METHODOLOGY IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN by Glenn E. Wiggins Bachelor of Architecture Texas Tech University Lubbock, Texas
Submitted to the Department of Architecture in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree Master of Science in Architecture Studies at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY June, 1989
@Glenn E. Wiggins 1989.
All rights reserved.
The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to distribute copies of this thesis document in whole or in part
Signature of Author
:___
__
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Glenn E. Wiggins, De
r ment of Architecture 11 May 1989
Certified by: Donald A Sch6n Ford Professor of Urban Studies and Education Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by: Julian Beinart Chairman, Departmental Committee for Graduate Students MA'SO1;'USETTS iNSiliUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JUN 02 1989 LRARIS
ROtdh
METHODOLOGY IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN by Glenn E. Wiggins Submitted
to
the Department of Architecture
on 11 May 1989 in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of the degree
Master
of Science
in Architecture
Studies
ABSTRACT of designing in architecture
The act
designers,
Many
process.
answer
for reasons to explain their actions, are either unable to
when probed questions,
or
actions.
Frequently
provide
that
explanations the
not
answer
will
designer
are
true
his
that
of
descriptions or
her
their
reason
for
a particular design decision is based on 'feeling' or 'intuition.'
making
Under
a complex
is
this model
the
assumes
design process
a 'mystical'
Architectural
aura.
designers can create, yet are unable to say how they do so.
Often that which
can be explicitly discussed by the designer is the least significant part of his or her
design
process.
from cosmic sources.
It is unlikely that designers
are
'channeling'
information
Rather, they are working with knowledge that is largely
tacit.
This thesis a close
attempts to de-mystify
the process of architectural
scrutiny of existing literature,
an architect,
and testing
of theories
theory of design methodology
incorporation
with
lay,
Thesis Supervisor: Donald A. Sch6n Title: Ford Professor of Urban Studies and Education
2
of personal
novice,
is proposed.
design.
and
Through
experience
expert designers
as a
Table of Contents
- Table of Contents..................................................................................................
3
- Acknowledgments..................................................................................................
5
-
Introduction
Why Study Design Methodology Understanding
Structures
of Design Knowledge...................................
The Need for Explicit Language..................................................................
7
Computational M odels..................................................................................
8
Structure of Thesis.............................................................................................
-
A
6
Design
8
Methodology
Design Worlds...................................................................................................... Substantive
10
Knowledge
Introduction...................................................................................................
11
Types - Background......................................................................................
13
Types - Spatial Gestalts.................................................................................
19
Types - Functional Types............................................................................
21
Types - References......................................................................................
22
Types - Experiential Archetypes..............................................................
22
Types - Design Icons and Design Canons.................................................
23
Judgments......................................................................................................
25
Process
Skills
Introduction...................................................................................................
28
Designing as a Conversational Process....................................................
29
The Discovery Process..................................................................................
32
Unintended Consequences of Moves........................................................
33
Lay, Novice,
and Expert Designers
Background....................................................................................................
3
36
- The
Cases
Introduction.......................................................................................................
39
Case One
-
43
Case Two
-
Gestalts............................................................................................... How Universal Are Types
The Jailor's Entrance Exercise...................................................................
52
The 'Dream ' Library Exercise.....................................................................
56
Case Three
-
Rules Derived From Types..........................................................
59
Case Four
-
Discovery and the Seeing-Moving-Seeing
65
Case Five
-
Process.................
Protocol Check - The Influence of Sheet Orientation.............. 68
Case Six - Protocol Check - The Influence of Scale......................................
76
Case Seven - M iscellaneous..............................................................................
82
S Conclusion............................................................................................................. Conclusions About Design Methodology......................................................... Conclusions
About the Experimental
92 92
Method
Results From the Exercises..........................................................................
96
Limitations on Data Imposed by the Experimental Method..................
98
Personal
Issues
Concerning
the Experimental
M ethod...........................
100
Implications and Questions for Further Study................................................
102
Implications for M y Own Practice.....................................................................
105
- Appendix - The Protocols...............................................................................
110
Corbin......................................................................................................................
111
Darin........................................................................................................................
117
Linda........................................................................................................................
130
Lora..........................................................................................................................
143
- Bibliography........................................................................................................
173
4
Acknowledgments
Throughout my tenure at MIT I have had the good fortune to study with, and learn
from, an inspiring group of students
sincere
To all of them my
thanks.
I am particularly
grateful to Don Sch6n;
which have greatly influenced continued
for his
second
and educators.
my
about many ways of learning,
attitudes
support of my
first for his theories and teaching
research
and writing,
regard to this thesis, but throughout my entire time at MIT. Beinart
Julian
and William Porter for their insightful
as well as my other studies at MIT. though
not directly
source
of
I
thank
Corbin,
involved
with
I am grateful to
comments
on my thesis
I am also deeply indebted to Leo Marx who,
in the development
of this thesis,
is a continuing
inspiration. the
people
who
participated
Darin, Linda, and Lora.
in
the case
and most significantly,
studies
Their willingness to engage
viewed as a curious process is appreciated. Finally,
not only
and
I thank my
5
family.
for
this
thesis:
in what they
Introduction
-
Why
Study
Design
Methodology
Understanding Structures of Design Knowledge designers believe that a study of the design process will impair their
Many
They fear that such study will lead to the creation of explicit
ability to design.
will
that
procedures
their intuitive
destroy
that
balance,
however,
Rudolf
perception.
of formulas.
potential
the destructive
illustrate
and
some basis for this fear as history provides many
Arnheim notes that there is examples
creativity
argues
He
for
saying:
... are we to conclude that in the field of the arts one power of the Is it
mind must be put out of action so that another may function? not
true
that
disturbances
precisely
occur
when
permits us to live fully and to
of all our powers - which alone - is upset, not only
intuition, but also when feeling self-expression
artificial
primitivism
why he works.
can
be
very
no
more
when the intellect
interferes
dislodges reasoning.
An
productive
than
blind
with
orgy of
obedience
to
Reckless analysis of the self will do harm, but so will the
rules.
While there
is
one mental
The delicate balance
faculty operates at the expense of the other?
work well
any
of the man
(Arnheim,
beneficial
understanding
to the design
During the design process,
refuses
to know how
and
1954)
is no doubt that a maniacal
detrimental,
who
one's
reliance on a set of design guidelines structure
of design knowledge
can
be
process. for example, it is not uncommon
for a designer
to reach an impasse where he or she has hit a 'dead end' or become 'stuck.'
6
By
Instead of giving up
well prepared to handle unforeseen problems of this sort.
alternate
which
strategies
the designer
solution,
mediocre
a
or accepting
of
ways
different
provide
of developing
be capable
will
will be
a designer
structure of his or her design knowledge,
understanding the
and
seeing
solving
the
that
can
problem.
The Need for Explicit Language
describe
learn
typically
Architects
her
or
his
justification
for
justification
may be very
artists, guided by
is
creeping for many
increasingly
educated
projects.
architectural
The
the
into
profession.
of today's and
result
practicing
sophisticated
has
often
been
designer as the key decision maker on a project. a
project,
and
a
have to
words
the
finding
work,
As a result designers
difficult.
norm
the
has become becoming
design
may
designer
a
While
language
a
aquiring
tacit
good express
the
are often considered
a muse and incapable of explaining their design work.
however,
Change,
without
design
actions.
design
their
to
clients
understandable
and
their representatives
language.
While
architecture'
architects,
with clients
in
their
the
approaches
to
of
the
elimination
When making decisions about
expect the
yesterday's
'Corporate
architect
designers
to use explicit
might
have
been
able to justify the addition of a $50,000 design feature with a reason such as, 'My intuition tells me it will be better,' today's designers can no longer succeed with such justifications. client
how
the added
its additional
Instead the designer must be able to explicitly tell the design
feature will benefit the project, thereby justifying
expense.
7
The need for an explicit language which is capable of describing the design process
could
not be greater.
process
risks
significant
degradation
from
designers
Removing
in overall
design
the
making
decision
quality.
Computational Models advent
The computer
of
affordable into
technology however,
applications,
is
and
architect's
office.
primarily
software
efficient
limited
to
Aid the
from
has
current
computer
of
technical
production
process may be of great benefit to the architectural profession. environment, architectural
however,
a
more
along
designers
brought
of a computer environment that can aid in the design
The creation
drawings.
the
hardware
specific
understanding
with a language
to
of
To create this
processes
used
these processes
express
by must
be developed.
For a computer to succeed as a design tool, it must be congenia) to
an
thinking
architect's
might
also
structures
be of
development
of such
of
thesis
methodology.
that
design
Structure This
one
and
working learns
procedures.
from
its
own
knowledge
and
a
environment.
computer
design
'The
the concepts
future
ideal
experiences.
methodology
computer
Understanding
will
help
in
the
Thesis
presents, The
and
explores,
first section,
one
approach
Cases,' proposed
which
explores
design
methodology
contains
an extensive
in the first section.
numerous in this
to
'A Design Methodology,'
as it is currently understood by various researchers section,
The
implications thesis.
explores
and architects.
exploration
and testing
design
methodology The second of some of
The final section is the Conclusion of
These
8
understanding
the
approach
implications
used relate
for to
the
studying current
study, possible future An Appendix exercises
follows
created
and
studies, and my own process and awareness as a designer. which contains
the
complete transcriptions
executed for this thesis.
thesis.
9
A
Bibliography
of tne design concludes
the
Methodology
A Design
Worlds
- Design All
be
worlds'
that
'design
of
design
world
may
knowledge
learns
skills'
refers
to
what
If a
intertwined.
modify,
implement,
two
major
design
of these
substantive
categories:
skills. refers
knowledge'
'Substantive
least
at
into
Features
experiences.
or her
his
from
process
and
framed,
are
The contents of the design world will also influence how
broken
be
designer's
each
problems
which
in
manner
the
influence
will
and solved.
designer
worlds
from design
their
for
of
contents
the
building,
dollar
multi-million
a
design
the
tasks
design
Whether the task be adding a shelf to a laundry room wall or the
knowledge.
engaged,
environments
holding
as
function
approach
or expert
novice,
lay,
they
designers,
to
a designer 'does.'
designer
a
what
These
extensive
has
'knows'
two categories
design
knowledge,
'process
while
are necessarily but
way
no
to
or her designs may never grow to
it, then his
and express
designer
The designer may also discover that he or
fit each problem's unique situation.
she lacks the ability to put his or her design work into a form where it can be viewed
if
Similarly
others.
by
a designer
how
understands
to
express
and
modify designs, but has little design knowledge, then his or her work may lack variety
and
two categories
These
a
whereby discoveries become
depth.
designer about
the seed
it.
intertwine to create observes These
for further
a
situation,
discoveries designing.
10
a process reflects
expand
of intelligent upon
his ,or
her
it,
reflection
and
makes
knowledge
and
-
Substantive
Knowledge
Introduction
The way in which this history is
from the passing present to the distant past. as
understood
in his or her unique history,
substantive knowledge originates
designer's
A
are
parts of it that
the
as
well
by
utilized
the
It will also
provide him or her with certain skills, abilities, and predilections. serve
knowledge Among knowledge
perform
more
knowledge
is
content
rather
holds
it
process,
a
although
that
however,
understand,
to
involve
that
things
many his
is
to
of
deal
great
process.
about the
not
does
knowledge
substantive
Substantive
important
is
It
based.
process
than
able
be
will
she
or
efficiently.
and
comprehensively
he
grows,
knowledge
substantive
a designer's
As
design memory.
designer's
for the
store-house
the
as
will
designer
or
substantive
designer's
a
of
use
and
understanding,
recognition,
her
part
a
are
of
'types'
and
'rules.' Men history.
and
women
In
ancient
have used times
and rules
types
in
knowledge
architectural
was
thinking,
philosophical
ultimate truth.
master
ancient
builders
of
in
believed
particular
god
with
liked
his
were
dictated
or her
by
entrance
of
particular
building
11
rules
numerous
Even
situated.
the gods was not required, rules existed
configurations
a
single,
were not subject to complex user and
Orientations of buildings
entrances
and
As Aristotle engaged
Similarly, the
environmental issues; they were subject to the rules of the gods. locations
stable
relatively
was based on a set of known and unchanging principles. in
throughout
their designing
when
which were used
elements.
In
the
told
that
first
where
a
'consultation'
for determining century
B.C.
uniform
forth
These laws
In 1573 Philip II proclaimed the Laws of the Indies.
Architecture. set
in his The Ten Books on
of rules
an extensive codification
provided
Vitruvius
of
planning
the
for
procedures
and
standards
and
towns
Among the rules was:
their surrounding lands in the new world.
The whole plaza and the four main streets diverging from it shall have
In the early
arcades... 20th century the Beaux Arts tradition of architecture utilized a set
of rules
for
designing
buildings.
elements
of
buildings,
but
also
dealt not
rules
These with the
modernists who followed World War Two attempted historical types
by
stages,
the
with an original
have
may
methodology
this
starting
modernist tradition dealt
those of earlier periods,
been soon
of the
relationships
created
for each
types
own
While
design.
formative
modernism's
during
its
The
elements.
to abandon reference to all
approach
successful
individual
only with
unlike
not
which,
way to design individual
with both the 'proper'
elements as well as the relationships of the elements. More
recently,
the use of types and rules each problem
rules have become vague; cannot
be
readily
applied
to
designer must attempt to clarify the problem's John
intelligently
guided.
and
education,
suggests
the
accumulation
be
of
Dewey,
who
that this clarification
'brute
facts:'
it requires
among
Priorities
changed.
its own particulars that
is unique with variety
a wide
has
of other
Thus the
problems.
situation so that he or she might wrote
extensively
is not clear
about
merely
accomplished
and
learning
concise thinking.
says:
Thinking
which
observation
of
is
a method
facts...as
the
of reconstructing indispensable
12
step
treats
experience of
defining
the
by He
of
problem, instead
locating
the
of
trouble,
forcing
a
home
definite,
sense of what the difficulty
of a merely vague emotional,
is and where it lies. (Dewey, 1948)
Although
there
are
still
of
traditions
architecture
can
which
be
then
combined
to
according
the
advocate
design
of practice,
rules
tradition's
a
from catalogues
of elements
amounting to little more than the selection
process
that
there are many more schools of thought that fall into line with Dewey's beliefs. Architectural
in
design,
may
fact,
be
regarded
as
exemplar
an
his
of
philosophy.
Types - Background Given important
designers'
that to
between
history
types
have
been
and into the current time, How
to reflect on recent thinking with regard to the concept.
is design knowledge be
of
understandings
throughout
the design process
it is appropriate
types
and
uses
carried by,
Few words
categorized?
different researchers
background
section
understood,
however, the
a
and applied from, types?
notion
of
these
writer
views
certain
features of the concept.
of type can be obtained
such
and designers
number that
have
these views
of type
views
through
are
and
meaning
and 'typology.'
In this
discussed.
generally a
varied
ambiguous
as do 'type'
are
How might different
particular
It
complimentary. lens
that
A more complete understanding
by considering
should
the different views
be
Each
focuses
on
of the concept
holistically
instead
of as isolated elements. John Habraken proposes that types are the shared images of social bodies. body of people know what a type is because it is embedded in their culture. says:
13
A He
The concept of type.. .is much more than a means for classification and more than a way to indicate the historic origins of a form. is a complex
form
that lives
It
within a social body:
a knowledge,
familiar to a group of people by common experience.
Types come
and go within extent,
societies and their cultures.
those cultures.
(Habraken,
They
are, to a large
1985)
Because these implicit types are so much a part of a culture, they need not be put into an explicit form.
Habraken also believes that types are so rich and
full of meaning, that no matter how hard one might try,
he or she will never
be able to list all of the constituent elements of any given type.
Similarly, if
two people
up a given
each
decide
to make independent
type, their lists will never completely agree. be incorrect. be
valid
lists of what makes
This is not to say that one list will
Rather it is meant to illustrate that all descriptions of a type can
without
exhausting
the
type's
possibilities.
Habraken
argues
that
typically
it
evident.
Intrusions by people outside of the culture or changes during times of
rapid
is
only
expansion
instances
are
it may
possible into
when
a
is
examples of when
become necessary
challenged
that
a type may
to put
be
its
existence
challenged.
as much of the type's
becomes
In these contents
as
a written form.
Habraken
does not limit the use of type to traditional
processes in primitive cultures.
Behind
all
researchers,
this
designers,
and
large
engineers
numbers operate
in
of
consultants,
concert
and
we
anything work at all, there must likewise be
shared image of the whole already
(Habraken,
cultures or informal
He says:
formalization
suspect that, to make some
type
1985)
14
familiar to all involved.
He believes
also
that types
allow
people with
object or process to work together. diverse
of
group
communicate particular
with
people each
importance
Rafael
in
Under
average
of
which
a
describes
serial
of
possibility similarities.
Knowledge
particular
is
of
and use of the concept
of
model
use
to
project
the
of types
as
It
list.
grouping
(Moneo
a group of objects
characterized
by
It is neither a spatial diagram not the is
objects
fundamentally
by
certain
based
inherent
the
on
structural
1978)
also notes that architectural and
this
a
on
historical development
the same formal structure.
entities
together
to type as:
... a concept
He
same
architecture.
Moneo traces the
type, referring
in the
interests
Knowledge of the type being used allows a
working
other.
different
belonging
to
of type therefore
objects a
must at once be considered
group
allows
of
repeated
and
as unique
repeatable
objects.
architects and researchers to speak
about a
piece of architecture in terms of both its singleness and its features which are shared by
other pieces
of architecture.
Numerous writers have examined the manner in which the notion of type is used
in
the
architectural
design process.
Peter
Rowe,
for example,
includes
typologies among his five classes of heuristics used in the design process. other
heuristics
being
Anthropometric
Analogies,
Environmental Relations,
and Formal Languages.)
heuristic
designer
current
that related
allows
a
architectural
to
apply
problems.
saying:
15
Analogies,
He discusses type as being a
knowledge He
Literal
(The
quotes
about
past
Quatremere
solutions de
to
Quincy
The word type presents less the image of a thing to copy or imitate completely than the idea of an element which ought itself to serve as a rule for the model.
(Rowe, 1987)
In Rowe's discussions he divides types into three sub-classes. 1. Building Types as Models. characteristics
(Rowe, 1987)
Type, in this case, refers to a model that has
worthy of emulation.
For example,
a designer knows
what is included in the design of a courtyard house. 2.
Organizational Typologies. with
spatial
For
example,
distribution
and
a
could
organizational 3. Elemental design Donald traditional
designer
Types.
and
conformation refer to
of
a classical
such as entrance locations
the
numerous fullness categories
notion
William
that
Porter extend
of
of
function
type,
particulars' to
comprehensive
enter
in
a
the notion
general
is
into
description
functioning
the
notion
way
for
of type beyond
more the
unique.
theory,
of the
role
1. Spatial Gestalts. Functional Types.
16
or
in a general
its
allows
of type in (Sch6n,
way'
the
is common that
notion a
the design 1988)
general 1988)
categories
Allowing
however,
as
(Schtn,
of 'general
and Porter propose four categories of types:
2.
facade
They discuss type as:
of 'particulars
theories
villa
elements.
for a building.
categories that have the fullness of particulars.
While
functional
These are prototypes for solving general classes of
usage and meaning.
... particulars
are references that help a designer
information.
problems,
Sch6n
These
richer
have of and
process.
to the
general more Schbn
3.
References.
4.
Experiential
Elsewhere
referring
Types
Archetypes.
to types,
might
remembered attributes
be
Porter
says:
thought
through
always
of
them,
possible
as
with to
experienced the
world
reconstruct
in
of
and
examples,
qualities
formulate
and
as
one
probes the mental constructs that is the exemplar itself.
One re-experiences drawing
from
becomes
accessible
it information
finds oneself in.
