and out of the city if this infrastructure is also used for transporting goods as in Amsterdam where they have special goods transportation trams which each can transport the equivalent of four 7.5 tons trucks (European Local Transport Information Service. 2007). The most sustainable way of them all to travel is of course by foot or bike etc. In Mexico City we have a lot to do to faciliate those ways of travelling. Today it is really dangerous to go by foot or bike, every year 9 of 100.000 persons die in traffic accidents, so we will have to build lots of new bike and pedestrian paths so that one does not have to feel frightened to death every time one shall be good to the environment and let the car at home.

Economic capital Time for us to take the big challenge We in the institutional revolutionary party have always had the interest of the people at the forefront of our politics. Today we have to realize that the only way forward is sustainability. We can save money, improve the environment and everybodys health, and that is what my cabinet is

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doing by introducing the new public transit investment program. This is not a new issue for our city, congestion and pollution is something we have worked on since the 80’s (Molina M & Molina L). We have had the rotation of cars into the city based on license plates, built a very efficient metro system, and the latest is the introduction of a BRT system. All this has been good steps on the way but it is time to meet an even bigger challenge. The challenge is ”Which possible solutions are there to reduce Mexico City´s air pollution from personal transportation?”. To solve a challenge of this magnitude we need to have a holistic approach. The public transit system needs to be affordable, pleasant, fast and easy to use. We need to take in consideration all stakeholders, the cost effectiveness and the effects on other sectors. The three pillars of the program are mobility, city planning and democracy. In the first stage a broad assessment of problems and possible solutions will be made. Citizen hearings will take place in every part of the city and on-line at ourgreenfuturenow.mx. The citizen hearings will have 10 % of the city mobility budget at their disposal. A successful transportation system requires two things: first of all we need to acknowledge that the private car is not one of the solutions. Second is that any functioning public transit system has three levels. A top level with local trains, similar to the S-bahn in Berlin. A mid level grid made up of metro and BRT lines. And a third level consisting of buses and trams. This requires a lot of public investment. But it will be worth it. To finance the additional costs we will raise the property tax by 2 percentage points, install a congestion tax equaling the cost of a single ride ticket and raise gasoline tax by 9 percentage points. The use of congestion charge will also make the traffic smother for the buses and other cars (Algers S et. al). The money will be used to greatly expand the trolleybus network. This requires very little infrastructural investment. Thus it gives a lot more than we would get if we used the same money for light rail or metro. But gives a reliable and relatively high volume transportation (combined with the metro and the BRT). Trolley buses have zero in-street emissions. We will run our public transport on a minimum of 50% renewable energy, increasing by 5 percentage points every year until we reach 100%. Going for a large expansion of trolleybuses will give us the opportunity of economies of scale. It will be a good investment that also gives a lot of employment and a lift for the local economy. To increase the strength of the trolleybuses possibilities to give signal

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priority to them using GPS will be explored. The expansion of trolley buses will be supported by an overhaul of the bus network, expanding and improving it, while prices remain the same. The metro will also be improved, one of the main problems with the metro has been the high temperatures in the metro. We will work on this using biomimicry ideas (Redmond E), bringing cooler air flows in using gravity and new ventilation ducts. We will also revamp our zoning regulations to support a dense pedestrian and public transit oriented development plan. This is an important element but will start to pay dividends only in the coming years. This will also support us in the attempts to protect the nature outside the city. The above plan will not take us all the way. The other priorities and plans we need to research and plan together. I call upon our academia, business and civil society to make this happen. The change will make the city a better place for all.

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Conclusion In the conclusions the common and differentiating elements of the solutions suggested will be discussed. There are conflicts between the capitals, but also synergies. The common elements will represent a more viable and sustainable solution. The natural capital does not want to facilitate the use of cars. Whereas the major might have interest in building new motorways and highways, which is not encouraging people to use public transport. One solution to the undue support of cars would be a congestion charge that is presented both by the economic and the human capitals. It is not opposed by any of the capitals. The congestion charge has a social justice aspect as it might make cars more of a privilege of rich people. The solution is to use the revenue from the congestion charge to expand the public transport and thus secure good level of mobility for everybody. The mayor is the one who is politically responsible, thus what the mayor suggests are ideas that makes him/her look good, but not necessarily the most sustainable ideas. The mayor presents a program that on the surface looks good. But are the combined efforts enough to really meet the challenge? There is no clear indicator of whether the efforts will be enough. Densification is a threat to green areas within the city limits. This can be solved in a number of ways, rooftop gardens, clear priority to densify brown areas first. This will help protect the green areas outside the city. For the Mayor the number one concern is for the solutions to be cost effective. The NGO person sees it as more important to focus on the social justice aspect. The public transportation should be free of charge for certain social groups and therefore buses need to be safe, secure, comfortable and provide a healthy environment. This means that more money is needed beyond the bare minimum investment. Extending the street lanes for the building of the BRT system may reduce the green areas around the street. The solutions are either to take one of the car lanes in to BRT use, which would also create an incentive to not travel by car or to plant more trees in another part of the city .