Porter's that
observations
the
problem
part of the
some how the
because
that
at the time, sometimes
was not
of the
accessible
before,
but
situation
one
of Gabriela
Goldschmidt
who
whereby
designer
particular design
(Porter, 1988)
are
similar
solving
to those
process
is one
the
notes
manipulates
a
problem in an effort to transform it into something with which he
or she is already familiar. or she
artifact,
is
trying
to
(Goldschmidt, draft)
'understand'
the problem,
When a designer says that he it is likely
that what
is really
meant is that he or she is attempting to match the current situation to a known, similar situation. tremendous applied
amount
of information
to the current
Schdn from
When a part of the problem solution matches a known type, a can
be
derived
from
the
known
type
problem.
and Porter also
argue that specific
rules about designing are derived
types.
As
rules
rules
are
of
law
derived
and
are derived
from judicial
from
and
types,
criticism by reference to them.
17
may
(Schon,
precedents...so
be subjected 1988)
design
to test
and
would be possible to derive other
It
would
It
typology.
and
type
the various
also
theories
categories
be possible
to
of
Frequently
what appears to be a difference between similarity
a
be
that
has
study by
proposed
of type
differences
to
in discussing the notion of
by
been obscured
two
the
researchers
turns out
Furthermore,
language.
and
researchers.
different
in theories do exist they are often complimentary.
differences
similarities
when
While one style
of lens allows a particular aspect of design behavior to be seen and described, a different style and
of lens allows a different aspect of design behavior to be seen
described. This
thesis
appropriates
the
theories
writers
of numerous
and researchers
a framework which can be partially explored in greater detail.
to create
This
includes:
framework
1. Spatial Gestalts. 2. Functional Types. 3.
References.
4.
Experiential
Archetypes.
5. Design Icons. 6.
Design Canons.
The first four are capable last
two
categories,
the research
appropriated from
of describing many of the manifestations
categories,
appropriated
from
the
work
describe occurrences of type not covered by Sch6n's
of Sch6n and Porter, of types.
and uses of
Rowe
and
that will be described, developed, research
and theories
of Habraken,
and tested. Moneo,
18
Broadbent,
and Porter's model.
it might be possible to further divide or extend these categories,
The
While
it is this list
It will also be informed by the
and others.
Types - Spatial Gestalts The
term
theories
in
gestalt
particularly
Gestalt'
in
have
taken
have
examining
in visual
that
is
psychology
useful
argue that shapes
'Spatial
perception,
particular
from
gestalt
applicability
elements elements
of
or
qualities
that
Although
many
they
to
visual
areas,
perception.
are grouped
patterns
psychology.
into
configurations.
These
over,
elements.
Thus a designer may look at a particular floor plan
and have
are
not
Gestaltists
cohesive
precedence
inherent
forms or
patterns
in,
are
the
take
individual
and instead of
reading it as a number of different unrelated elements, read it as an 'L' or 'W' shape. In
the
design
quickly by the
the designer.
manner
problem. will
process
in
the
gestalt
figure
is
typically
The gestalt will therefore have
which
the
For example,
designer
a designer's
understands
perception
drive his or her design process
perceived
a strong influence on
and
interacts
of a 'W' shaped
as he or she sees
rather
with
spatial
and reasons
the
gestalt
upon the
figure. Gestalts looking
are ultimately created by the individual
at
a
building's
footprint
perceive the same gestalt. designers
will
important
to
the
same
contents
and
'closure,'
in
done
many
that states
in
influence that
same
that while
significance
is
possible
that
no
For example,
two
designers
in will
On the other hand, it is also possible that numerous
the
understand
type,
Research principles
perceive
it
designer.
cases may
gestalt
gestalt. numerous their
radically
have
instances,
designers may of
however,
make this
it is
reference 'same'
to
type's
vary. indicates
of gestalts.
a tendency
19
these
understandings
psychology
the perception
people
In
to
fill
that One in
there
are
of these
small
pieces
several
principles, that are
missing from a figure.
For example, if an ellipse shape with several small gaps
is
unless
shown to
perceive
a person,
the
shape
in
Of
irregular course
whenever
as
this
indications
grow
changing
assumes
too great,
The second
that designers
experiences
on physical
to
similar
people
will
perceive
have
characteristics
stimuli
may are
influence
by
the
to at
his or her ability
to
least some extent concerned
and use of gestalts may be natural. order,
however,
person's
particular
perceive
spatial
Gestalts may example,
in
component footprint,
and
states
a gestalt
figure
shown that the
ability
of the stimulus
observer.
as well
There
are also
perceive
site parts
may
be
Although
with organization,
for many
For them the perception
and
world
may be less natural.
influences
his
or her
Thus a
tendency
to
gestalts. be perceived
in many elements
planning
the
designer
of
site
plan:
the and
perceived
shapes.
during
gestalts.
For people who do not feel the need for
the perception of gestalts
background
landscaping,
facade
gestalts
'continuation,'
still
continuous forms rather
people it is an overriding factor in their daily lives.
gestalts
will
that an individual's relative desire to order and organize his or her
surroundings
such
person
forms.
Studies in gestalt psychology depends
the
principle,
in smooth,
to see gestalts
abruptly
all
gestalts
previous
all
and
possible.
to perceive
an ellipse.
a tendency
that people have than
as
the gaps
the
Floor design
may perceive
property
roadways. from plans
process,
configuration.
20
lines,
During
patterns also
of a building's a gestalt parking
design
of windows, lend
both
themselves in
their
of
figure areas,
exterior
doors, to
design.
perimeter
in the building
elevations,
finish
the
For
materials,
perception and
of
interior
Types - Functional Types types as consisting of:
Schdn refers to functional
... types
of
buildings
or
physical
buildings or environments.
environments,
(Schdn,
types are typically used for the richness
supplying
intermediate
designers
have
of
about a type,
they contain
For example,
design reasoning.
in chains of
about what
understanding
and
a knowledge
parts
1988)
Functional
premises
or
inner-city
an
site
means in terms of design: it may be subject to crime, be in a densely built-up area,
and have little or no available parking.
The style and content of a particular functional type will
will other designers.
To a certain extent these types are culturally and
also vary between designers. regionally
Similarly,
part
types
of
the
country
may
have
than
a
designer
from
a
the contents
a
sparsely
understanding
of
a much
northeastern
differences
States
United
in
A designer from a
different
repertoire
of
part
of the same functional type may vary
the
of
country.
depending on the
It is not difficult to imagine how a designer
culture and region of a designer. from
continental
the
within
of particular functional types can be seen.
understandings
functional
Even
based.
northwestern
functional types in their design worlds than
will have more
Some designers
in
populated
area
'suburban
branch
the
library'
might
southwest
desert
is
that
significantly
have
an
different
from that of a designer from a densely populated area of the northeast. profession
Within the architectural consider
hiring
project will be architect
from
an
architect
located.
who
These
the project's
is
it is common from
the
clients may
region
will have
21
for many
clients to
in
a
region
understand an
which
proposed
that it is probable
increased
sympathy
only
an
for, and
knowledge
about,
the
functional
types
which
deal
with
the
unique
problems
and opportunities of the project's site and region.
- References
Types
References They
may be to particular buildings
are used as
example,
refer
'Richardsonian:'
specific
to
a
guides for design
building,
referring
or particular kinds
to the
or
an
reasoning.
element
architecture
of H.
may
be used as either positive or negative examples
can
check
a
proposed
reference
because
perceived
lack
Types
design
move.
of its perceived
A
designer
a
building,
as
for
being
Richardson.
References
against which
a designer
may
decide
to
quality or avoid the reference
emulate
a
because of its
of quality.
- Experiential Archetypes
Experiential
archetypes
are
images
of
experiences,
things that are personal to a culture or a designer. experiential chains
A designer may,
of H.
of buildings.
archetypes
of design
function
reasoning
as
and
'generative
that
they
objects,
settings,
or
Schbn and Porter note that
images'
frequently
for major become
premises
evident
when
in a
designer is in the 'felt-path' mode, imagining what it would be like to be in or around
a particular
Experiential
space.
archetypes
are
almost 'mystical'
spirit, and not necessarily of form, them.
They relate
For example, like a 'cave.' resemblance
in
character.
They
though a reference to form may
speak
of
accompany
strongly to the emotional power of the particular
reference.
a designer might refer to a particular building element
as being
This reference,
however, would not be to the element's physical
to a cave, though it may also be physically
22
reminiscent of a cave,
but to the element's spirit or emotional qualities which are similar to those of a cave.
Types - Design Icons and Design Canons The
terms
of
notions
Broadbent's
'Iconic
certain
elements
form.
architectural In
structuring
of the
(Broadbent,
and
these
Under
concepts
inherent
with
'Design applied
'Design the
notions
Icons'
Icons'
term
model
that he
a category
them the
literally
analogy
into
can
be
on
the
built
to
both
references.
for this thesis,
however, I have
references.
'Design
and
Canons'
to
I have
elected
to
also decided to name
avoid
problematic
issues
'analogy.'
can be taken
to the design process.
guides the designer.
has
he or she focuses
analogy,
translates
this
restrict their use to non-architectural the
Rowe
problem.
of a literal and
analogy
1973)
appropriating
them into
Geoffrey
from
Analogy.'
'Canonic
groups
a design
non-architectural
and
derived
He defines literal analogy as:
a designer makes use
when
Thus
and
are
or found form giving constructs as a point of
... borrowing known for
Canon'
Analogy'
describes as 'Literal Analogies.'
departure
'Design
and
from Broadbent
the terms
borrowed
Icon'
'Design
from
any
part
of the
surrounding
The icon selected serves as
world and
a metaphor which
A design icon was used by Le Corbusier in the design of
the chapel at Ronchamp when he used a shell as his inspiration for the form of the building's roof.
He said:
The shell of a crab picked up on Long Island near New York in 1946 is lying on my drawing board.
23
It will become the roof of the
chapel: shell
two will
membranes lie
on
wall
of concrete made
six centimeters
of salvaged
thick...
stones.... (Le
The
Corbusier,
1957) A
design icon was also used by Frank Lloyd Wright who claimed
inspiration hands.
for the He
aspiration example
form of the Unity
wanted
without
a
form
resorting
of Wright's
to
could
the
the concrete columns
where
was
point
to
traditional
use of design icons
Administration Building
work space.
that
Church
the figure the
use
heavens of
a
symbolize
steeple.
Another
is seen in his design of the Johnson
he used water lilies
for his inspiration of how
would come together and form the ceiling of the central
Like water lilies reaching to the top of a pond he designed these
capitals
(Broadbent,
1973)
'Design
Canon'
references
Also,
Wright
refers
glass
to
reinforce
or formal geometries.
figures
the
are
typically
invoked
are typically used primarily
the manner in which design
In between the
underwater
effect.
that can be used as
It is important not to confuse
of these geometries with those of spatial
these
they
placed
to a set of rules, or guidelines
for proportions
the function gestalts,
of two praying and
columns to spread at their tops as they met and held the roof. column's
that his
explicitly
gestalts. rather
Unlike than
spatial
implicitly.
as a heuristic, providing guidelines
elements may be located.
for
Of course as elements
are placed and these geometries are filled, it is likely that a gestalt figure will be perceived
by the
designer.
A traditional and typical example of a design canon is the structural grid for a building.
There are,
One such example
however, examples that are more unique and complex.
is illustrated through
the work
of Walter Netsch.
entire design methodology is driven by what he refers to as
24
Netsch's
field theory.'
With
field
theory the first step in designing involves the creation of a complex grid
pattern upon
which the building can be designed.
design process.
This
grid drives the entire
With reference to this methodology Netsch says:
Technological leading to
architecture,
which
is
different
from
some aggressively ugly buildings...We
Mies,
was
do not start with
the material as the demigod, but with the ordering as the demigod. (Progressive
Netsch's
canon
floor plans,
Architecture,
April
is used in the design
elevations,
1973)
of all the
building's elements
including
and interiors.
Judgments A designer's is essential novices,
ability
to the progress
are
reluctant
should be understood, wrong.
and willingness to make normative judgments of quality
to
of the design process. make such judgments
for
fear
of being
wrong.
however, that no designer's qualitative judgement
judgments
are
group
completely
an opinion or estimation.
can be
Thus qualitative
subjective.
of professionals
might
decide
that
one judgment
is
better
another.
Further
'reasonable'
and that a designer who believes as they is a 'wise' designer.
may,
It
When a designer makes such a judgment it is an assertion of something
that he or she believes to be true:
A
Many designers, particularly
they
in fact, become
they present
Qualitative style
help
combine
that
to
certain
judgments
of the correctness
as facts.
of a different
judgments and
decide
so convinced
their judgments
contradict the 'facts'
personal
may
These 'facts,'
are
'good'
than or They
of their judgments that however,
may
completely
group of professionals.
to
form
create,
25
what at
is
least
perceived temporarily
as and
a
designer's from
each
designer's
particular
point
of
view,
an
objective
world.
If no
qualitative
judgment can be factually right or wrong, however, how does a designer decide that a judgment will be, at least temporarily, create
objective
Vickers world
and
how
These
each provide
judgments
some
knowledge? indication
Geoffrey
of how this
indicate
what
he
refers
to
as
a
set
of
Of readinesses he says:
readinesses have
necessarily
further
learning
as
consistent
well with
and like
as the
all learning, they
enabling. patterns
They
which
facilitate
they
create;
'un-readinesses' to see, to value and to respond in
inconsistent
... Limiting
to be learned;
limiting,
but they create ways
subjective
to distinguish, classify, and value some aspects and not others of a
particular situation.
are
on
How do designers
occurs.
notes
'readinesses'
processes based
Christopher Alexander
making
Vickers
decision
right or wrong?
with
though
they
those patterns...
must
be,
such
readinesses
are
precious;
for without them we could not see or value or respond to anything in any way.
'Readinesses'
are the predilections of the designer and are based
experiences. 'appreciative
Elsewhere system.'
I regard and
to
an
social,
three
(Vickers, 1965)
needs.
guide
Vickers
describes
Of the appreciative
appreciative one
that is
First, it
action.
system
as
constantly
a work of art, revised
or
partly
subjective,
largely
26
both personal
with reality
by
the
sufficiently
shared by our
Third, it should be sufficiently
acceptable to ourselves to make life bearable. construct,
comprising
confirmed
it should be sufficiently
fellows to mediate communication.
as
system he says:
should correspond
Second,
readinesses
on his or her
It is thus a mental
intersubjective,
that
is,
based
an
on
The
a
shared
subjective
judgment,
confirmed by
experience.
(Vickers,
appreciative
allows
system,
which
and
contains
constantly
It is noteworthy that although
as meaning 'correct,'
1983)
all
of
the
designer's
the designer may
readinesses,
allows
designers
the designer to progress with his
deal
with
still unavoidable.
'reality'
instead
as
or her designing.
of 'value' judgments,
issues
The facts that will fill a designer's 'reality,'
interesting
different
and
values might
significant select
to
the
particular
a different
set
personal:
It is this process, however,
selected based on what the designer considers as relevant 'values'
consider 'approved'
the correctness of his or her decision is largely
it may or may not be considered correct by others.
with
or
him or her to see a situation and decide whether or not it should be
approved.
that
challenged
Even
when
of value are
for example, are
and what he or she
situation.
of facts
A
to fill
designer
his or her
reality. Alexander
believes
relation of 'mutual
that a good
acceptability'
design is one where
between form
however,
that
context.
Thus the process of problem
it is
impossible to
give
a 'fit,'
typified
and context, occurs.
a thorough
description
by
a
He notes,
of a problem's
solution becomes one of exploration.
In
this process the designer tests entire or partial solutions to see if they will fit. The question arises, however, as to how the designer knows when a move is a 'fit' or is affirmed. problem's
Alexander notes that it is easier for designers to recognize a
'misfits' than its 'fits.'
It might be asked why misfits stand out and
are more compelling to designers than fits.
When
we
property
speak
of
bad
of an ensemble,
describable.
Wherever
fit
we
which an
Alexander says:
refer
a
is immediate
instance
27
to
of
single
identifiable
in experience,
misfit
occurs
in
and an
ensemble,
we are
able to point specifically
at what
fails
and to
it.....
describe
... I should like to recommend that we should always expect to see the
process
negative forces,
of
achieving
process
of neutralizing
which cause misfit.
Appreciative
systems
developed
throughout
are
system
is formed by
are
Process
fit the
between
(Alexander,
or
entities
a
or irritants,
substantive
Thus
of
knowledge
a designer's
at the same time it allows
and considered
as
1964)
her career.
what is seen
two
incongruities,
a part of a designer's
his
certain things to be sec i
-
good
and
appreciative
and encourages
salient.
Skills
Introduction Process manipulate
skills
allow
the
designer
to
engage
the materials of the design problem,
part of, the
process.
These
knowledge to the design task. be incorporated into both
immediately
deal
of knowledge
skills
allow
in
the
becoming
designers
to
process
and
with,
or a
intimate
apply their substantive
They also allow new information from the task to
the designer's substantive knowledge
and in
design
future
design
involved in the
problems.
where it can be used
Although
application of process
there
is
skills, they
a great carry no
design knowledge of their own. The process the is
problem
under
employed.
experiment
of designing involves consideration
This
conducted
process by
the
a 'conversation'
whereby of
a process
between of
'seeing-moving-seeing'
designer
understand all or part of the problem.
28
in
an
effort
a designer and
'seeing-moving-seeing' represents to
solve
a
small
or
better
Within each small experiment the chance for 'discovery' always exists. information
that is
discovered
in the process
the seed for new and continuing a discovery
is made,
of experimentation
experiments.
will
New become
In design this means that
the conversation between
after
the designer and the problem
is
continued with a new series of sketches, each of which is informed by previous discoveries.
In Dewey's words:
Concrete
suggestions
arising
from
past
experiences,
and matured in the light of needs and deficiencies employed tested
as
by
readjustment,
It
should
different
be
aims
and
methods
success
of
failure
suffice.
understood
(Dewey,
that
from that of trial
the
in
specific
of the present,
reconstruction,
accomplishing
this
and
task
of
seeing-moving-seeing
is
1948)
process
and error;
possible solutions the designer
of
developed
of
much
instead of making random guesses about
is guided by intelligent
reflection.
Designing as a Conversational Process Design
problems
conflicting process.
information
inherently
that
must
At the beginning
everything entails
are
that
a
completed
a gradual unfolding
informed
by,
the
of the
ill-defined
eventually
be
can
Wiggins,
be
solution
resolved
will
include.
Thus
and evolution of information
designer's
characterized
full
process it is virtually
work.
The
process
unfolding of the problem to occur can be referred and
and
by
a process
forthcoming)
29
that
of
confusing
during
the
impossible
process
which informs, this
design
to know
the design
allows
and
and is gradual
to as a design 'conversation'
of 'seeing-moving-seeing.'
(Sch6n
/
One of the first steps a designer will take as the design process begins is to see and understand the content of a given problem.
distinguishing
The
first
the
facts
-
(Dewey,
observation.
This
understanding
elements
scrutinizing,
extensive
by
designer
the
as
or
he
she
translates
of written and verbal data into a sketch where they can be seen and in
understood
a
architect's
on graphic
reliance
This
design process that separates
representations
is
it from many of the
In fact, sketching encourages much of the creative
fields.
other creative
format.
graphic
one part of the
in
facing
1948)
facilitated
is
and
minute
inquiry,
is
then
of thinking
characteristic
work
architecture. It is important to note that frequently the sketches
a designer produces will
This is not only because the information
be of a crude and ambiguous nature.
the designer begins with is crude and ambiguous,
but also because sketches of
allow many options and opportunities for how they can be read and
this sort
the designer
In fact the crude quality of a sketch often provides
understood.
with fuel to power his or her design process. as
Also, accompany through 'in
discussed
design
all
have
moves
unintended
consequences
which
It is difficult for a designer to work
their intended consequences.
all of the consequences that a move might have on the entire problem
his or her head.'
concrete
below,
form
where
Sketching its
allows
consequences
the proposed can
be
move to be put into
considered
across
the
a
entire
problem.
Sketching
also
facilitates
design
conversations.
produced the designer is free to completely
30
With
engage the problem.
the
first
sketch
The first step,
of course,
is
for
conversational designer either
the
sense
designer it
can
to
be
through the sketch.
see
said
what that
he
the
or she
has
problem
is
drawn.
In
the
'speaking'
to
the
Based on what he or she sees, the designer, by
adding to the existing or producing a new sketch, makes
which
it
meant
conversational through
the
information
to
sense
test
or
evolve
it can be said
sketch.
This
which the
sketch
designer sees
some
part
of
that the
designer
provides
feedback
as he
or she
the
a design move
problem.
'speaks' in
once
In
to the
the
form
again
the
problem of
'listens'
new
to the
problem. Thus
the
term
design
seeing-moving-seeing.' small
experiment
understand
all
'conversation'
This
conducted
or
process
by
the
can of
be
as
a
'seeing-moving-seeing'
designer
part of the problem.
understood
in
The
an effort
entire
to
process
process
of
represents
solve or becomes
a
better one
of
growth.
... designing
(can
be
seen)
as
whose output is not only understanding qualities
A
design
of
across
'move'
a
an elaborated
relationships multiple
should
cumulative
among
domains.
be
process
intention moves,
understood
as
designer considers
a problem he or she will develop
manifestation 'Seeing' meanings.
all
or
part
of a reflective should
be
of
not
understood
only
the
problem.
and
forthcoming)
more
involves
than just
reflection.
the As a
an idea for a move which
Sketching
is
therefore
the
move.
First, the designer
sight includes
the
consequences
involving
The first real design movement
solve
but an enriched
(Sch6n/Wiggins,
sketching process.
might
of discovery
as
having
literally registration
31
'sees'
two
different
information
of data,
but
but complimentary
on a drawing. also
the
This
perception
of
figures
in
some
Substantive the
of that data.
Knowledge
designer.
section
Second,
'Spatial
Gestalts,'
of this thesis,
the designer
'sees,'
which
are discussed
are perceived
or understands
some aspect of what he or she has literally seen.
rather the
in the
quickly by
implications
of
This type of seeing requires a
designer to make judgments about some part of the design.
The Discovery Process The
above description
be one effect
of gradual of many
of seeing-moving-seeing
transformation
design moves
process can also be described
whereby
the
which have
shows the final
design
been informed
design process is the
to
cumulative
by judgments.
This
as one of 'discovery.'
Although the act of discovery
is by its nature but a moment in the overall
design process, it is useful to think of it as having three phases: 1.
The moments leading to the discovery
2.
The moment of the discovery
3.
The reaction to the discovery
The
moments
sees
and reflects on what he or she has drawn.
moment
of
leading to the
the
discovery
discovery
where
are
the
those
inform
forms:
subsequent
incorporated
understandings
moves.
into the current
inform
subsequent
moves,
process
immediately
or in the
importance
may
be
the
The reaction to the discovery
can
of great importance
A
are
either
be
the
problem
or used
aside
are
that are used
incorporated
discovery that as
aside'
swept
Understandings
can
future.
32
or
leads to the
understands
which
process.
however,
sees,
can either be 'swept
Understandings design
the designer literally
This reflection
designer
implications of what he or she has drawn. take one of two
where
is not
into
to not to the
of immediate
unfolds.
In
either
event
the
discovery
conversation, Whether they
thereby
giving
discoveries
typically
problem.
becomes
the
for
a cumulative
are swept
provide
seed
the
new
effect to the
aside or used
designer
moves
with
a
in
a
continuing
designing.
to inform deeper
subsequent
moves,
understanding
of
the
In some cases a discovery will be of such a radical nature that it will
lead the designer to redirect his or her designing and begin a new experiment. These instances, for
the
designer
discovery the
however, occur rather infrequently. to
throughout
experience the
entire
many
small,
design
It is much more common
but
process,
significant,
with
each
moments
moment
of
informing
next in a process of seeing-moving-seeing. This is not to imply that every experiment will lead to a discovery.
experiments knowledge the
will
lead
is gained
problem.
dead-ends.
Even
in these
instances,
however,
new
as the designer sees that a proposed move will not solve
Neither
potential discovery. level
to
Many
is there
a
guarantee
that
the
designer
will
notice
a
Again, the ability to see depends to a certain extent on the
of development
which
the designer's
appreciative
system
has
reached.
Unintended Consequences of Moves When a designer conducts a move experiment, it is typically with the goal of resolving
a
richness
of
designer's her
specific
move
original
design
the
move
consequences
part
design
'giant
a design
process,
experiments
intentions. a
of
have
This step.'
problem.
however,
Part
stems
consequences
rippling
effect
How
designer
of his or her moves
a
says
methodology.
33
a great
of the
from
the
reaching
far
can
make
deals deal
complexity fact beyond
even
with
that
the
the
his
and the or
smallest
unintended
about his or her design
In conducting a move experiment a designer will typically make a move and then reflect on it to see if its intended consequence has been affirmed. same
time,
however,
consequences along
with
of
a
designer
of the move. the
positive
also
These
intended
surprise discoveries be
the
consequence.
may
is judged
supporting
the
consequences
that accompany
area of inquiry Frequently different
consequence
elements
the elements
Elements
of
the
of
the
is
designer
be judged are
often
discoveries of
the
may move,
Even if the intended consequence of nature
of unintended
instead of affirmed.
affirmed,
any
consequences Similarly if a
negative
unintended
it may cause the designer to refocus
of a
move's
of its
language
names
norms
implications.
Examples
must
consequence
intended
unintended
consequence
consequences.
of
designing
can
clusters, of which I have identified twelve.
and
unintended
consequences
that elements of designing can be grouped into 'domains.'
contain
the
his or her
to resolve the unforeseen problem. the
from
consequences
intended
as positive, the negative
intended
on
Some of these surprise
cause the overall move to be denied
move's
reflects
Unintended
while others may be of a negative nature. a move
and
unintended
for the designer. nature,
sees
At the
of
used
(Schun,
of domains consciously
problems or realize
include works
elements, to
evaluate
are
radically
Schdn
proposes
He says:
be
grouped
into
These design domains
features,
relations,
problems,
and
actions
consequences,
and
1987)
'Form,' in
opportunities.
one
'Scale,' domain
and at
'Organization a
time,
of Space.'
attempting
As discussed earlier, when
to
A solve
a designer makes
a move to solve a problem, he or she reflects on the move to see if its intended consequence
has
been
affirmed.
This
34
intended
consequence
will
be
in one
domain.
consequences,
Unintended
domains.
Thus,
for example,
however,
frequently
as a designer makes
occur
a move in
in
other
an attempt to
resolve a problem of scale, the move may also effect the way in which space is organized. Alexander's
Earlier
notions
of 'fit'
and
were
'misfit'
discussed.
Alexander
believes that if a designer attempts to list all of the fits and misfits of a design problem,
the
list will be impossibly long.
To handle
'highly
amorphous
diffuse' problems he proposes a notion similar to that of domains.
and
He says:
Since we cannot refer to the list in full each time we think about the
problem,
we
invent
a
shorthand
notation.
We
items, and then think about the names of the classes:
classify
the
since there
are fewer of these, we can think about them much more easily.
To
put
the
it
in
the
language
of psychology,
number of distinct concepts
there
are
limits
which we can manipulate
on
cognitively
at any one time, and we are therefore forced, if we wish to get a view
of the
whole
these
concepts
requirements.
By
grouping
more
easily
number
is a general (Alexander
design deal
problem,
information
with
of domains,
the
to
re-encode
name
these
for a number
items...Each of the
of
specific
1966)
of like kinds
complexity
however, may
of
into
design
domains, problems.
be difficult for the
the designer Even
designer
a
can
limited
to effectively
manage. It
is
possible
complexity, influence,
as many
that
well
as
a
designers
one domain at a time. simultaneously
due
in
to
a
limited
limited
ability
awareness
may typically
be
of
to
cope
a move's
able
with
a
problem's
potential
to consciously
scope
work
of
in only
Expert designers may, on some occasions, be able to work
multiple
domains.
35
It
is
possible,
however,
that
these
experienced they are
designers
already
are
familiar.
simply
using
'chunks'
of
information
with
In these instances the designer might see a problem
as being similar to one that he or she has previously experienced. working known from in
through 'chunk'
multiple
multiple
the problem
again,
of information domains,
which
to
the
the
the designer
designer
task.
If
will the
be
Rather than
able
chunk
to
apply the
contains
materials
will appear to be simultaneously
working
domains.
It is also possible that expert designers are able to rapidly switch between different
domains, thereby providing the illusion of simultaneity.
domains
are
represented
by nodes,
each interconnected
the designer to move between them. nodes
and their connections
contrast the
novice will
by
It is as if the
conduits that
allow
The expert will be very familiar with the
and will therefore rapidly move between them.
lack familiarity
with
the nodes
In
and their connections.
He or she will therefore move between them very slowly, if at all.
-
Lav.
Novice.
and
Expert
Designers
Background In her book Conceptual Changes in work
of
between three
Chi,
Glaser,
novices
principle
and
and Rees experts
which
in
scientific
each
notions.
information-processing of
that non-conceptual
domains
can
be
differences
characterized
by
of misconceptions.
2. analysis of perceived similarities
For
claims
Susan Carey describes the
methods:
1. diagnoses
3.
Childhood
these
For the
methods
analyses she
first method
then
she
among elements of how problems provides
describes
36
examples
a situation
in the domain. are
solved.
that
illustrate
whereby
the
it becomes
apparent
that
novices
can
have
misconceptions
that
are
highly
resistant
to
tuition. For with
the
second
differing
method
knowledge
she
provides
levels
an example
of physics
illustrating
perceive
physics
how
problems.
group of novices and experts are given a number of physics problems asked to group problems
according
one
group,
the
other
and
by
about
group
solvable energy
experts
ways,
to the type of objects
problems hand,
problems solvable
them according to their similarities.
the
with
problems
Newton's
in
laws
of
equations in another.
organize
their
to
their
motion
in
Thus this study
knowledge
of physics
with experts able to think on a more subtle
in
participants,
method one
group
about pulleys in
another. Expert
according
A
and are
Novice participants
involved: problems
inclined planes
people
of
group,
on
solution: problems
shows that novices
significantly
and complex
different
level than the
novices. For the third method Carey describes how novices, when solving mechanics problems
use:
... painful are
means-end
analysis
relevant to the problem
in a forward direction...
Thus
novices
transform
the
working
with
while experts
equations
they
hope
apply correct equations
(Carey 1985)
employe
a process
problem
using
of trail
'correct'
and
error
while
experts
gradually
information.
Other experiments described by Carey cast adults as experts and children of different which
age groups as novices.
novices
example,
'randomly-attribute'
One of the observations made is the manner in features
a child may attribute the presence
37
to
similarly
perceived
objects.
For
of a spleen to an inanimate object
based
on
the object's
perceived
similarity
to
a
human.
On
the
other hand,
children may fail to attribute a spleen to an animal because of the animal's lack of similarity
to a human.
Adult 'experts'
frequently
'over-attribute'
features to
similarly perceived objects.
For example, an adult may decide that a bat shares
many
with
a
fly.
In fact
characteristics
knowledge each
is
that both
based bats
on
nothing
and birds
are
more
than
radically
his
or
her
different from
other.
Past
study
their
relative
indicates levels
that a primary
difference
of knowledge:
experts
doubt increased experience substantive Carey's
studies, however,
on
attribute
between
know more
may lead to, but not guarantee,
novices
and experts
than novices.
No
a broader range of
knowledge and a more facile use of a wider range of process skills.
differences. based
bird
raise questions about other, more subtle
For example, a
naive
do
understanding
characteristics based
lay
designers
randomly
of architecture?
Do
attribute novice
on similarities to a known model?
38
and complex characteristics
designers
over-
The Cases
-
Introduction To
test
and
expand
upon
some
of
the
information
presented
in
the
Background
section of this thesis,
experiments
which have been conducted both by myself and by others at MIT.
In each
experiment a participant is given
engage in the design process. normal
I will analyze
the results of a number of
a task which
causes him or her to
All participants are encouraged to work in their
fashions with one exception: they are asked to 'think out loud,' thereby
providing
the
thinking
that
accompanies
their
designing.
Sch6n and Porter have developed what I will refer to as the 'Branch Library Exercise.'
(Sch6n,
1988)
In this exercise participants
(reference
figure
below)
which
On the
plan are
The participants
A library this
a
'footprint'
arrows representing
are then given the following
association
generic
throughout are
six numbered
represents
the
one-storey
of the
footprint State,
they
typically
buildings.
a
possible entrance
use
for
hand the
branch
locations. footprint
the six generic entrances marked with numbers problems
with
entrances,
consultant, to analyze
and so they
their entrances
to
1 to 6.
buildings.
They want to know what each entrance
the siting
of the building,
that
will
the massing,
have
the
to
internal
and whatever else seems to you to be important.
39
these
architects, They use They have as
for them and give a set of
for
architects
locations.
has
have come to you,
guidelines
the
library.
libraries All
and ask that the various libraries be designed to fit it.
had
branch
of Massachusetts
in suburban
They
for
task:
Commonwealth
that
are given a line drawing
design
these
implies as to organization,
So, these can be
arranged
in any way you wish on the site, and there are varying
with
sites
different
directions
of
and
access,
on.
so
The
dimensions of the footprint are one hundred feet, from K to B, and eighty feet from B to G.
5 B
4
--
Branch Library Footprint This
exercise
Three from
was
given
participants Israel,
and
are three
the protocols of 'Benny,' Along with information
test
from
based
loosely
the
design
are practicing
on
together
at
each
MIT,
architects.
in
one
available
series of exercises
from
specific
with the
things
and
wrong
answers.
There
point
here
to
architectural
session. instructor
thesis I referenced
These
exercise
design
following
you need
problems.
to
and
general
are
exercises were
These
issues.
exercise
that
realize are no
study
tricks
how
there
exercises
introduction:
Some of them may serious than others,
built
people
Some of the
into think
questions
quickly while others may take a bit longer.
40
are no
right and
the
format;
when
may
be
is all
developed to
The questions are looking for different
all serious.
is
design
Branch Library
the
and some of them may seem more are
a
For this
I am going to ask you a number of questions.
but they
is
I developed.
Branch Library
a number of
and begin
seem silly
an individual
'Clara,' 'Gloria,' and 'Gilbert.
information
a
participants;
instructors
on the original
or expand
grouped
to seven
no the
solving answered
There is no rush.
If
are
you
look
at
acceptable
a question
to say
so.
and you Similarly,
do if
not have
an answer,
I present you
with
it is
alternate
answers to a question you may decide that it does not matter which alternative is selected.
It is acceptable to say that you do not feel
that it matters which option is selected.
You may draw if you like;
I have tracing paper you can use as well as a variety of pens. sessicn is very free form. to think
out loud.
I want you
This
The only thing that I request of you is
Rather than internalizing
your thought process
to verbalize everything that you are thinking as you
work through these problems.
I will start to pry if I recognize
that you
verbalizing.
are
thinking without
What we are going to do is very simple.
I am going to show you a
number of plan types and ask you a few questions about them.
The
individual
participants; were
each
slightly
participants Although
in
therefore content
to
took
Although
I
anticipated
designers,
study as well.
I
described
After each
problems
in
slightly
different
parts did revised on
not
their
were
given
session
the
format.
composition
substantially
each occasion.
to
Each
of the
change,
my
Branch Library
research
wanted
novice
four
exercises of
the
exercises.
the number
Five footprint types
One of these footprints, Footprint Type D,
is the
exercise.
ultimately designers
requiring to
be
data
primarily
represented
in my
A review of literature in the cognitive sciences showed me that it
to separate participants into two groups:
1987)
A
referred
to
between
true novices
question as
below,
session.
used in the original
'expert'
is typical
a
order of parts was
same footprint
are
correct
of the
were used in each exercise.
from
which
an individual
modified
the
and/or the
exercises,
an
arises, 'expert.' and
however, There experts.
as are
to
many
Because
41
when
novices and experts. a
grades of this
designer can of expertise situation
and
(Carey,
actually that
be
occur
despite
the
three
I
categorization,
traditional
categories:
lay,
to
decided
novice,
break
my
group
of
into
participants
and expert.
I view a 'lay' designer as one who has little or no actual design experience 'Novice' designers include those who
or one of its allied fields.
in architecture
have gained experience in architecture or one of its allied fields, but have little professional
actual
in the field.
experience
of professional
this model
Under
profession
designs
'good'
creating
it may
an
and have at least three are
that these categories
Note
to
for a lay designer
be possible
while
'Expert'
itself.
as opposed to perceived quality of design.
based on level of experience
created
architectural
include those who are trained in architecture
designers years
the
in
experience
'proficient'
merely
creates
designer
expert
as
be perceived
designs. For
My study group includes at least one designer from each of these levels.
the lay designer I selected a fourteen year old boy from a metropolitan area in
school
a ninth
as
He
academics.
not express
did
His
student.
grade
interest
interests in
of its
any
or
architecture
and
music,
sports,
include
high
attending
'Darin' is currently
States.
part of the United
a southwestern
allied
professions. For the novice metropolitan
area
currently
employed
she
trained,
was
undergraduate I
selected
twenty-seven
designer in
and
year
has
of the
part
southwestern
impaired
learning
teaching
degree two
a
a thirty-eight
I selected
as
worked,
an
United
children,
interior
to represent
old
from
woman
though
part
She
of the
The
past
has
first is
United
'Lora' is currently employed in an architect's office in New England.
42
the
in
is
an
in Texas.
expert designers.
a southeastern
'Linda'
States.
designer.
in interior design from a university
participants
from a
year old woman
a
States.
She has
over
three
years
of professional
from a university from Europe. licensed The some
in Florida.
and
has
a degree
in
architecture
The second, 'Corbin,' is in his late twenties and is
He is currently enrolled in the SMArchS program at MIT and is a
architect
with
extensive
information provided
of the
Additional
experience
similarities
expert
library
exercise.
- Case
One
professional
by this group
and
differences
experience.
makes
of lay,
information is taken from
it possible
novice,
to speculate
and expert
on
designers.
the results of the original branch
- Gestalts
The Exercise Participants
are
given Footprint
Type
D
(reference
figure
below)
told that it is the footprint for an inner-city retail electronics store. first asked see they
any are
describe
location
geometric
patterns
asked
indicate them
what
organization questioned
which entrance
to the
pattern
of the about
any
in
they prefer.
the
footprint. on
means
footprint.
Then they are asked
the
to
The
If they
footprint.
them
in
process
other perceived
geometric
patterns.
B +4
K
6M L F
JI H
#
N
D
\
E
G
3
2 Footprint Type D
43
of
repeated
5 A
They
terms
is
see
C
geometric are then their as
and
are
They are if they patterns asked
to
designing
or
participants
are
The Initial Goal With this exercise I hoped to get data that would allow an investigation of a number
of
issues
recognize
and
recognize
some
relating
reason
to
upon
type
of
spatial
spatial
gestalts.
gestalts,
cohesive
For
then
geometric
I
example, would
pattern
in
if
designers
expect the
them
footprint:
to an
assemblage of parts into a whole that means more than the sum of the smaller parts.
Further,
Explanations
I
of how
would
expect
this
these patterns
recognition
inform the
to
occur
designer's
rather
understanding
footprint
should
process.
Finally I hoped to see if different designers would perceive
gestalt
and
help
to illustrate
how
how their understandings
spatial
of the
gestalts
quickly.
function
in
of the
the
design
the same
significance of this gestalt
might
be similar or different.
Results The results of this exercise substantiate and
used
by
participants, gestalt
designers.
though on several
might be (a
information
'W')
exercise
occasions
was
generally
it was necessary
understood to suggest
in order to provide a better example
by
the
what one
of the type of
I was hoping to find.
Corbin Type D.
The
the claim that gestalts are perceived
was first
asked
which entrance
location
he liked best for Footprint
After selecting entrance number five as his favorite he was asked to
identify
any geometric patterns
question
he
quickly
that he saw in the footprint.
said that he saw two
below).
44
'L' shaped
figures
When
asked the
(reference
figure
-'a-4 6
2 Corbin's Gestalt When asked how he felt this recognition might have influenced his designing he said: Well I don't know that it did influence which entry I thought was best...maybe. didn't.