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The journalist sees it as important out of a natural capital point of view to introduce biogas buses. Biogas could be made from the trash. This was welcomed from the other capitals.

Common solutions There is no single solution but a plethora of solutions that form a whole. There is a clear consensus on improving the public transport system. The different capitals propose different solutions, with no major conflicts but clear differences in emphasis. One of the main solutions is the electric trolley buses. There is an agreement on a general level on expanding the bus lines and extending them to the outer parts of the city. The current plan to expand the BRT system got support with the condition that the expansion does not diminish the amount of trees within the city limits.

Answer to the research question To sum up we have a number of solutions mentioned in order to reduce the air pollution in Mexico City: Better infrastructure for bikes and pedestrians; a development and extension of metro, trolley buses and for the bus rapid transit system; implementation of renewable fuels; limitations and fares for people using their own car; as well as information for the citizens. These are the solutions we as our capitals have come up with, there might be even more and innovative solutions, but the limited space makes it hard to investigate it all further.

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Reference list Internet references: Algers S, Freij K, Eliasson J, Henriksson C, Hultkrantz L, Ljungberg C, Nerhagen L. The Stockholm congestion charging trial – what happened? Expert group summary: http://www. stockholmsforsoket.se/upload/Rapporter/Expert_group_summary_060621.pdf. Date visited 20 November 2011. Alvarado P. 2010. Ecobici: Official Bike Sharing Program Launched in Mexico City. 23 february 2010: http://www.treehugger.com/files/2010/02/ecobici-official-bike-sharing-program-launched-in-mexico-city.php

Date visited 13 november 2010. Balboa B. 2010. Aceleran construcción de la Línea 3 del Metrobús. 12 may 2010: http://www.eluniversal. com.mx/notas/679781.html Date visited 10 november 2010.

Barclay E. 2007. Towards A More Pedestrian-Friendly Mexico City. 31 of august 2007. http:// www.treehugger.com/files/2007/08/mexico_pedestrians.php. Date visited 23 of november 2010. China daily, 2010, ”Mexico City boosts public transport to solve traffic jams” http://www.chinadaily.com. cn/world/2010-08/11/content_11140305.htm date visited 10 November 2010

City mayors Environment, published 1 May 2010, http://www.citymayors.com/environment/mexico-green-plan.html date visited 10 November 2010

The Christians Science Monitor. Daniel B. Wood. 2009. Is happiness linked to quality of life factors like climate: http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2009/1217/Is-happiness-linked-to- quality-of-life-factorslike-climate. Date visited 9 November 2010.

Cuidad de Mexico. Mexico City Tourism Ministry: http://www.mexicocity.gob.mx /contenido. php?cat=11300&sub=1. Date visited 10 November 2010. Decease Control Priorities Project: ”Clearing the Smog: Fighting Air Pollution in Mexico City, Mexico,

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and São Paulo, Brazil” published 23 June 2007. http://www.dcp2.org/features/47 date visited 22 November 2010.

Ebrard Casaubon M, Delgado Peralta M, Mejía Ponce de León A. 2008. Mexico City Climate Action Program 2008-2010/Summary. Secretaríadel Medio Ambiente Gobiernodel Distrito Federal. Edward Jobson, Environmental Director of Volvo Bus Corporation. Biogas bus and environmental outlook: http://www.c40cities.org/docs/0712transport/day2-sess5-jobson.pdf. Date visited 2 November 2010. EMBARQ. The WRI center for sustainable transport. Cleaner Buses for Mexico: An opportunity to save lives: http://www.embarq.org/sites/default/files/RetrofitPolicyBrief VersionFinal.pdf. Date visited 2 November 2010 EMBARQ. The WRI center for sustainable transport. Mexico City – Metrobus: http://www.embarq.org/ en/project/mexico-city-metrobus. Date visited 1 November 2010.