Its hard to say how it did influence me.. .maybe it
On the other hand, as I think about it I can see that I
thought of the front of the store in terms of this L shape (that entry number five is a part of), and the back, or more exclusive part of the store in terms of this L shape (the other L) - but I don't know. Corbin
answered
the question
about geometric
patterns
immediately
was asked by describing and pointing to the two 'L' shapes.
after
it
As he answered,
there was no pause or delay which might have indicated that he was reflecting on the question.
It is therefore likely that he had already perceived the gestalt
before the question was asked.
His hesitation to answer how the gestalt might
have effected his designing, however, would seem to indicate that while he had perceived design
the gestalt,
process.
perceived
dia
he had not consciously considered
His eventual
answer,
influence his designing.
45
however, indicates
how it effected his that the gestalt he
Corbin's quickly
example
substantiates
by designers. the
designer's
influenced
his
designing
consciously
associated design
a 'W'
work. at
a
In tacit
that gestalts
perceived
rather
the claim that the perceived gestalt
Corbin's level.
reasoning
are
such
case,
Until as
however, questioned
the he
gestalt had
not
'front
and back' of the store
in looking at the footprint, quickly perceived
what she referred to as
perceived
Linda,
claim
It also substantiates
influences
with the
the
gestalt.
shape (reference figure below). 5
64 2 Linda's Gestalt When asked how quickly she had perceived the 'W' she said:
Pretty quick.
I see the shapes before I look at the whole thing.
In a follow-up conversation with Linda it became evident that for her 'shapes' referred
to gestalts,
or in this case a
letter of the alphabet.
Looking
at the
'whole thing,' on the other hand, referred to a detailed review of the footprint. Thus
Linda's
carefully, gestalts
she are
precedence gestalt
statement
means
perceives
geometric
seen
as
patterns
over individual
that
before
shapes.
she This
or configurations
elements.
It
figure is perceived rather quickly
46
inspects
the
entire
substantiates and
that
also substantiates by the designer.
these
the
footprint claim
that
patterns
take
the claim
that the
Lora
was
asked
about
Footprint Type E. of a central
geometric
She consistently
patterns
... do I
pieces.'
see
a
rectangle
continuing
through
perfect
footprints
except
When initially asked
about
other
square,
Footprint then
Types)
that square
in here,
and
squares
Yes, I see geometries...
... The thing that really hits me, especially (the
the
patterns in Footprint Type D she said:
plugged on or maybe this a rectangle?
ones
all of
referred to the footprint as being made up
piece surrounded by 'plug-on
possible geometric
for
on some of those other
are.. .because is more easily
this
is
almost
identifiable
as
a a
square and so this...as a separate entity ... so its easier for that to be a plug-on piece.
That's why I've had trouble calling that the front
of the building because it looks like its a tack-on piece because its a perfect square and it kind of takes on its own identity.
So.. .but at
the same time...like these two pieces...this one is (DCB) harder to see
as
a
proportion
plug-on as
piece...from
piece even
though
KJI and IHG because
I know that its at the
either side.. .unless you look at
entrance you
still have that plug-on feeling,
its the
same
end of this other
four...side
four as an
but from this side it
makes a rectangle there, so four is not the same... Her
spatial
gestalt
and two plug-on
consists
of a central
pieces (reference
figure
rectangle below).
5
6
...
2 Lora's First Gestalt
47
with an
attached
rectangle
Lora's
statement,
'That's
building...'
reveals
designing.
In
why
I've
the
gestalt
that
her world,
the
had trouble she
front
the
select
'plug-on' entrance
perceived 'plug-on
number
different
pieces,'
different. gestalt
a
pieces
Thus
figure
her
was
therefore
five
on
the
gestalt that selection
Lora's
perceived
protocol by
the
of
eliminated,
not
has
front
of
informed
the building
leading
rectangle.
recognize
entrances
might
substantiates
the
designer
and
the
the her
entrance
Any entrance option located on one
'attached'
did
that
perceived
of a building
should not be located on a 'plug-on piece.' of
has
calling
will
her
to
Had
she
the
smaller
have
been
claim
influence
that his
ultimately initially
squares
as
significantly the
or
particular her
design
process. Later as Lora turned the sheet on which the footprint was drawn
and looked
at it from a number of different orientations she said:
Also, I also think of this too, especially if you turn it a different way, I think of this KJED as.. .even though its not a whole shape, I think of that as a core and these two (IHGF and NCBA) being plugon
pieces.
(reference
figure below)
5
2 Lora's Second Gestalt
48
of
process
Lora's
of a particular gestalt may
that perception
the
to
itself
that, to
indicates
at least
might lend
footprint
case
Lora's
gestalts. can invoke
designers
some extent,
the
degrees
different
significantly
of
perception
the orientation of
be influenced by
ninety
Rotated
the sheet.
on
footprint
the
different
from
it
This provides reason to suspect
a new gestalt.
orientations led her to perceive
at
looking
and
sheet
the
turning
also
spatial
different
gestalts. of the footprint may lend themselves to the creation of
While the materials gestalts
spatial gestalts,
individual
by the
created
ultimately
are
In
designer.
looking at a footprint it is possible that no two designers will perceive the same
different
while
understandings For
'back
designers
two
when to
of this
implications
designers will
make
may
reference
to
the
same
type,
their
and use of the type may radically vary.
example,
perceived
numerous
also possible that
In these cases, however, it is important to remember
perceive the same gestalt. that
it is
On the other hand,
gestalt.
back'
designers L's
perception
the
in were
at
looked
footprint,
different
and
both
for
the
understandings
and
each
D
Type
Footprint
designer.
As
noted
earlier, when Corbin was asked how he felt his perception of the 'back to back' L's might
have
influenced
his designing,
he described
how
one 'L'
might be
viewed as the front of the store while the second 'L' might be the back of the store. Benny, perceived 'pods'
who the
participated
in
the original
Branch
Library
exercise,
footprint as consisting of a central space (MDEI)
(reference
figure
below).
49
initially
surrounded
by
5
6 l
.. .3..
.e.
.
I
2 Benny's First Gestalt As he moved through the design process, however, he said:
What's
funny is that I haven't been reading it as two L's back to
back, which it also is.
And you might read it that way if this were
an office building, you probably would.
When
questioned
influence
about
his designing,
how
this
new
reading
of back
to
back
L's
might
he said:
Well, its hard for me to (do) two full L's because it doesn't leave you any space to move in between the two of them...But it would be almost impossible to find some substantial use that (needed) and quiet in the (MDEI)
rectangle, because you know that people
going from H to B have to cross that. supermarket,
the
people
peace
having
to
So it would be good in a go
through
that.. .rectangle
(MDEI), but lousy in almost anything else.
There
are several
interesting things to observe in this passage.
the perception of back to back L's has a completely Benny than it does for Corbin. and back of the footprint.
different
First note that significance for
At no point does Benny think in terms of front
Thus it is seen that two designers can use the same
type, in this case a spatial gestalt, but arrive at different conclusions about the
type's
significance.
50
Also
striking had
Benny
in
this
initially
passage
perceived
is the
manner by
continued
to
which his
drive
with a gestalt composed of a central
'pods'
around
design
process
it
(reference he
forced
figure
above).
himself to
examine
considering how they might effect his design. indicates
that his initial
process.
For example,
problems
gestalt was while
stated, other
working
with
back
with a series of
however,
possible
His design
still influencing
designing,
Initially he had been
space (MDEI) As
gestalt which
subsequent
even as he consciously invoked different gestalt figures. working
the
during
gestalt
the
figures,
reasoning, however,
his designing during this to
back
L's,
with the manner in which the two L's fit together.
he
discussed
The trouble area
of the fit was in the central rectangular area (MDEI - reference figure below).
5
64
3 2 Benny's Trouble Area He discussed the problem of 'crossing' the rectangle to get from one part of the plan to the other. that he had
worked
This rectangle is the same as the central space (MDEI) with
earlier.
Thus, even
though he consciously
tried to
invoke a new gestalt figure, his initial gestalt still drove his design efforts. is as if he created a gestalt within a gestalt. spatial
gestalt
escape
the
influenced
can
gestalt by
have
in
he
had
the
design
initially
it.
51
It
This illustrates the power that a
process. perceived,
Even he
when
was
still
Benny
tried to
unconsciously
-Case
-
Two
How
Universal
Are
Types
The Jailor's Entrance Exercise Participants
are
Footprint Type
shown
D
(reference
of the entrances they consider to be a 'jailor's entrance.'
the entrance
identifying
the participant is
is
participant's entry
of no selection
is based
explain
why
it meets the
a jail.
Thus the
on the concept of 'jailor's entrance'
rather than
type:
particular
asked to
After
It is important to make the distinction that the
test of being a jailor's entrance. building
and are
They are then asked to say
told that it is for a building of no particular type. which, if any,
below)
figure
it
is
not
necessarily
relative to some unspecified function of a jail.
5 A
B +~-4
K
L
N
L
D
C
F 3E J I H
G
2 Footprint Type D The Initial Goal With this exercise in
this
branch a
case
I hoped to discover the universality
'jailor's
library exercise,
'jailor's
understanding
entrance.' of
reviewing
In
entrance.'
I was struck by I
if
wondered
this type of
entrance.
of a particular type:
protocols
Benny's description other
designers
I therefore
from
the
original
of an entrance would
showed
my
share
as his
participants
Footprint Type D, which was the same footprint that Benny had seen, and asked them
to
tell me
which
entrance
they
52
considered
a 'jailor's entrance.'
Would
different
designers
have
understood?
Would
characteristic
of
appropriate.
An
arrive
at
the
might
discover
but
arrive
can
same
entrance,
of
select
the
would
rules the
from
type's
providing
different
how
this
varying ideas
nature
about
designers
differing designers
at
yet
different
conclusions
selecting
have
of this
apply
different
while
that
jailor's
conceptions
designers
observation
designers
confirm
different
a
differing
selections,
similar
same
type
might be
entrance
as
the
same
entrances.
Such
yet
for
still I
their
observation
can apply the same rules from the
different conclusions
that
Conversely
reasoning an
being
notion
type,
significance. similar
be
of what
confirm the
might
would
same type
about the type's significance.
Results This
exercise
participants an
was
very
successful
in
achieving
seemed to understand the question,
of what might be characteristic
When
was
entrance,
he
Six.
asked
which
selected number six
of
and
they're
in
All
of
the entrances
revealed
he
considered
a
saying:
the jail,
being real comfortable entrances.
you
don't
If these people are worry
about
them
So I would say six.
When Linda was asked the question she said:
Six.. .Because
its narrow.
Its the only little bitty angle like that.
There's a solid wall, I assume, that's right on both sides of it.
MN and KL either side of six.) They look like they'd be solid.
(Legs
I guess this is solid and so is this. It looks like it would be narrow and
creepy.
53
the
of a 'jailor's entrance.'
If this was a jail, well I don't know.
criminals
goal.
and all of the answers
understanding Darin
its
jailor's
Well
before
being
entrance
might
be
a
considered
jailor's
Lora said:
entrance,
Number six is out.
When
which
asked
she
was
appropriate
later
Unless its a prison.
asked
to
explain
what
made
entrance
number
six
for only a prison she said:
Well because, service
entrance.. .it looks
door.
We
this, but
its
personally
wide
It doesn't have much of an entry statement a entry
and why should you have shouldn't really
you
for a
about wide enough
like its just
a scale for
don't have a door.
enough for
It has this.. .it seems like a
its the smallest entry.
have
don't necessarily
mean you
celebrate...I
I mean
statement to the jail?
to celebrate the entrance to a jail.
three
The number
who
participants
engaged
'not
that
therefore,
understandings
these
'small,'
'narrow,'
comfortable,'
the
'a
selected
characteristics
shared
all
of a
entrance were very It
entrance.'
service
designers
different
concerning
all
Their reasons for its selection
six as the jailor's entrance.
similar:
in this exercise
a
seems, of
number This
'jailor's entrance.'
is
not as much because they all chose the same entrance as it is because of their These findings
similar reasoning. universality
for
some
illustrate
that
entrance
reference
in
the
entrances
one
two
as
entrance
provided
types
some
have a
designers.
It is interesting to note, however, that Benny,
and
at least
control
original jailor's
and
gave
branch
who made the
library
exercise,
entrances.
He
a
idea of
54
user no
reasoned what
initial jailor's selected
that
both
the jailor's
he or
she
was
coming
into
on
entrances three
the
interior
of
the
building.
and six as his favorite entrances.
I would always try to put the entrance two middle positions (three at
the
end.. .seem
like
Further,
he
selected
both
He said:
somewhere in one of those
and six) because the peninsular pieces
good
places
to
use,
not
for
moving
(through).
Benny's
favorite
participants
considered
entrances
one
were
favorites
the
selected
entrance to
and two,
entrance
be
which
of the
number
reversed
the
two
Benny
as
included
jailor's
what
entrance
considered
other three
number one as her favorite. completely
locations
to
favorite,
other
(number be
participants.
their
the
six).
Darin
Lora
clear
whether
characteristics implement
of
considerably This
type,
from
the
stems
entrance,
of what would be a jailor's
from
or
disagreements
from
disagreements
of a jailor's entrance,
type
and
the other
three
can
entrance
how
it
should
entrance
While it is
concerning about
the
how
to
it is clear that Benny's be
implemented
varied
participants.
two characteristics
understand and share
of types.
First
it is seen that
a great deal of information about
Within a given culture, to a least some extent, there are universal
Second but
a jailor's
illustrates
designers
some types. types.
of
exercise
different
reversal
similar characteristics
understanding
Linda
Thus Benny and the other three participants were
in their appreciations
this
and
selected
and what would be the best 'non-jailor's' entrance for the footprint. not
Also,
the jailor's entrances,
Both
while
three
have
it is seen that different designers can have similar labels for a radically
different
understandings
labels.
55
of the
significance
of
these
The Dream Library Exercise To
further
between
different
Participants might them
study
be
the
designers,
given
this
create
a
'dream'
as
were
he or
would
considered
significant
she was
was
asked
to
branch
opposed
to dream,
limitations
exercise
of a perfect
participant be
and
another
exercise
characteristic
to
applicability
to
instead
imagine
vision.
categories
thesis.
describe
By the
of type
this
emphasis
to establish
of having
for
and
The
'real'
allowed
concept
developed
library.
a
of the
what
was for
allowing categories
imposed
by
the that the
exercise.
The Initial Goal As with the previous exercise, I hoped to get information a
number
of
questions
concerning
the
applicability
and
that would answer limitations
concept of type.
Do types have a fullness that is understood between
designers?
kind of information
What
might designers share
of
the
different
about types?
Results This exercise was very successful in achieving its goal. understood answers. and
the
the
question and, in some instances,
were
The participants all
able to provide extensive
The results of the exercise also illustrate differences more
experienced
palate of what the
dream
designers
rich
provided
designers. library
might
The
lay
include,
designer
had
while the
between the lay a very
novice
and expert
descriptions.
Linda, for example, said that the branch library would have: A lot of space.. .a lot of...maybe a lot of glass with a lot of light coming down.
Comfortable seating...some secluded
56
limited
areas that you
can read (in).
Maybe even a loft.. .something like that where you
could.. .just the
reading
rooms.. .with
comfortable
seating.
Lora said that the branch library would be:
Very light with windows.. .lots of natural light.
Some sort of courtyard or acceptable outdoor space to read (in).
Something
that
was,
well,
its hard to monitor...I concentrate
in libraries that are not too quiet. not usually
I like a lot of stuff going on, but
lots of kid stuff going on.
little bit more secluded and happening.
You
best
for noise,
So the children's
but circulation
know, the circulation
area a
is also in there
is more integrated
in
with all the rest of the area.
No
plastic
furniture.
Doesn't need
to have
but
a row of pods where
to
seclude
have
yourself
pods.. .not necessarily
away
from
other
opportunity to not be that way too.
you
can
people,
plastic cubical completely but
still
pods,
go
and
have
the
Like the Exeter library...those
are pretty nice - those chairs - but, cause they have a window and a desk to work at.
The great thing about that library too is that
you can see outside the window.. .not just when you sit down, but they have
seating that faces the window and they have very low
sills in the Exeter library which I really love because you can sit down and it doesn't limit your view from
waist high or from just
below eye level up to the sky...your allowed to see what happens
Linda
below too.
That's nice.
and
agreed
Lora
library might include.
on virtually
every
aspect
of
It would have good and plentiful
and include a secluded area.
what
dream
branch
light, lots of windows,
It would also have a 'special' area.
57
a
In Linda's case
this
special area was a loft space while in Lora's case the special area was a
courtyard. It can be concluded, that is understood
therefore,
that the 'branch
library' type has
a fullness
between at least some different designers, and that designers
share a great deal of information about some types.
Within a given culture, to
at least some extent, there are universal types.
Lay, Novice, and Expert As noted exercise
earlier,
understood
and
differences, however, provided libraries.
elaborate
all of the participants who were
able
to
were given the dream library
answer
the
in the depth of their answers. and rich
descriptions
of what
question.
There
were
Linda, and especially Lora would be
included
in
their
Darin, on the other hand, understood the type, but quickly exhausted
his list of what might be included in the library.
He said:
Well, if you were going to have some ... I wouldn't say atmosphere, but
you
wouldn't
boring.. .which their
When
want
the
place
is hard to do because
to
be
real
drab
libraries are not known
and for
excitement.
Organized.
Have it clean.
pressed
say what he thought
to
'drab and boring,'
Good location.
might prevent
a library from
becoming
Darin said:
Well I don't know.. .just maybe...livelier colors. deco library.
Mainly.. .pretty much colors.
can think of.
58
Maybe like an art
That's about it - all I
This
difference
in
depth
of understanding
between the lay, novice,
of the
and expert designers.
type
indicates
a difference
Certainly both Linda
and Lora
had a more complete understanding of the type than Darin. While it might be concluded that expert designers
will always have
a deeper
knowledge of a greater number of types than will lay or novice designers, a conclusion may be incorrect. which
the
study
group's
either the novice might give him the
other
kind.
expert
a more complete
participants,
might
neither
shown
that there
would
possess
For example,
understanding
of whom
the exercise been
have
to describe
greater
more
expertise
type
interest
a 'dream' than
knowledge
his interest
of the
expressed
are certain types of
either
in basketball
'gymnasium' in
than
than
sports
of any
gymnasium,
the lay
the novice
or
the
and
are
designer.
- Case Three The
designer
or expert designer.
Thus, had
designer
lay
It is probable
such
- Rules Derived
From
Types
Problem Participants
are
given
Footprint
Type
D
(reference
figure
below)
told that it is for a building of no particular type.
They are then asked to say
which
to
of the
behind
its
actually which
entrance
selection.
The
they
prefer
and
are
then
participants
for an inner-city retail electronics store. of the
entrance
behind its selection. suburban prefer
locations
branch
locations
they
prefer
explain
told
that
They
and
to
their the
reasoning
footprint
is
are then asked to say explain
their
reasoning
Finally the participants are told that the footprint is for a
library.
They
are
then
asked
and to explain their reasoning behind its
59
to
say
selection.
which
entrance
they
5 A
B +-4
K
L
N
D
L
C
11
3 2 Footprint Type D The Initial Goal If, as Sch6n expect when
to
and Porter argue, rules are dependant on types, then I would
see
participants
change
their
the building type is changed.
particular
type
I
can
location
and how this
decision
to
library
use
an
discover
Also,
a
retail
for
entrance
location
by starting with a building of no
participant's
tacit preference
inner-city
preferences
informs
tacit
preference
for
entrance
his or her other choices.
electronics
store
was made because of their radically different
and
a
suburban
The branch
functions and settings.
Results This clearly
exercise
was
understood
quite
the
successful
questions,
Only Darin seemed confused, When
asked
footprint building She
and as
was
electronics entrance.
what
which
'retail
then
that and
of building
and
not
its
goals.
require
she
had
location
she
preferred,
selected
entrance
the type was
did
achieving
Participants
additional
directions.
and then only momentarily.
entrance
space'
told
store,
type
and
in
asked
was if
She said:
60
being the
assigned
number changed
change
to
Linda five to
effected
an
the
'anonymous'
referred as
her
to
favorite.
inner-city her
the
retail
selection
of
Yes.. .you have to consider vandalism and walk outs. going to want to put the entrance parts of the store or the space. central looks to be six. I like three
better.
And so you're
where its very visible from all And with that in mind the most
Maybe three.
Because from
Three might be better.
Yeah
three you can see every place.
Four's a little bit obscured from three, but that's all.
You can have
some kind of security there and you'd probably be OK.
Linda
was
library
then
told
that
and was asked
the building
was
changing
to
a
if the change effected her selection
suburban
branch
of entrance.
She
said:
Yes - two.
Because this big area back here (Rectangle ANCB
in
which entrance choices four and five are located) would be a good place to be quiet and be away from everything. area
could
reception
be
area...good
for stacks
select the
or
magazines,
an inner-city retail
must be 'visible
entrance
something.
opening part.. .with
or circulation,
When the type was that entrances
storage
location which
Two
looks
a lot
of space behind
was
changed
to
suburban
a
good
parts of the
store'
and proceeded
she felt best satisfied this rule.
a branch
library
retail.
Linda
which
had
retail electronics Linda's types
from
not
been
applicable
store, led her to select
case clearly which
they
when
applied
derived.
61
building
This rule
the
was
an
rule
area.
that This
inner-city
entrance number two.
supports the contention are
the
to
When the building
entrances should be located such that they are remote from a 'quiet' rule,
it
store Linda applied the rule
had not been important when the building type was type
like
reading areas.
electronics
from all
One and six...that
In
that rules are dependent on the
each
instance
when
the
type
was
changed,
the
rules
that
led
to
her
ultimate
selection
of
an
entrance
also
changed. Lora was given the same exercise as Linda. look
at
the footprint
favorite. retail
When
a house and
to
select entrance
number one
as her
she was told that the type was being changed to an inner-city
electronics
selection,
as
Her tacit decision had been to
store,
and
was
asked
if
this
change
effected
her
entrance
she said:
Yes!
Definitely.
... An electronics
store.
Well chances
are if they're going to have
any windows at all they're going to pretty darn small.
... for
crime
reasons...for
security
inner-city
is there
particular
kind of inner-city
some
sort
reasons.
of connotation
So...when
you
of inner-city
say
like
a
or like Boston?
If it were Harlem maybe this was the entrance...number six.
OK,
Definitely...no matter what three is usually a lousy choice if
you have other choices.
Forget three...so three and six are out.
... Ok well, I would say that five is the best entrance on this one because
you
get
the
most
store
frontage
area.. .you
have
the
potential for store front plus they can sell this little...
... Well there's the street, along the top of the sheet. entrance
there,
you have the most
area
You have your
for store front,
and just
enough for some sort of a reception or check out area and then all this sales area for the rest of this form.
Plus you either have the
opportunity
or different
layer
system
to
have
some
like trees,
sort
benches,
62
of
park
that
sort of
layer..urban
stuff (in
the
area
outside of ANK).
Or you could potentially build-up in there too to
make more of a street front line along in there.
When
told that the type was being changed
and asked if this change effected her entrance
It
definitely
will
effect
my
entrance
to a suburban
branch
library,
selection, Lora said:
selection,
although
I may
pick the same entrance again, I don't know.
Well, if its in a suburban area and its a library then you definitely want a library to be friendly.
So everybody will want to come in.
So your going to really want to play up the entrance to a library...
... Well this way the potential sort. the
(number) two entrance
for this one has the
of being kind of a cutesy little formal entrance
of some
And libraries a lot of times can have pretty formal faces to street.. .little civic buildings or something.
... the entry is going to be very important to a branch library, and its going to want to be slightly more formal than a house entry or a retail entry or something like that. hard to make
that work ... too
So this is going to be too
hard to make four polite.
So, and
three is of course always out.
I think this one, lets pick number two.
Like Linda, Lora's rules are dependent on the type she is referencing. the type changed
from
rules about security,
house to
store
inner-city
retail electronics
she
applied
frontage, urban streets, and urban land usage.
None
of these rules was used when the type was a house. changed library,
from she
an
once
inner-city again
retail
changed
electronics
her
63
rules
Similarly, when the type
store
about
store
When
to
entrance
a
suburban
branch
locations.
Rules
about
'friendliness'
important branch
for
and formality
either
of
the
of entrance,
other
types,
which
were
were
not mentioned
important
for
the
as
suburban
library.
This example also shows Lora's expert designing to be different from the lay and
novice
clearly
designing
understood
complex
as
density
of
other
the concept
she broke
and ghetto.
participants.
While
of 'inner-city,'
the concept
into
Lora's
at least
area while the second
level,
other
the type
into
participants.
Thus,
indicated
entrance
security
that
concerns.
however,
was not evident
Lora
number
When
the
security
also
interesting
more high
implied a densely built-up
'ghetto,' implied not only a densely built-up area,
levels
when
was
levels of meaning:
but also an area that would be subject to a high incidence of crime. to break
participants
understanding
two
The first level, 'high density,'
the
six
might
a
protocols
possible the
proper
site
was
not
was diminished
and
entrance
that
the
of the other
ghetto
be
told
concern
considered
in the
district,
choice
in
a
This ability
she
because
ghetto
number
of
district, five
was
selected. It is entrances would
three
they
and
serve
six as
to note were
so
appropriate
that Lora's strong
rules
that
entrance
she
about the stated
locations.
possible use
under Her
no
of
condition
statement
about
as a possible entrance in a ghetto district, however,
would
entrance
number six
seem to
indicate that the strongest rule,
transcend
type, may be subject to change if the type changes.
64
even when consciously
manipulated to
*Case
Four
An
example
illustrated
in
-
explaining
design
During
how various
work
this
particular
the an
on
exercise
axes he had drawn
site plan (reference Sketch 1 below).
Process
Seeing-Moving-Seeing
the
and
discovery
of
Gilbert's
exercise.
library
and
Discovery
seeing-moving-seeing expanded Gilbert served
had
version been
to organize
of
process the
is
branch
sketching
and
features of the
When asked where he planned to locate a
site feature he said:
I haven't gotten there yet.
I'm establishing
(in Sketch 1) what I
think is already given on the site based on what we've done.
Sketch 1 - Gilbert Gilbert, who had been using many layers of tracing paper, used the sketch to serve as
a summary
of his previous
65
sketching and designing.
He began a
new move experiment as he placed a clean piece of tracing paper over Sketch 1 and started to new sketch (reference Sketch 2 below).
(Draws
four
circles to
connected...adjoining. plan
that
directions to
way,
something
that
If
that
(a))
These
would
all be
its adjoining, its either adjoining
in my
way
or that way.
(Draws
arrows in
from the dot in the lower right corner (b))
respect
nodes
indicate nodes
He said:
the to
field
that
organize
I've
it and
laid
down.
that's
what
diagonally and horizontally (c)) means
they
have
to
be
You I've
have
used.
(the client in the exercise)
the
assumption
wouldn't be
that
it
is
architecturally
not
anything more than
I'm going to
have
(Connects
By adjoining, I'm not sure connected
arcade or whether it could be a door through a wall. they
three
haven't said,
an
But since
I'm going to make
architecturally an arcade.
with
connected.
All
It
I know at this
juncture...oh yeah!
That starts working!
there,
(Draws star where diagonal axes intersect (d))
Mega-node.
Look what we're getting
C
b C
Sketch 2 - Gilbert He then placed another piece of clean tracing paper on top of sketches 1 and 2 and began a new
sketch (reference
Sketch 3 below) saying:
66
(Places
a fresh sheet of tracing paper over the previous sketches.
Traces
grid
(a).
Labels
position
of library,
feature he had been asked about.) an event (c). (d).
events and
This is the library (b).
site
This is
I'm going to tie this in with the entry in some way
This is the (site feature) (e).
a
bZ
Sketch 3 Gilbert
began
summarizing
his
both visually then placed thereby
the
by
reflecting
previous
apprehended a clean
initiating
piece
a new
on
Gilbert
-
Sketch
designing
1, which
and
it and judged
drawing. the quality
of tracing paper move
he had drawn In
seeing
of its
the
as way
of
sketch
he
configuration.
over it and began
He
a new sketch,
experiment.
As he progressed with Sketch 2 he explained that he was drawing the site's nodes
(shown
lines and sort he
by
circles)
arrows).
along
with
their
possible
connections
He explained that by putting elements
could understand
the materials of the problem.
into
(shown
'fields'
by
of this
His move experiment
was evidently one whereby he explored where to best locate the site feature he had been asked about.
As he paused and reflected on the sketch, he saw that his
67
move
had
must
have
pattern the
been
affirmed
matched
a
as he discovered pattern
with
which
that gave him access to much
drawing.
The implications
the
Gilbert
Gilbert's seeing.
case
continuing
the
mega-node
already
familiar:
a
of the discovery
were immediately (Sketch
3)
incorporated
and located the site
asked about.
illustrates
After completing
was
The
more information than could be seen in
into his designing, as he began a new sketch feature he had initially been
'Mega-node.'
the
process
Sketch
of
discovery
3 he continued
seeing-moving-seeing
process;
on to
making
and
seeing-moving-
a new sketch thereby
new
discoveries
as
he
designed.
-
Case
-
Five
Protocol
- The
Check
Influence
of
Orientation
The Exercise Exercise footprints
Number Five is composed (reference
figures
of a number of primary
and
secondary
below).
6
AN M N
5
555
#B
A
T6 M
6
E
2
F
1L 4
M
K
N
Footprint Type A
C
C L
2
FootprintType D Primary Group
68
-4
F
3 EH G
D
N K
1 H
T 3
D
F J
B
A
B
A
# CD
K
5
G I
J
2
FootprintType E
E 3
6 AB
A C
B 6 E
H
M 2E
D
G
4
F
oG
P L
J
3
L M K
G
H
L
K
5
D C
N
F
N
M
I2 2
t
3 FootprintType C
Footprint Type B Secondary Group exercise
This
the
throughout
consists
of
parts
five
individual
In
each instance
other exercises.
which
scattered
are
shown one
are
participants
of the footprints and told that it is for a building of no particular type. are then street
might
footprints
be
the
throughout
located. exercise
was
It process
hoped
the
from the primary group
are
identical
introduced
not
only
by
scattering
would to each
fail
the
to
see
footprints that
the
other, but rotated on
which consists of variations on the for
the
information
on
entrance
primary
group,
selection
it might provide, but also to further reduce the participant's ability to
remember
was
that
participants
The secondary group,
sheet of paper.
the
and to say where north and a
to select their favorite entrance
asked
They
the configuration
of the
footprint
in the primary
group.
The Initial Goal I in
speculate
the past,
participants' example,
that
that
when the
the orientation
approaches
do some
original
to,
and
branch
of the
footprint on
eventual
designers tacitly
decide
69
library
solutions that north
exercise has been
given
the
sheet has influenced
for,
the
problem.
must be up?
For
Do they
decide that a street must be orthogonal to the building plan? questions
this
exercise
might
provide
information
that
By testing these
could
improve
manner in which future exercises with plans are designed and conducted. noteworthy,
however,
that
by Porter and Sch6n, the sheet
presentation
on
the
original
branch
library
results were not dependent upon
created a prejudice
exercise
the It is
conducted
whether or not the
in a participant's mind.
Limitations of the Exercise While conducting first the
limitation primary
this exercise two major limitations became
deals
group,
decision to select
with while
the the
participants' second
recognition
deals
with
a
of the
evident.
The
footprint
from
participant's
conscious
a different entrance location because of 'boredom.'
By the time the third variation (Footprint Type E) of the primary group was shown,
the participants
recognized
but rotated on the sheet.
it as
a footprint
they had previously
When shown Footprint Type E, Darin said:
... this is...isn't this the same drawing as the one I saw before...they look
identical...
At the end of the exercise he asked:
The first, third, and fifth drawings (Footprint Types A, D, and E the primary
group)
were the same
weren't they?
When shown Footprint Type E, Linda said:
Looks like one I've already seen.
When Lora was shown Footprint Type D (the last in her series), she said:
70
-
seen,
This
seems
around
just
aren't
the
same
only
that
think
you're
just
twisting
it
you?
... Are they almost the same? what
I
Are you just rotating them?
Is that
means?
... Number one!
Its just the same as number one...I knew you were
just rotating it on the page to see if I'll make.. .to see if my thought process is consistent...I
think that's probably
what he's doing.
Lora, who was given the exercise after Linda and Darin, was only shown two footprints from the primary group (Footprint Types A and D). was
made
Darin
had
because
during
recognized
that
on the sheet of paper.
the
footprint's
they
were
second
however,
presentation
shown the
same
both
Linda
footprint
and
rotated
By eliminating the third rotation I expected Lora to fail
to notice that she was actually Interestingly,
being
third
This adjustment
she
being asked questions
noticed
it
as
the
about the same footprint.
same
very
quickly
during
its
presentation.
Another
possible
limitation
of this exercise
is
seen through
Lora's
words
and actions when she says:
The
thing
is
is that I'm
bored
with naming
that long
side
the
entrance.
Of course the reasons
for selecting
so, than the actual entrance with
selecting
the
entrance
an entrance
selected. on
are as
Thus, even
the
'long
side'
important, if not more
though Lora became and
therefore
'bored'
changed
her
selection, it is possible to study the reasoning behind her new selection to see if her design
thinking
particular
entrance
also changed. chosen,
This study indicates
Lora's
71
reasoning
for
that regardless of the selecting
an
entrance
remained consistent for all of the footprint types. earlier, was consistently driven of a central When
to perceive
'bored'
with attached
and changed
to
and reason upon this spatial
Linda also recognized different
by her perception
rectangle (KJED)
she became
orientations.
Her
they both
rotated
'plug-on pieces' entrance
sheet
in
contributed
to
she
continued
however,
is
her less
less
pronounced
on and looked at it from a number of
For example, when
manner
much
It is interesting that both Darin and Lora rotated
the sheet as
this
(IHGF and ABCN).
number one,
they were
given Footprint Type A,
a part of their process,
same view they would later see as Footprint Type D. the
gestalt composed
gestalt.
recognition,
each sheet that the footprint was drawn orientations.
of a spatial
that she might be being shown the same footprint at
than that of Darin and Lora.
different
This reasoning, as discussed
and
thereby
pronounced
create
the
thereby
producing
the
That Linda did not rotate alternate
acknowledgment
of the
views
may
similarities
have in the
plans. When
asked why
she was rotating the sheet during her design process, Lora
said:
Because.. .I imagine three dimensions
that this
is a simple
form.
I imagine
as a simple, just blocked out form
it in
and what
it
would seem like when you approached this one.
When asked how this helped her she said:
Well
it
probably similar
helps
me
imagine
a similar instance entrance, or what
a
real
place.
of approaching I might
perceive
I
think
a building that has as
a
a similar entrance
in terms of the whole form and then I put myself there.
72
about... like
Rotating the sheet helped Lora to enter a 'felt-path' what it was like to actually approach the building. scene
with a type already
mode
where she imagined
She compared this imagined
known to her to see if the proposed entrance
would
meet her criteria for a good entrance.
Results Despite
the
limitations
still possible to obtain Lora's
protocol,
and
surprises
encountered
the type of information
for example,
indicates
in this
it was
which was originally sought.
that the orientation
on the sheet does not necessarily influence all designers. at least partially
exercise,
of the footprint
In Lora's case this is
attributable to her process of rotating the sheet on which the
footprint is drawn. appear with each
The fact that the alphabetic
and numeric designations that
footprint did not read correctly
on the rotated
sheet did not
appear to effect her design process. Linda, footprint
on
the other hand,
on the
sheet.
was greatly
Regardless
influenced
by the
of the footprint
orientation of the
type under
consideration,
she always selected the top of the sheet for the direction of north.
At one point
she
even
referred
This comment
to
herself
probably
as
stemmed
a
'traditionalist'
from
her
when making
knowledge
the
selection.
that design professionals
typically locate north to the top of the sheet on their drawings. Linda's the
selections
primary
group
of preferable
may
also have
Footprint Types A and D longest
leg
of the
For Footprint
During her reasoning
E,
been
exterior
however,
she
for Footprint
locations
influenced
she selected the
building's
Type
entrance
selected
Type
73
by
entrance
(entrances
for the sheet
within
orientation.
For
which was located on the
four
and
an entrance
E she
footprints
indicated
five on a
respectively). narrow
why she
leg.
had not
selected
the entrance on the longest leg by referring to the leg as 'too wide.'
This process In
an inconsistency
in her design
reasoning.
addition to possible effects of footprint orientation,
might
have
Although
been
she
architect. type
indicates
a result of her lack of professional
has worked
interior designer,
inconsistency
architectural
she has not
This notion,
Darin's protocol.
worked
however,
is not
supported
by
footprint his
selected
the
entrance
on
the
longest
leg of the
on
the
entrance
sheet
never
selections
influenced
was
his
selection.
also consistent
as each
slightly different words, that the longest leg would 'probably space.'
Again,
attributable footprints This of
to
were
the
in
protocols,
manner
drawn,
in
which
he
rotated
studying them from
Orientation of The
time
reasoning
he
said,
in
give you the most
presentation
in
orientation
which
a designer
however,
indicate
design
approaches by
no
sheets
on
may be influenced
exercises.
of the footprint
that
the
which
the
a variety of orientations.
illustrates that some designers
illustrates that the manner
building
it is possible that Darin's consistency may be at least partially
exercise
graphic
of
Darin, who is only in his early teens and has no professional
experience,
behind
as an
the results
each time the footprint in the primary group was shown to him. the
experience.
It is possible, therefore, that she has not developed a facility for this
of problem.
design
as an
Linda's
the
Certainly on the
design
means
does
Linda's
sheet can
task.
by methods protocol
influence
Lora's
orientation
the
and Darin's influence
all
designers.
Lay, Novice, and Expert An different
unexpected levels
of
result
of
designers
this dealt
exercise with
74
the
was
the
task.
manner
in
Within the
which
the
exercise
the
participant
was asked
road might be.
to look at each footprint
and to say where
north and a
When Darin was asked this question for the first time he paused
and said:
There's no way to know.
His reasoning was the same for all of the other footprint types.
In no case did
he say where north or a road might be.
Linda, on the other hand, located a
road and north for each of the footprints.
In each case she located north to the
top
of the
sheet
and
put
a
road
contained
her selection
of entrance
north
each
footprint
for
than Linda. effecting
of the
In each
the building
in
the
front
location.
types,
of
Lora
but in
the
building
face
also
located
a road
a significantly
different
which
manner
instance Lora gave extensive
consideration to the factors
and the site.
while considering Footprint
At one point
Type B she said:
If this is the entry.. .if private
part
number six.) to
want
to
of
the
three is
space,
the entry
perhaps.
then
(The
this is the more
area
around
entry
And the more private parts you are probably going have.. .oh.. .then
again
it depends
you want a lot of east/west exposure or not.
on climate
whether
Its too hard to control
it, so.. .I will either put north here or here. (Either at four or at one.) the
And, if its here...then sun goes this way...in the west.. .so in morning
(mutters).
they're
not
going
to
get
any
kind
of
exposure
But its the same.. .its pretty much the same thing only
you get morning and no afternoon. put a courtyard here (area around to be north.
and
Oh!
Well my goodness.
I've
entry number two), so this has
(To the right hand side of the sheet at entry four.)
Because (the area around) two is a courtyard.
75
reasoning is complex
Lora's
of many factors:
it is only after careful consideration climate,
daylighting,
interior
differences
information,
When she does pick north
and comprehensive.
exterior
and
each of
between
lighting of private
areas,
From
above
features.
of designer can
levels
the three
the
be
Darin maintains that it is not possible to solve the problem and therefore
seen.
For Linda and Lora, however, the problem is
does not attempt to find a solution. solvable.