EMBARQ, The WRI center for sustainable transport. Mexico City, the context: http://www.embarq.org/ en/city/mexico-city-mexico Date visited 22 November 2010

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European Local Transport Information Service. 2007. Goods delivery by carg tram: efficient, clean and safe. http://www.eltis.org/study_sheet.phtml?study_id=1547. Date visited 23 of november 2010. Fenton M. 2009. Fast Facts about Mexico: http://www.ehow.com/facts_5541993_fast- mexico.html. Date visited 10 November 2010.

Godoy E. 2010. Road Construction Runs Counter to Climate Efforts. 12 august 2010: http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=52474. Date visited 17 november. Hofstetter P, Madjar M, Ozawa T. 2005. Happiness and Sustainable Consumption:

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Psychological and physical rebound effects at work in a tool for sustainable design: http://www.springerlink.com/content/f7230g7034871t30/fulltext.pdf. Date visited 9 November 2010.

The Independent, “Something in the air in Mexico City - less pollution” published 18 Mars 2010: http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/something-in-the-air-in-mexico-city--lesspollution-1923288.html Date visited 10 November 2010

Institutet för miljömedicin (The Institute for Environment Medicin, IMM). 2009?. Ozon. 27 november 2009: http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=11353&a=5646&cid=11355&l=sv. Date visited 22 november 2010. Kajolinna T, Arnold M. 2009. Biogas as a vehicle fuel in buses – costs and greenhouse gas emissions. 22 september 2009 http://www.balticbiogasbus.eu/web/Upload/doc/Kaunas_201009/3%20VTT%20 Mona%20and%20Matti.pdf. Date visited 23 november 2009 Ketchman S. Facts about Mexico City: http://www.ehow.com/facts_4884476_facts-mexico- city.html. Date visited 10 November 2010.

Latin Business Chronicle, published July 1st, 2010, date visited 10 November 2010 http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/app/article.aspx?id=4323 Massachusettes Department of Environmental Protection. year?. Environmental Effects of Air Pollution: http://www.mass.gov/dep/air/aq/env_effects.htm Date visited 17 november 2010

Molina M & Molina L. Improving Air Quality In Megacities: Mexico City Case Study:http:// peace-foundation.net.7host.com/file/Mexico%20City%20Project%20-Molina.pdf. Date visited 18 November 2011. Oko, M. & Forres, J. (2006) Mexico City Bus Rapid Transit System Celebrates 100 Millionth Passenger: Innovative System Cuts Travel Times, Pollution Exposure. Redmond E. 2007. Biomimicry: HVAC Inspired by Termites. http://blog.sustainablog.org/biomimicry-hvac-inspired-by-termites/. Date visited 15 November 2011 Schwand R. 2007-2009. Ciudad de Mexíco Metro: http://www.urbanrail.net/am/mexi/mexico.htm

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Date visited 10 november 2010. Schroeder L. 2010. Mexico City makes way for bicycles. 23 march 2010: http://www.csmonitor.com/ World/Global-News/2010/0323/Mexico-City-makes-way-for-bicycles Date visited 13 november 2010

University Corporation For Atmospheric Research. year? .Tropospheric Ozone, the Polluter: http://www.ucar.edu/learn/1_7_1.htm Date visited 17 november 2010.

Wallis C. 2005. The New Science of Happiness: http://www.dnue.ac.kr/~ygjo/Time-new- science-of-happiness.pdf. Date visited 9 November 2010.

Walzer RP. 2009. Metrobus of Mexico City Gets a Boost. 12 november 2009: http://green.blogs.nytimes. com/2009/11/12/mexico-citys-metrobus-gets-a-boost/ Date visited 10 november 2010.

Printed references: Ebrard Casaubon M, Delgado Peralta M, Mejía Ponce de León A. 2008. Mexico City Climate Action Program 2008-2010/Summary. Secretaríadel Medio Ambiente Gobiernodel Distrito Federal. Girardet H. 2007. Surviving the century: Facing climate chaos and other global challenges. 1st edition. Earthscan, UK and USA. Jacobs, J. (1993) The death and life of great American cities, New York, Modern Library. Putnam, Robert D., (2000) ”Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of american community”, New York: Simon & Schuster, Roseland, M. & Connelly, S. (2005) Toward sustainable communities : resources for citizens and their governments, Gabriola Island, BC ;, New Society Publishers.

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Schteingart, M. (1989) [Population dynamics, urban structure, and production of living space in the metropolitan zone of Mexico City]. Estud Demogr Urbanos Col Mex, 4, 521-48, 626. Urban poverty in Mexico, in: “Income Generation and Social Protection for the Poor”, World Bank report, 2005.

Lectures Elmqvist Thomas. 13 september 2010. Lecture: Ecosystem change. At CEMUS

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