Apparently of
understanding
previously
schemata
more
experienced
which
is
not a
Salient features of the problem
design world. experienced
some
these
designers elude the lay designer. dealt
with problems
method of solution.
designers
part
of
conventions
top
sheet,
and
lay
to the
more
It is possible that Darin has not
of this sort
very rigidly
regardless
without
as
of where
consideration
of
an
designer's
and has therefore
not developed
Linda, in contrast, has developed a method of solution.
follows the
located
the
that are apparent
method, however, relies on conventions of the profession.
of the
possess
she
consistently
her entrance functions
Her
In this exercise locates
north
to the building
potentially
a
she
to the
has been
occurring
within
the building.
In her case it might be said that 'a little knowledge is dangerous.'
In summary,
the lay designer did not have the knowledge to solve the problem,
the
novice
expert had
-
Case
The
had
an
inappropriate
an extensive
Six
- Protocol
knowledge
and appropriate
Check
- The
solving the
for
knowledge
Influence
problem,
and the
for solving the problem.
of Scale
Exercise Participants
are
shown Footprint
Type
D
asked to select their favorite entrance location. dimension of leg HG might be.
(reference
figure
below)
and are
They are then asked what the
No dimensions or scale indications are provided
76
with the
footprint,
the problem
so the
participants have
itself for determining
no clues
the dimension
beyond
the
of the leg.
materials of
Participants
are
then told that the dimension is actually thirty feet and are asked if this change effects fifty
their entrance
preference.
feet and are asked
Finally
they are told that the dimension
if this change effects
their entrance
is
preference.
5 A
B +4
K
L
N
L
D
C
F J\IE H
3
G
2 Footprint Type D The Initial Goal With
this
exercise
I
hoped
information
should be included
or
graphic
similar
dimensions exercise,
or
a
how might
discover
whether
or
not
dimensional
in design exercises that make use of footprints
information. scale?
to
Do
participants
If dimensional
it influence
need
to
information
is
a participant's design
be
given
provided
specific with
the
work?
Results In
addition
to
providing
described
above, the
the
novice,
and
did not
require
lay,
designers
expressed curiosity
information
which
spoke
to
the
initial
goals
results of this exercise also illustrated differences between expert
designers
a dimensions
in
the
group.
or a scale.
Novice
Although
and
expert
they frequently
about scale, they seemed to have a good tacit understanding
77
The lay designer, however, experienced difficulties due to
of what it might be. lack of dimension
the
information.
When Darin was asked what the dimension of leg HG might be he said:
You
There's really no way of knowing what scale this is drawn to. really
When that
say.
can't
this
dimension
would
apply
also
to
the
choice
of
dimension
did
not
footprint's
other
Given legs,
similar
It is probable, however, that his
Darin's choice of nine feet is far too small. poor
would be nine feet.
he said that the dimension
pressed further
influence
design
his
thinking:
never
it
occurred to him to consider how the small dimension of leg HG also created a building
with
tight spaces
Darin's
process
understanding Linda
was
of
and
an extremely
methodologically
low
total
consistent
and
Thus
square footage. not
effected
by
his
dimensions.
decided that
the dimension
would
be twenty feet.
When
asked to
explain why she had selected the dimension she said:
I'm
Because
still
thinking
store front
I guess.
(It
would)
Be
enough for a door and some glass and some display maybe.
Although
this
requirements,
hardly
represents
extensive
reasoning
about
the
it is substantially more than was used by Darin.
Lora was asked what the dimension would be on two occasions. occasion she had considered the footprint to be for a house. the
question
building's
On the first
She reflected on
saying:
I'm thinking
about what goes in an entrance to a house and like
coat closets and maybe half baths and.. .and you don't want it to be
78
too big because you won't have anything to put there. definitely walls?
Are these
(Points to a line of the footprint.)
After
reasoning
feet.
Later in the protocol she was asked the same question, but for a suburban
branch
through
library.
In
the
problem
this instance
she
decided
she decided
on
on
a dimension
a dimension
of
sixteen
of thirty
saying:
I don't know..I'm picturing how big this.. .how big is this? feet?
Twenty five feet?
if
have
we
Twenty
I'm thinking that it might be kind of nice
our check
out area
either here or.. .in Massachusetts
your going to want to have a coat room because you don't want people have
dragging in snow and stuff and so were going to have to an
entrance
here.
(mutters)
although.. .I'm
circulation
desk would
I
guess
trying
we
to
would
think
about
be, and I guess they
in the back of the library ... I've never done
don't
know,
cataloging
and
its fair to
they
probably
wherever the
need
want
where
the
usually need another
space
but
probably
another
librarians work.
a library little
And
stick the librarians in the middle
so I
space
for
I don't think
where artificial
light
is because they're the people who have to be there all day long. think
they
deserve
natural
will be here (at LMN).
light
too.
to put circulation desk
were
enough
scale. like
I think the
librarians
I was thinking that maybe it might even
be possible large
So
I
(she
gestures
in here to
and then
IHGF)... since
and if this
I'm
picking
a
But it would have to be awfully large in order to get things coat
rooms
and
book
shelves.. .you
know
book
cubby
hole
things for people or something to get all the criteria for the entry area of the building and circulation cramped out
desk it might be a little bit
unless you made it absolutely humongous
of our
circulation
branch desk
library
scale.
there.
79
So
were
and then we're
going
to
put the
feet,
Maybe
we
forty,
sixty
can
have
(she
building).. .I don't feet
though,
room.. .if
dimensions
that's
twenty
across
the
really know how much
about
the face
coat
adds
not...maybe.. .twenty across
a
branch five,
library
thirty,
size
If
face
of
room for books.
ninety
of the building).
feet.. .twenty,
isn't
(she
the Sixty
it?
Maybe
adds
dimensions
it gets much
bigger than
thirty what the heck are you going to do with it all?
Thirty
Feet.
Before deciding
on a dimension Lora gave
design factors.
She considered sizes for a variety of functions including coat-
extensive consideration
to numerous
rooms, a circulation desk, work space for the librarians, and shelving.
She also
considered
is
appropriate
more advanced was asked
to
sizes
for
a
branch
library.
Her
and extensive than that of either Darin select a dimension,
located in the library
she thought
reasoning
or Linda.
about what
much
When Lora
functions would be
and how much space these functions would require.
Only
with this process complete was she able to decide on a dimension. The other expert designer in the study group, advanced
type of reasoning
told
the
asked
that
which
than either Darin
footprint was for entrance
location
an
inner-city
he preferred.
Corbin, also illustrated a more
or Linda.
Corbin
retail electronics After he selected
five he was asked to decide on a dimension for leg BC.
was initially
store
and
entry
number
He said:
I think BC would be about 25' and AB, which looks like twice the length of BC would be about 50'. around That
(does
quick calculation
sounds about right.
80
That would make the total store
with
calculator)
3,700 square
was
feet.
Corbin was then told that the dimension of the leg was actually thirty feet and was asked if this change effected his preference for entry five. it did not.
He replied that
When the dimension was increased to fifty feet and he was asked if
this change effected
That's
his preference for entry five he said:
getting
quite
calculator)... 15,000
a
bit
square
larger
feet.
especially in an inner-city. entrance...no,
(does
quick
That's big
calculation
for just
with
a store...and
Still, it could be a big deal...but the
I still like number five.
Corbin used a calculator to figure the total square footage of the footprint based on the twenty-five that in assigning the other legs. square
the
dimensions to
for
was
unchanged.
would
a dimension to one leg he was also assigning
an
inner-city
his proposed sizes
leg
been
He understood
It is probable that he was familiar with an appropriate range of
footages
checking
foot dimension he had proposed for the leg.
It can
included not
increased
have
the
his
preference
of
be concluded
footprints
influenced
electronics
against these known
therefore
with
retail
shown
Corbin's
ranges.
entrance
the
so grows
his or her understanding
Although Linda was able to
he
was
remained
if exact dimensions
participants,
had
the dimensions
preference. level of experience
of scale and dimension.
able to provide little reasoning for his choice building.
that
location
The results of this exercise indicate that as a designer's grows,
and
As the dimension of
entrance
that even to
store
Darin
was
of nine feet for the leg of the
support her decision of twenty
feet, her
reasoning was limited.
Lora and Corbin, on the other hand, provided extensive
and complex
for their
In no approaches
reasoning
way, to,
selections.
however, did Darin's and
understandings
or Linda's lack of reasoning of,
81
the
problem.
It
can
effect their therefore
be
concluded
that
information
is not necessarily a critical piece of data that needs to be provided
with future
exercises
Case
regardless
-
Seven
In addition
grouped
participant's
similar to the original
the major cases
cases
together
a
experience
level,
branch library
dimensional
exercise.
Miscellaneous
to
miscellaneous
of
that
merit
not due to
already
presented,
consideration. any
lack
of
there
These
are also
numerous
miscellaneous
significance,
but
cases
are
they
are
because
discussed more briefly than the previous cases.
Functional Types Sch6n
and
buildings Further
or
(Schin,
have
physical
they
information
claim to
that
environments,
that
supply
stated
functional
or
functional
types
intermediate
parts
consist
of buildings
are
premises
types
used in
or
primarily
chains
of types
of
environments. as
sources
of design
of
reasoning.
1988)
The
results
functional claim.
Porter
types
of
the
in a
exercises manner
show
which
participants
would
to
substantiate
have
made
Schun's
For example, the participants typically viewed an 'inner-city'
where security would be a concern.
use
and
Porter's
site as one
Corbin said:
In an inner-city area security is going to be a prime concern... ... I think the security from the outside would be easy to solve. see lots of roll-down
grills
around here.. .bars
don't like bars.
82
of
You
would work, but I
'Retail
electronics
store'
also carried
implications
for all
of
the
participants.
They knew that such a store would want display area to the exterior, and storage
areas
on the
interior.
security and the monitoring of shoplifting.
... you have
also expressed
Participants
to consider vandalism
going to want to put the entrance
and sales
concern
about
Linda said:
and walkouts.
And
so you're
where its very visible from all
parts of the store or the space.
Similarly Lora said: ... An electronics
store.
Well chances are if they're going to have
any windows at all they're going to be pretty darn small.
... crime
The
reasons... security
functional
meaning
for
types
the
reasons...
'inner-city'
and
participants. access
Knowledge
of
the
store' types
with
shoplifting
which
designing.
Thus Sch6n's and Porter's notion is substantiated.
were
information
electronics
participants
they
to
'retail
then
able
on to
items take
such
and
as
apply
carried
great
provided
the
security
and
to
their
own
References Earlier
it
was
stated
that
particular kinds of buildings. as
either
frequently
positive made use
or
references
may
be
to
particular
buildings
Further it was stated that references can
negative
of references.
examples. When
of her 'dream' library, Lora said:
83
Participants asked
what
in
the
or
serve
exercises
would be characteristic
... the
Exeter
library.. .The great
thing
about
that
library.. .is
that
you can see outside the window.. .not just when you sit down, but they have
seating that faces the window and they have very
low
sills in the Exeter library which I really love because you can sit down and it doesn't limit your view from waist high or from just below eye level up to the sky.. .your allowed to see what happens below too.
The
Exeter
That's nice.
library
design guidance.
serves
same type
work on the about
a specific
for seating and sill heights of behavior
is seen
original branch library
working
reference
which
Lora
refers
to
for
In this instance it provides a positive example as it guides her
design considerations The
as
out
in Gloria's design process
exercise.
the proportions
of a
would build models and do drawings.
of windows. during her
When asked how she would go
particular
space,
she
said
that
She also said that:
... You compare it with places you know.
To give just one example,
which
in
is
local,
courtyard,
the
covered,
one
Gardner
Museum,
Boston,
which
which is just slightly higher than long.
has
a
A lot
of people like that place a lot; it's a real favorite, and it's not just because
of the vegetation,
the facades
are
treated.
which It's
is very
because
beautiful,
of the
and
proportions
the way of the
space, primarily - the space is a vertical one.
In this instance the Gardner Museum
serves as a positive example that Gloria
can use to guide her designing. The results of Gloria's protocol also illustrate how a reference can serve as a negative example.
While designing the roof of her building Gloria said:
I don't know if you want a flat roof, because it would look like a filling station, or a Howard Johnson's, or something like that.
84
In Gloria's
station'
by the references 'filling
world the flat roof, as epitomized
and 'Howard Johnson's,' is something that should be avoided in the design of a suburban Lora's in the
branch
library.
serving
design process,
for design
as guides
are used
the claim that references
substantiate
and Gloria's protocols
The protocols
reasoning.
also show that references can be used as negative or positive examples.
The Felt Path Mode Sch~n
and
that
claim
Porter
used
frequently
are
archetypes
experiential
mode, imagining what it feels like to be
when a designer is the the 'felt-path'
An example of this mode is illustrated in Lora's protocol.
in or around a space.
When asked why she was turning the sheet on which the footprint was drawn, she said:
Because
I'm
... I imagine
thinking
about building
that this
is a simple
approach.
it in
I imagine
form.
three
a simple, just blocked out form and what it would
dimensions as
seem like when you approached this one.
I think about...like probably a
... it helps me imagine a real place. similar
of
instance
building
a
approaching
that
a
has
entrance, or what I might perceive as a similar entrance of
the
whole
form
and
I
then
put
one.. .even though I would not pick
myself
there.
that one (number
similar in terms
Like
this
four).
By
looking at it this way I would not pick four.
In
Lora's
design
world
the
felt-path
mode
is
particularly
enables her to compare a possible design move with a known situation. instance
she
imagines
what
it
is
like
85
to
approach
the
as
important
building
it
In this and
then
compares
this image
experiences.
with her previous
This comparison
provides
her with a basis for negating or affirming a design move.
Design Canons Earlier it was noted that a design canon refers to a set of rules or guidelines that
can
be
example
used
from
a
the
use
illustrates exercise
Gloria,
building,
said:
a
as
reference
protocol of
of
for proportions
the
original
design canons.
when
asked
branch
While
about
branch
circulation
footprint), not quite, and my first inclination
divide
nine
classic.
into
squares.
People write books
The
library for
the
This is almost a square (the
whole original it
further
exercise
on the
interior
An
geometries.
library
working
possible
There are two ways of looking at it.
or formal
nine
square
about this.
is to
configuration
is
It's a typical pattern
of
outdoor space as well, if you look at the analysis of New England town
commons,
beginning
with
New
Haven,
Connecticut,
you
always get this as a starting point.
The
'nine
designing. interior
square Its
formal geometry
should
transformed
configuration'
be
into
arranged.
a 'twelve
is
a design
canon
that
guided her considerations Ultimately
square
this
'nine
Gloria of how
square
configuration'
which
it
for
used
in her
the library's
configuration'
continued
was
to guide her
designing.
Fit and Misfit Earlier
it
was
observed
problem's misfits than its fits.
that
is
easier
This observation
86
designers
to
recognize
correlates with the
a
actions of
all
the participants
they did
preferred,
started
not like.
time to say and easy
example,
While
by
naming and
a
for them
misfit,
when
when
entrance
it from
location
an
location
locations
they
impossibly
long
it was often a relatively
least one element
eliminating
asked which entrance
the
which entrance
the participants
an entrance,
to find at
thereby
asked
eliminating
it might have taken
what was right about
process
constituted
in the exercises who,
of the entrance
the selection
he preferred
quick that
process.
For
for Footprint
Type
D (reference figure below), Darin said:
... well... I know which ones I wouldn't like... ..
don't like number three because its on a corner and you really
don't see it, and number six just doesn't seem like a big enough space ... like
crowding...
5 A
B -+N-4
K
L
N
L
D
C
F J
IE H
G
3
2 Footprint Type D Darin
considered
entrance number three a misfit because of its corner position
where it would not be seen. constricted
space.
Undoubtedly appreciative
Entrance number six was a misfit as well due to its
Darin's
system.
notion
of
what
causes
a
misfit
comes
Based on his past experiences he has come
87
from
his
to appreciate,
for example, that an entrance located in a corner where it cannot be seen, or a crowded entrance
with only a small amount of available space, is bad.
A similar example is seen in the results which entrance
location she liked best
of Lora's protocol.
for Footprint Type
A
When
asked
(reference
figure
below), she said:
OK well, number two is the worst.
... because of a
it's always awkward
Two is out - Five is out.
building because
to have an entrance
- unless you
you
have
additive thing there or its hard to delineate like an entrance
Five looks that. look
in the corner
some
sort of an
something that looks
at two.
like some sort of a service entrance or something
like
Same thing: you're not going to be able to make an entrance viable there.
6 A
B 5
MN C
1-4 K
D E
F
2
4 J
I H
G
3 Footprint Type A Lora needed was
in
entrance,
only one reason to eliminate
a corner, thereby thereby
eliminating
eliminating
it.
88
it,
entrances two and
entry
and five.
five looked
Entry two
like a service
Use of 'Bad' Types Types can be used with methodological 'bad' result.
This 'bad' result, however, is tied directly to the spirit of the time.
What is considered
bad today may have been considered
may yet
be considered
particular
project
when designers their best
precision but still have a potentially
type,
future.
a designer is obviously
Still
when working
on
working in the present.
a
Thus
refer to projects from either the near or distant past, it is in
interest to
appropriated
good again in the
good in the past and
will
be
consider whether
or not the
considered
for the
good
types being
current
referenced
project
and
a
and
modem
time. For branch
example, library
several exercise
of
the
made
designers
reference
who
to
Richardsonian
elements of this reference into their own work designing.
participated
in
the
libraries,
original carrying
and allowing it to inform their
When working on the exercise Clara said that one of her processes
was to supplement
her design with 'different references
to libraries.'
She went
on to say:
... Richardson
is one
for libraries. stories,
of the references
I would use very
I think he does it really well.
though,
so
you
can
begin
-
if
His tend to go two
this
were
a
building, you could begin to add another layer to this. you move in, this would be a stairway. up,
and have
massing,
a whole upper level,
and have shelves up there,
strongly
two-story Maybe
as
You could actually move
and some larger piece of the along
the edge.
you can look out, sometimes you get a work space.
Sometimes
You can move
along that edge, up in the stacks...
Clara work.
used the
Richardsonian
Unfortunately
style of library
her reference
is
89
as a guide
for her
to a style of library that,
own design while
quite
beautiful,
is
no longer considered
design of a modem
appropriate
by
library
for the
professionals
library.
When Richardson
was designing
libraries in
New
England
there were
primary schools of thought about how a library should be designed.
two
The school
that Richardson's work was a part of believed that the stacks of a library should be multi-stored galleries located around a centralized inefficiencies
Problems with this
approach
such as
demise.
The second school of thought, which promoted separate
the
spatial
space.
and poor expansion capacities
accepted standard in library design.
example
of
reference, modem
this style was
she
library.
accessing
an
stacks, became
Widner library at Harvard is an early
Thus,
of design.
led to its
when
inappropriate
Clara used example
Even if she used the type with
the Richardsonian
for the
design
of
methodological precision,
a her
design would still be informed by a 'bad' type. A
designer
quite
correctly
argue
that
there
can
be
no
qualitative
There can, however, be temporary versions of good and bad, and the
absolutes.
designer who modern
may
consistently
context
work.
By
compromise
no
may
makes
be faced
means,
their visions
use of what are considered with
however,
very is
dismal
this
to
of what compromises
prospects
imply
that
bad types for
future
designers
good architecture.
for a design should
It is instead
to say that types should be reflected upon to see if they truly accomplish designer's In
goal.
the above example, it is unlikely that Clara was aware of challenges to
the integrity of the Richardsonian type. might
have
chosen
to be
wished to appropriate. only
the
those
elements
more
If made aware of these challenges she
reflective
about
what
parts of the
type
she
It is possible that her final design would have included of the type
which have
90
not
been challenged
by
modem
library
planning
fenestration adversely and the
in
techniques. Richardson's
effected. gallery:
For
example,
libraries,
her
had she design
Instead, however, she referred exactly
the area where
91
the
the
referred
to
would
not
have
to his placement
reference
becomes
style
of
been
of stacks
inappropriate.
Conclusion
In the introduction to this thesis I discussed a number of reasons important to study design methodology. study
might have
been
weaknesses.
My
methodologies,
but
composed
of a
undertaken,
goal
has
not
No doubt there are many ways that this
each with
its
been
describe
rather to examen
why it is
and
number of complimentary
to
own particular a
strengths
range
of
be critical
of a single
concepts.
In being
and
different
methodology
critical of this
methodology I have attempted to judge both its merits and its faults; to analyze and evaluate
it.
I therefore began by surveying much of the literature on the subject. this
survey
I selected numerous
and proposed
as
one
results
of a number
applied
the findings
used
to
test,
proposed
-Conclusions Within detail the thesis,
approach of case
to design methodology. studies
and
expand
which
upon
I
Next
and others
particular
had
in more detail I analyzed
the
conducted
and
These findings were
propositions
made
About
the section
Design of this
Methodology
thesis entitled
'The
Cases'
I
have
discussed in
results of my analysis of case studies done in conjunction
methodology
proposed studies
in the
methodology.
noting how the results clarify,
these case
which I then studied
to the proposed design methodology.
clarify,
design
concepts
From
in
the
first
expand,
section
are summarized here
92
or deny elements
of this
thesis.
with this
of the design
Conclusions
but without supplementary
data.
about
An extensive thesis.
investigation
It was observed
designers
and that these
of spatial
that spatial
noted
that
at both
although
it may be very
which he
or she
That the
spatial
of this
rather quickly
over the individual
by
elements
and unconscious
gestalts
can
be
level.
Finally
consciously
it was
invoked
by
difficult for a designer to escape the gestalt figure
indicate the
are perceived
problem,
are perceived
a part
initially perceives.
results
they
as
It was also observed that spatial gestalts influence
a conscious
new
designers,
These
gestalts
was done
gestalts take precedence
of which they are composed. a designer's work
gestalts
and
are
power of spatial gestalts
so quickly, so difficult
influence to
escape
in the design
the designer's once
process.
understandings
perceived
illustrates
of
their
power. An
extensive
investigation
of
the
universality
and
cross
applicability
types between different designers was also done as a part of this thesis. discovered
that within
a given culture
for some
designers.
Conversely
refer
to
the
same
type,
type's
contents
and
same
name
describe
to
accompanies
the
but
significance.
name
a
type
may
observed
radically
Thus, which
be
It was
at least some types have a universality
it was
have
of
that different designers
different
understandings
although
two
they
using,
radically
are
different
designers the
for
may
of the use the
information
each
of
may
the
that two
designers. It was also observed from
which they are
type,
typically
changed.
The
that rules about designing
applied.
lose their strongest
Rules, which often appear to be independent of
applicability rule,
are dependent on the types
even
to
when
93
a given
situation
consciously
when
manipulated
the
type is
to transcend
type,
may
be
precedence
subject
over
Discovery
occur
change
if
the
type
changes.
Thus
types
take
was also investigated
as a
rules.
and
the
part of this thesis. process,
to
seeing-moving-seeing
process
It was observed that at least some designers make use of this
allowing
a
gradual
unfolding
and
evolution
of
design
problems
to
in their work.
The
use
of
functional
types,
references,
and
design
cannons
was
observed in the results of the design exercises performed for this thesis. shown,
for
example,
that
references
can
serve
as both
positive
and
also
It was negative
guides for a designer.
The felt-path mode was also illustrated in the results of
the
It was observed
design exercises.
that in this mode a designer imagines
what it is like to be in or around a space and then compares this image with his or her past or present experiences. Notions of fit and misfit were also studied in this thesis. the
participants
standout
and
in
my
design
exercises
are more compelling
misfit
only
required
the
might
have
required
the
substantiated
to designers
identification
of
identification
a
than
single
of an
The processes of all
the fits.
claim
that
misfits
This is because
bad
property
impossibly
long
while list
a
a fit
of good
properties. The use of 'bad' types was also discussed in the thesis. although
there
can
be
no
qualitative
versions of what is good and bad. linked
to
referring
the to
a
tastes type
absolutes,
there
It was noted that can
be
temporary
These temporary versions will necessarily be
and
spirit
of
the
that
is no
longer
time, may refer to a 'bad' type.
94
current
time.
considered
Thus
appropriate
a
designer,
in the
by
current
Finally novice,
a number of observations were made
and expert designers.
differences
about differences
between
lay,
It was noted that current thinking about possible
centers on the notion that the expert knows more than the novice.
For example, it was seen that as a designer's level of experience grows, so grows his or her shown
understandings
to have
more
novice designers. programmatic
of dimension and
complex
and comprehensive
Similarly, knowledge
the expert was
than the
lay
and
While the less experienced designers might see a category of
information
as
effecting
expert might see the same category It was
scale.
only
one
level
of design
as effecting numerous
also observed that for certain design problems
not have the knowledge
to solve the problem,
knowledge
for
the
appropriate
knowledge
solving
observed that expert
for
problem,
and
solving the
the
levels. the lay designer did
the novice had an inappropriate
the
expert
problem.
status does not guarantee
activity,
had
On the
an
extensive
other hand,
it
and was
a designer that he or she will
always have more knowledge than less experienced
designers.
For example,
it
was noted that although the lay designer had a limited palate with reference to some types, other
might have
most
revealing
had a richer palate than
the expert for numerous
types.
Perhaps however, prior
he
in
the study
of lay,
novice,
and expert
designers,
was the lay designer's ability to engage in the design process without
architectural
design
experience.
displayed an innate ability to design.
Despite
his
obvious
limitations,
he
Whether or not the same could be said of
other lay designers is not addressed by this thesis.
95
-
Conclusions that
Given
this thesis,
might
learned
method?
ask
method
effect the overall
was
about
studying
by
What might
experimental
Exnerimental
the
methodology
design
one
was
What
About
study?
through
studied strengths
the
about
the
the character
and
with
methodology
be said
effect
Method
protocol
of the
weaknesses the
lens for
a particular
of the
selected
process?
experimental
How
data collected?
lens.
does
the
How does it
What did I learn about the experimental method?
Results from the Exercises Numerous
aspects of the experimental
method were tested as a part of the
design exercises conducted for this thesis.
Chief among these was a study of the
manner
of
in
exercises
which
might
the exercises inquiry It sheet
graphic
influence
a participant's
was observed, of paper
could
influence
Seen
figures.
to perceive
orientation
the
setting.
from
that
associated
work.
Since
with
the
one
majority
might
spatial
lend
the
gestalt,
itself to
to perceive
footprint
while seen
the
of
this area of
of the footprint
tendency
orientation,
design
importance.
the orientation
a participant's
a particular
footprint
perception
of
the
particular
might from
on
lead
the
a different a
different
gestalt.
Sheet orientation related
design
method is of particular
for example,
participant
spatial
materials
used in this thesis make use of graphic information,
into the experimental
gestalt
located
presentation
unspecified
was also shown elements
For example,
of
to influence
programmatic
one participant's
information
perception
was guided more by the professional
96
how some of the participants
of where
convention
to
the
north
that north
problem should
be
is typically
located to the top of a sheet than by functional the
or aesthetic considerations
of
footprint. Not
all participants
were
influenced by
orientation
of the footprint
sheet of paper. The fact that at least one participant was influenced, indicates
a
limitation
in
should be considered It
was
also
it may not
exercise.
Although
an
design
method.
however,
This limitation
in the design and analysis of future exercises.
observed
exercise,
had
a part of the experimental
on the
that
when
be necessary
graphic
information
to include
a scale
a number of the participants
inadequate
understanding
methodologies
were
of
spatial
internally
is
used in
a design
or dimensions
with the
who engaged in the exercises requirements
consistent
and
and
scale,
their
by
these
unaffected
understandings. A number of the exercises that I developed test the results of previous
research
done at
for this thesis were intended to MIT and
elsewhere.
In several
instances a participant in one of my exercises would more or less replicate the design
behavior
of
conducted
by
upon
results
the
others.
process,
while
can
replicated
be
research design
is
participant
of the
by
important, lends
design
from
a
This replication previous
not tightly
exercises
conducting
a
not
research,
previous
only served it also
controlled or scientific,
other and
researchers. the
replication
credibility
to
research.
97
the
exercise
The
ability
of results protocol
to verify
showed does
which
and
that the
provide to
had been
new
process
as
protocol
results
replicate
from
expand
which
results
in
and previous a
method
of
Limitations on Data Imposed by the Experimental Method for this thesis
data used
The
a number of protocols which
from
is taken
The protocol process has
were conducted both by my self and by others at MIT.
or her to
asking
him
words
and drawings,
success
'think and
out loud'
transcribing
of this process
partially
these recordings depends
however,
that
no
will
participant
or her
into
a written
format.
the participant's
on
ability
completely
report
the
to
It is thinking
Thus protocols may provide incomplete
his or her designing.
that accompanies
his
recording
designing,
while
and complete picture of his or her design thinking.
provide an accurate probable,
are taken by giving a participant an exercise,
Protocols
a designer's process.
The
depiction of
and limitations in its ability to present an accurate
both strengths
data that fails to account for important aspects of the design process. It is also possible that the request of a participant to 'think out loud' may effect his or her design process.
to the A
if this
In any event, it is probable that a
on the data.
effect is of any consequence practice
It is difficult to determine, however,
session for each of the participants might have better acclimated them 'thinking out loud' process. process
participant's
examiner during
might
the testing
also
process.
be
influenced
Even
if the
by
the presence
examiner
does
not
of
an
speak,
there is a strong possibility that his or her presence will effect the participant. When
the
necessarily
examiner be
The structure work.
actively
interacts
with
the
participant,
the
results
will
effected. of the design exercises
may
also effect a participant's design
For example, it is noteworthy that the data for this thesis was taken from
a number of small exercises instead of a single, served the purpose
of directing
the participants'
98
large exercise. attention
Although this
to my specific
areas
of interest, it also forced them to 'jump' about in their designing focusing on a of
variety
design
problems
a
in
A
manner.
predetermined
single,
large
exercise might have come closer in its ability to allow participants to engage in their
design
normal
attention
on my specific
schematic
thesis may have available of
have
also
failed
for this thesis, concentrates
as used
phase
of designing.
an applicability
data will only
might
to
focus
their
areas of interest.
The protocol process, or early
but
processes,
Thus,
to numerous
although
the
on the beginning, findings
of this
parts of the design process, the
support the findings as they relate to the leading edge
designing. This
engaged
study
is
also
limited
in
in the design exercises.
the
number
of participants
who
actually
My approach was to concentrate on data from
a limited number of participants.
By concentrating
in this fashion I was able
to focus on a number of specific areas of interest as they relate to the design process.
A
different
samples
and
examen
approach them
might have for
their
been
to
overall
take a
large number
implications
of
on
design
experimental
method
methodology. Finally
one
of
the more
striking
limitations
of the
used in this study is its avoidance of qualitative design issues. not due to lack of personal
interest, but rather because qualitative issues were
out of the scope of what I wanted to examen. have
required the
of data,
that
might
although
reveal
To have studied these issues would
creation of an exercise whose results could provide the type
of data necessary for the study. type
This avoidance is
My exercises were not designed to provide this
their results
methodologies
do provide
capable
work.
99
of
implications
facilitating
for
high
further study quality
design
Personal Issues Concerning the Experimental Method I found the process of actually
giving design
exercises to participants very
difficult.
It was particularly difficult to ask questions in a way that would not
influence
a participant's
responses.
For example,
in trying
get
to
data that
would allow a detailed study of spatial gestalts, I had difficulty deciding how to a
phrase
question
that
would
a different
some
approach
participant
to
cases,
however,
this
In these
instances
participant.
to
participant
for getting the data, I
the
asking
the
identify
a
gestalt
After numerous trial runs of the exercise, each of which
figure in a footprint. tried
encourage
identify
'geometric did
phrasing
make
the
footprint.
In
question
clear
the
in
patterns'
not
I provided
settled somewhat uneasily on
the
an example
of a possible
to
spatial
gestalt by noting that some of the other participants had noticed a 'W' shape in the
plan.
leading
phrased in this manner,
When
to
the participant.
Lora,
question
however, the
for example,
when
askea
may be very
the
question
and
given the example of the 'W,' diligently tried to locate a letter of the alphabet in the
asked
was clear that the manner in which
It
footprint.
her
influenced
the question
had been
answer.
The question also arises about how and when to interrupt a participant who is working on an exercise. a
Frequently, in
that
process
however,
potentially
interrupt
less
sensed
my In
might
provide
the participant interesting
the participant
which held process.
I
On several occasions a participant would engage in
and
interest?
reviewing
work.
generally
Would
data,
limited
however,
100
interesting
off of this path, and it have
ask him or her to continue I
the
would veer
design
and
relevant
my
there
working
interruptions were
been
many
data. engage
proper in the
to area
of the
design
instances
where
the
interrupting provided
participant
important
Another thing when
a
question
follow-up
the analysis of the protocols
a passage from a protocol
have
is that
a participant's exact words
should
While it is a temptation to paraphrase the participant, it is beneficial
and truer to the process of unbiased analysis to provide quoting, data.
might
information.
I learned in performing
referencing
be used.
asking
and
a reader is given
the original data,
necessarily
Paraphrasing
interjects
and not
the
direct quotations.
of that
an interpretation own
paraphraser's
By
thoughts
and
prejudices. Finally, one of the more revealing results of this study is my recognition of how difficult
be to determine what constitutes
with only one intermediate category.
to describe
for one
established
type
of
design
another type of design knowledge. that
a designer
Gestalts? probable
a lay,
novice, or expert
The range between a lay designer and an expert designer is difficult
designer.
be
it can
Problems for
the
also exist
lay
knowledge
be
inappropriate
for
can it be established
to Experiential
Archetypes or Spatial
in the fact
designer's
may
for example,
When,
is an expert with regard
Also, the boundary that might
that
understandings
this thesis of
indicates
certain
types
it to be
to
surpass
those of the expert. These issues of classification are not raised to argue for the abandonment of the hard
three
categories
of expertise,
and
unyielding
rules when considering
but rather
to indicate that there differing
can be no
levels of designers.
In
order to present findings and to explore concepts, the levels used in this thesis are
reflections
Distinctions
are
of not
each
participant's
made based
experience
on the
participant.
101
perceived
level
within
qualitative
the
profession.
expertise
of the
-
for
and .Oiiestions
Implications
Further from
The line that separates a 'proficient' To
highly
subjective
debate.
This
is
at
subjective
and
are
necessarily
time.
manner. least
enter
partially linked
Study
discussions
into
because to
all
the
is to
of quality
qualitative
tastes
in a
designer is placed
a 'good'
and
invite are
judgements
of the current
spirit
in their own times,
A brief account of artists who were not appreciated
but who are now considered 'good' illustrates the situation. In
the
process
methodologies designers
of
that
executing
might
this
produce
have been raised.
study
a
'good'
number
instead
As noted earlier,
of
of
questions
merely
about
'proficient'
however, testing these questions
is beyond the scope of this study and would require the design of an exercise as well as the assembly of a sample group that might be capable of providing the necessary implications For
data.
Thus
these
for
further
study.
earlier
it was
example,
functional different
types
that
cultures
and
are
questions,
known
regions.
noted and
as
discussed
there
that
may
understood
Exposure
to,
by
below,
be
left
differences
architects
and awareness
are
from
as
in the
distinctly
of, a variety
of
functional types may contribute to the quality of design that a designer is able to produce. overcome.
A paucity of functional types may For
example, may
it
is
be difficult for a designer to
possible
that
trouble
designing
an
architect
from
a
sparsely
populated
area
electronics
store' than a designer who has spent much of his or her life in or
have
around
inner-city
to the
former designer.
Quality
more
locations.
The
functional
designers.
In
designing
102
good
type 'inner-city'
of functional types may also contribute
and proficient
a
a particular
'inner-city
may not
to differences project
retail
be real
between
it is possible
good that
some
will
designers
examples,
while
examples.
It
functional
types
be
possible
will
that the
only a few mediocre functional
familiar
noted
earlier,
knowledge
with
types,
architecture
lead
designers
Perhaps
high
may
possible to
with
that the
refers
to
quality
many
a few
mediocre quality
numerous
refers to
a
wide
are
part
of
a
designer's
variety of a
appreciative
of
systems
will
a designer system.
As
with
quality
appreciative
system.
experiences
quality
substantive
As
his or her lifetime.
development
quality
systems.
with regard to appreciative
so will his or her appreciative
and exposure,
is
it
systems
developed throughout
grows in experience
only
with
to,
types.
appreciative
are
and
reference
than the designer who
design
A similar argument might be developed As
who
designer
a better
produce
make
and be
may
designers
other is
with,
familiar
produce
designs
of
quality.
Earlier process
in
this thesis it was claimed
that at
it is virtually impossible to say what Instead
solution.
the
of
process
designing
the
beginning of the
will be included in a completed involves
a
gradual
unfolding
information which both informs,
and is informed by, the designer's work.
possible,
of
therefore,
that
one
naturally.
force
a
fabric
Conversely,
of
good
verses
It is
proficient
Perhaps it is the better designer who does not
flow with the design 'stream.' to
measures
of
to which they are able to let themselves go, and
designers may be the degree
attempt
the
design
onto
it may
the
design,
but
instead
be the merely proficient
solution onto a project very early in the design
process.
allows
it
to
evolve
designer who forces
a
In opposition to the
former designer whose process is one of discovery, the later designer's process
would be one of justification.
103
process
seeing may
the
with
help
has
of designing
process
creative
stressed.
been
that allows the designer to see them
to
of sketching
importance
thesis the
this
Throughout
as
The very
nature of sketches
drawings
have
sketchy
Sketchy and ambiguous drawings, by Instead they keep
do not allow the designer to focus on details.
her at
remove
the designer from the conceptual
before
conceptual
lower
quality
designer who
have
problems
than
it
might
otherwise
sketch
a design to is
it
Perhaps
been.
value of the
the
understands
have
process
of the design
cause
resolved may
been
may
contrast,
and change his or her focus to
detailed part
into the
To enter
issues.
level
in
drawings,
Precise
level.
conceptual
him or
detail-oriented
ambiguity
in a variety of ways, thus leaving more
the way it will be engaged by a designer.
a more
an
A drawing's level of completeness may also effect
room for discovery to occur.
their nature,
seeing-moving-
the
the better
therefore
and
process
be of
does
not attempt to rush into detailed hard line drawings.
profession. many
of
preparation
issue
another
raises
This
that
is
new
relatively
to
architectural
the
Computer aided drafting and design (CAD) has become the norm for today's
architectural
of working
drawings,
Initially
offices. CAD
is
slowly
used
primarily
being incorporated
in
the
into
the
design phase of a project. Designers note that the computer allows them to quickly study many options for the design of a building. building elevation moving-seeing
For example, in the past a designer would study a
process
was
used
during
this sketching.
The
strength
process was that it allowed the designer to have a conversation problem. progressed.
Its
The seeing-
by sketching it in a variety of configurations.
weakness
was
in the inability
to
reuse sketches
The same elevation might need to be re-drawn
104
of this
with the design as
the project
a dozen
or more
CAD removes the
times to reflect modifications made during the design process.
be quickly
modifications can
Instead
edited into the
the design process
can be reused as the project documentation
construction
ultimately
drawing on the
computer
Thus the drawings produced early in
onto a clean sheet of paper.
and printed
and
re-drawing the same elevation each time it is modified.
of completely
necessity
enters its design development,
phases.
A danger of this process may be the manner by which it radically alters the which
process
sketching
schematic design
phase of the project.
the
designer
Even when the designer takes the
on top of it with
drawing and sketches
computer
between
conversations
The CAD process also provides hard line drawings in
and the problem to occur. the
allowed
formerly
The ambiguity
drawing.
a tight and rigid
tracing paper, he or she is and sketchiness
that
working
with
formerly
led the designer to see new things and make unexpected discoveries is
diminished.
what
To
find
extent can focused
has
thesis
applicability
certain
My
for
Implications
aspects
on
Practice
Own the
architectural
not only
to
designing,
of its
many
a number of other creative
of daily life which
involve problem
Although this
extended?
notion of designing be
solution.
propositions fields,
but
could also to
This recognition
has been one of the more significant results of this study for my own practice. process
and
an ongoing
process
The
reflective
have
come to have great meaning for me.
creating
and
understanding
For example, the actual process of
and giving the exercises that provide much of the data for this thesis
profited by reflected
of learning
a reflective
process.
As each participant
on the process, saw what had
105
succeeded
and
finished the exercises, what had
I
failed, made
moves
by
revising
parts
of the
exercises
based
gave the exercises to the next participant. exercises
became
one
on
my
reflections,
and
then
Thus even the process of giving the
of seeing-moving-seeing.
I have also become more reflective about the manner in which I experience understand
and
I therefore find myself eager to
only refer to a type with which I am familiar.
The more quality types I have in
be exposed to a wide variety of quality types. my
repertoire,
their constituent and
creating
'good' design
Explicit
knowledge
more likely
my
has also
knowledge
that
an obstacle
existence
and role
proven
use
can
be
referred
to
My
of design study
striking
to help
them
particular
also shown
much
experiences.
appreciations
for
useful
my
design
process.
I make use of a category 'functional
as
types.'
When
aware
of I
of the
me
overcome
the
obstacle.
functional
Should
of, and can refer to,
numerous other
knowledge.
has
how
obstacles
overcoming
types in the design process and can therefore
of functional
of
a
is
me that appropriation
design process and should not be feared. is
for
I am now explicitly
during my designing,
types fail to help me I am further aware types
chances
designs.
encounter
consciously
the
I now realize that when I design
For example, design
rules,
about these types and
I am able to be reflective
and the more
that I can
for example,
I recognize,
of architecture.
pieces
that combine to create
are
knowledge a
is
tremendous
an objective design
based number
the same world.
particular
immediately
is
appropriated,
106
it
is
on
his
of
or
her
subjective
world and it is likely
that no two designers will ever inhabit exactly reference
part of the
In examining design methodology, it
designer's
There
a natural
Thus when a
informed
by
the
designer's
unique
understanding
therefore becomes
of
its
significance.
a part of the individual designer's
The
appropriation
world.
It is not surprising that belief in individuality is one of the hallmarks of the architectural project
is
profession.
Architects
an original,
never seen
are taught to believe and design as if each before and
never to be
seen
again.
teaching is no doubt valid, as most architectural projects are unique. reasonable,
It is not
however, to expect an architect to limit him or herself by avoiding
references
to other projects.
themselves
to
appropriating references
be,
those
are
reference.
Arts tradition architecture
Even architects
absolutely aspects
or
references
that will does
Wright, for example,
help
not
and philosophy
are also evident
question
references
in
and proclaim
to
other
them.
change
utilized
in his design of the Larkin building.
The
Because
type
who are considered,
make
unconscious
for a designer to completely
appropriate
original
of the
conscious
Frank Lloyd
place.
This
types,
Whether the
elements
fact
these
of
of the
Beaux-
The influences of eastern
his designs.
It is impossible
avoid the influences of his or her own time and
for
the
consciously
it is impossible to
designer or
therefore
becomes
whether
understanding
avoid influences,
by the references. appropriate designer
for
decides
appropriated,
his
will help the
Reflection
a particular that
all
and therefore
appropriation,
or her
designer to be more intelligently
will show that some
aspects
situation while other aspects of the
aspects
appropriation
to
unconsciously.
is in a designer's best interest to be conscious of his or her appropriation. conscious
the
will
of a
particular
still be
are
Even if a
reference
incomplete.
A
guided
of a reference
are not.
it
As
should
be
Habraken
has stated, it is impossible to list all of the constituent rules that make up any given
type.
107
It
should
creativity Larkin
also
be understood
in a designer's building,
tradition
in
for
work.
that appropriation
was
despite the
will reveal a Beaux-Arts influence. used a Richardsonian her final library
design
she
was
Designers
process
of
solution
will
Finally
students
and
architectural believe
would
that
a
part
a careful
of
the
study
Beaux-Arts
of the building
have
had
much,
if
any,
resemblance
to the
referencing. not fear
bear
a
appropriation,
study
has
education
but
rather should
designers
is
welcome
it for
With reflective designing and a
little
resemblance
danger
to
the
that
a
final
appropriated
design
reference.
ideas, not dictates, for designers. provided
me
with
in architecture.
professional education
there
significant
types provide
to
fact that
it brings to their design work.
this
approaches
stylistically
In the earlier example of the designer who
seeing-moving-seeing
Appropriated
a loss of
reference in the design of her library, it is unlikely that
solution
should
the information
not imply
It is unlikely that anyone would claim Wright's
example,
architecture,
does
was are
architects, one
of
'born'
an
In discussing many
fear. and
improved
have
In their that
understanding
my research
noted
how
educations
architectural
with both
their they
entire
came
education's
function is to reveal who has the innate talent to be a designer.
Remarked one
Each day I went to design studio with the hope that when I left I
believed that we were
The whole process was one of fear.
like pieces of marble
instructor's job to chip all of the excess person was all that remained.
We
and that it was the
away until the the
true
That person either would, or would
not, be a designer.
108
to
primary
student:
would still be a designer.
of
Under this student's model of education, process, My
but rather study
a stripping away
has shown that
learning to design was not an additive
process.
design skills can be taught and that
should fear he or she might lack the ability to learn. proficiency'
is within
Education stressing
not
nature.
It
knowledge, designer may
deal
with
only
their
individual
possible
but to
has no
At a minimum,
'design
the reach of anyone.
must
is
no student
still
for
both
substantive
characteristics,
a designer
have difficulty
way of engaging
knowledge
to
but
and
also
have
extensive
designing.
Without
in the design process.
process
their
skills,
intertwined
substantive
design
process skills
the
While the designer
initially be able to express interesting ideas, he or she may be unable to
transform
these
ideas into
an integrated
problem
solution.
Instead,
the ideas
may manifest in the design as isolated modules with little or no relation to each other or the context of which they are part. It is also possible for a designer to have a great command of process skills, but
to
have
little
designer's
work
problems
in the
function
may
substance come
designer's
to to
actually
lack
process.
new
like all the other solutions produced
the
different
the
solution may come
to
and
by
This type of
No
matter
how
the designer.
repetition would not be one of style, but of monotony.
109
these
instances
variety.
career, each
In
look
- The Protocols
Appendix
The
following are the transcriptions
of the protocols
which provide much of
the data used in this thesis.
These four protocols were conducted in individual
sessions
minutes to
recorded
lasting and
participants and
pencils,
from
twenty
transcribed
was provided no sketching
into
this
two
textual
hours. format.
with tracing paper, newsprint,
Each
session
Although
was tape
each
and a variety
of the of pens
was performed.
The participants all saw the footprint in the same format. were drawn at the same scale by a computer.
Each drawing was put onto an 8
1/2" by 11" sheet of paper, more or less filling the page.
110
All footprint types
Corbin
Design Research Protocol 1989
January
GW: I am going to ask you a number of questions.
Some of them may seem silly
and some of them may seem more serious than others, but they are all serious. questions
The
looking
are
for different
things
are no right and no wrong answers.
there
and you
need
to
point here is to study how people think when solving
problems.
Some
of the questions may be answered There is no rush.
have an answer, it is acceptable alternate
answers to
alternative is selected.
Similarly, if I present you with
It is acceptable to say that you do not feel that it matters You may draw if you like: I have tracing paper you This session is very free form.
thing that I request that you do is to think out loud.
without
The only
Rather than internalizing
I want you to verbalize everything
as you work through these problems. thinking
quickly while others may
If you look at a question and you do not
to say so.
can use as well as a variety of pens.
are
architectural
a question you may decide that it does not matter which
which option is selected.
your thought process
that
There are no tricks built into the
format: the
take a bit longer.
realize
that you
are thinking
I will start to pry if I recognize that you
verbalizing.
This is Footprint Type D - it is the floor plan (see figure below) of a retail
GW:
electronics store which is located in an inner-city area. - not in a ghetto, but in a
densely built-up area.
enter
into
These arrows represent places that you could possibly
the building.
111
A
B
'
6M
K
L
N
D
C
F E
Jt.I
3 H
G
2 Footprint Type D Which of these entrances do you think would be best?
CM:
In an
being
an
inner-city
electronics
area
store
security is
going to be a prime concern.. .and its
intensifies
only
that concern.
Still,
since
it is
a
One also wants to think
retail store it will want some display area to the street. about what is going on on the inside of the thing.
Number (a
six
person)
is probably
these corners...they
That leaves
won't work
and three probably going
in an inner-city
area one
or functions
stuck into
find other buildings
don't make very
(entrance numbers)
probably work.
to
because
good street
front.
one, two, four, and five.
Any of them
would
If this were a severe crime area one (a person) would probably
not go with five because of all the exposure.
Since its not a ghetto though...1
think five would be best.
Five is still an easy location to monitor in terms of entrance store.
and exit to the
It also gives one a front sales area that is different from the rest...there
112
could
be
blank tapes
in this (ABCN)
section
along with
expense items... walkmans... also the cashier of course.
some of the
lessor
Then as you moved back
in the plan you could have more expensive areas with perhaps a very exclusive room here (KJIL).
The storage area could go here (IHGF).
That would probably
work good.. .if there were to be a rear entrance for deliveries it would probably be from an alley or something which would in all likelihood be parallel main
street
Five
also gives
to the
in front.
good
display
area to the street
security from the outside would be easy to solve.
(along
AB),
and I think the
You see lots of roll-down metal
grills around here.. .bars would work, but I don't like bars.
GW:
Great.
Now tell me, since you've picked number five as your favorite, and
you have talked about what goes on in here (ABCN),
what would you say the
dimensions of AB and BC are?
CM:
Well, this is drawn pretty precisely, so I'm sure that you have a scale in
mind...
GW:
Don't worry about what scale I use.
Just say what you think are the best
dimensions.
CM:
I think BC would be about 25' and AB, which looks like twice the length of
BC would be about 50'.
That would make the total store around (does quick
calculation with calculator) 3,700 square feet.
113
That sounds about
right.
GW:
What if I tell you that BC is really 30' and that AB is really 60'?
change
your
selection
of
entrance?
CM:
Not really.
GW:
What if I tell you that BC is 50' and that AB is 100'?
selection
CM:
of
Does that
That's not a big difference.
Does that change your
entrance?
That's
getting
quite
a
bit
larger
(does
quick
calculation
with
calculator)... 15,000 square feet.
That's big for just a store...and especially in an
inner-city.
a big deal...but
number
GW:
Still,
it could
be
the
entrance...no,
I
still
like
five.
So it doesn't change your thinking?
CM: No.
GW:
In looking at this plan and working on the entry selection, did you see any
geometric
CM:
shapes?
Yes...To me this plan is composed of two L shapes ...here (ABCDEF) and here
(NGHIJK).
GW: selection
How
would
of an
you
say
that
recognizing
entrance?
114
those
shapes
influenced
your
CM:
Well
best.. .maybe.
I
don't
know
that
it
did
influence
which
entry
I thought
Its hard to say how it did influence me...maybe it didn't.
was
On the
other hand, as I think about it I can see that I thought of the front of the store in terms of this L shape (that entry number five is a part of), and the back, or more exclusive part of the store in terms of this L shape (the other L) - but I don't
know.
I could stretch and say something, but that's not what you want is it?
GW:
No - what you've done here is fine.
115
Thanks a lot.
Biographical Information on Corbin
Corbin currently lives in Boston Massachusetts architecture. architecture
He
is
extensively
a
licensed in
architect
his native
and is attending from
overseas
MIT's school of
and
has
practiced
country.
Corbin is in his late twenties and was raised in a suburb of a large city where he lived most of his life prior to moving to Boston.
Corbin has traveled extensively the eastern
and mid-western
in Europe.
United
States.
116
He has traveled a small amount in
Design Research Protocol January
Darin
1989
GW: I am going to ask you a number of questions.
Some of them may seem silly
and some of them may seem more serious than others, but they are all serious. The
questions
are
looking
for different
things
there are no right and no wrong answers.
and
you need
Some
take a bit longer.
of the questions may There is no rush.
answers to a question
alternative is selected.
be answered
so.
You may draw if you like: I have tracing paper you This session is very free form.
process I want you to verbalize
as you work through these problems.
In
architecture
without
while others may
Similarly, if I present you with
thing that I request that you do is to think out loud.
thinking
quickly
you may decide that it does not matter which
can use as well as a variety of pens.
are
solving architectural
It is acceptable to say that you do not feel that it matters
which option is selected.
your thought
that
If you look at a question and you do not
have an answer, it is acceptable to say alternate
realize
There are no tricks built into the
format: the point here is to study how people think when problems.
to
The only
Rather than internalizing
everything that you are thinking
I will start to pry if I recognize that you
verbalizing.
there is something called a floor plan or a footprint.
house its just what the floor looks like.
DK: Oh.
117
In this
Are you familiar with floor plans at all?
GW:
If we have a plan of this room it would look something like ...(draws plan of
room the protocol is being given in as an example).
DK:
GW:
Oh yeah. OK. Alright.
So what we're looking at are going to be floor plans of an entire building.
I'm going to show you a number of plan types and ask you a few questions about them.
These
arrows
entrance into the building.
indicate places
that you
DK: OK
Alright.
to put the
So you could have your main door into the building
(at any one of the points).
GW:
could choose
(Reference Footprint Type A Below)
6 A M
#B
5
N
C
D E
F +4
H
G 3
Footprint Type A
118
This is Footprint Type A.
The building is of no particular type.
I want you to
tell me which entrance you like the best.
DK:
Urn.. .well...I know which ones I wouldn't like.
GW:
We can eliminate them.
DK:
I don't like number two because its on a corner and you really don't see it,
and number five just doesn't don't
DK:
GW: where
DK:
GW:
much
seem like a big enough
difference
between
six,
and
one.
crowding.
I
Four would
OK, so you're going to let four be your favorite.
Yeah.
Alright. around
A road?
Do you have any sense when you look at this if there's a road any
this building?
Well, it could be...I don't know.
Do you have any idea which way north might be?
DK: No.
GW:
three,
space...like
give you the most space.
probably
GW:
really
see
You can talk through and eliminate
OK, that's fine.
That was the first one.
119
DK:
There's no way to know.
GW:
This is the second one.
(Reference Footprint Type B below)
6 A
N F
K
H
J
4
G
4
3 Footprint Type B
I want you to look at this and tell me which entrance you like the best.
DK:
One ... because it gives you the most space and this (five) is on a corner and
six and four are pretty much the same.
But this one (one) will give you a lot of
space,
GW:
When you say space what do you mean?
DK:
Well I mean.. .you won't feel crowded
when you enter in.. .there will be
room.
GW:
Do you have any idea if there's a road anywhere around this?
120
DK: No.
GW:
How about north?
Any idea where north might be?
DK: No.
GW:
OK,
good.
they're similar. Reference
These floor plans are all kind of variations on each other -
Alright, now I want you to look at this one (Footprint Type D -
figure below) and tell me first which entrance you like the best.
5 B
D
J
C
IE H
G
3
2 Footprint Type D
DK:
Well I have to say number five because.. .the same reason as before.
This
one (six) looks kind of.. .too small... four, two, and one are pretty much the same thing (?),
GW:
and number three is on a corner.
Alright.
Do you have any idea if there's a road around here?
DK: No.
121
GW:
North?
DK: No.
GW:
Alright.
at this
Now lets look at ...on this same plan what I want you to do is to look
and tell me...when I've been
asking you these
questions on
entrances,
have you had any ideas about what type of building this might be?
DK:
Um. .. an office building.
GW:
So you've thought to yourself its an office.
type given you came up with office.
store that sells electronics gear.
computers,
and
change
where
anymore.
DK:
GW:
you
would
So without having a
Now I want to tell you that this is now an
electronics
that its
Alright.
TVs, stereos, hi-tech - maybe some
located in the inner city, an urban put the entrance
at
all?
area.
Does that
Its not an office building
It doesn't have to: its just a question.
Well, no.
OK, so you still like five the best.
branch library
that's located in the suburbs.
Now lets say that this building is a Do you know what suburbs are?
DK: Yes.
GW:
OK.
Its located in the suburbs.
122
Does that change your thinking any?
DK:
Yes.
I would make two because, I mean you could...because you really don't
need room.
All you have to.. .and that's the way libraries are set up.
You could
have a desk there.
GW:
So you changed to two when its a library.
OK.
Now I want you to tell me which, if any of these entrances,
is a jailor's
entrance.
DK:
Janitor?
GW:
Jailor.
DK:
Six.
they're
in
entrances.
GW:
A jail.
An entrance that someone who has a jail would like.
If this was a jail, well I don't know.
If these people are criminals and
the
them
jail,
you
don't
worry
about
being
Alright.
Lets go ahead and do one more with this one (Footprint Type D).
look
at this...we're
not thinking of entrances
off, so you don't have to pay any attention to the arrows. do you see any geometries?
Well
it
has
be.. .everything's (indicates
comfortable
So I would say six.
When you
DK:
real
the
a
parallel
lot
When you look at this
Do any geometrical forms or shapes come to you?
of square to
now - we're changing
this
side
major x/y axes).
123
properties. and
You
everything's
know...it
all
seems
parallel
to
this
to side
GW:
When some people look a this they see a W shape.
DK:
I can see one - yeah.
GW:
Do any others come to you?
DK:
I can see a Y.
KDEFGHIJ)
Doesn't form...perfect.
Well that's pretty much all
Do you see a W in it?
And something else...a T. I can see...well
(Indicates
you could get an L.
(Indicates back to back Ls formed by NGHIJK and ABCDEF.)
GW:
Now I want you to try to look at this and tell me what you see.
Does any one
of the geometries we've talked about jump out at you?
DK:
GW:
DK:
GW:
What letter?
Of anything we've talked about.
I would say the W is the most prominent.
Alright.
Just out of curiosity.
This leg at entrance number two..(HG), how
many feet would you say that is long?
DK:
There's really no way of knowing what scale this is drawn to.
can't
say.
GW: Take a stab.
124
You really
DK:
Well if its just a normal entrance way I would say maybe three and a half
feet for the doorway.
GW:
No.. .the whole leg ... from the points at either end.
DK:
Um ... nine feet.
GW:
Alright.
This is Footprint Type C.
A
(Reference Footprint Type C below.)
B 6 E
F
5
G J
P
L N
K
I +3
fM
2 Footprint Type C
Which entrance
do you like the best?
DK: Six.
GW: Why?
DK:
Well because you could really make a nice looking house and garden or
something
this.
coming up this side and
this could be the...you
I think six would be a good entrance.
125
see buildings
like
GW:
Is there a street anywhere around it?
DK:
Well there's really no way of knowing.
GW:
Is north any direction?
DK: No.
GW:
OK.
This is Footprint Type E
(Reference Footprint Type E below)
5 6
B
A
I-laD
3
4
J
4
E
K
1
2 Footprint Type E
Which entrance do you like the best.?
DK:
Two.
This is the...isn't this the same drawing as the one I saw before...
GW:
They're similar.
DK:
Similar!
They look identical!
Well, this one (two) gives you the most room.
126
GW:
Is north any direction?
DK: No.
GW:
Is there a street anywhere?
DK: No.
GW:
OK, now the last one.
library.
You were
talking
What I want you to do is to think about a branch a little bit
earlier
about how you
would
put an
entrance in a certain location because of what went in.. .If you were to sit back and
dream
in your own
mind,
not based on
anything,
but just
in your own
mind, what it was that made a perfect branch library, what would that be? Just talk
freely.
DK:
Well, if you were going to have some.. .I wouldn't say atmosphere, but you
wouldn't want the place to be real drab and boring ... which is hard to do because libraries
are not known for their excitement.
Organized. GW: that
Have it clean.
Good location.
(?)
When you said drab and boring, what would be something that would keep environment
DK: library.
Well
from
being
drab
and
boring?
I don't know.. .just maybe.. .livelier colors.
Mainly.. .pretty much colors.
Maybe like
an art deco
That's about it - all I can think of.
127
GW:
When you talked about organized, what does that mean to you?
DK:
Well it means that all the books are in the right place and the librarians
know
where the
stuff is.. .that
kind
of stuff.. .they don't...they
know everything
about it.
GW:
Alright, thanks.
DK:
The first, third, and fifth drawings (Footprint Types A, D, and E) were the
same
weren't
they?
GW: Yes.
DK:
I thought they looked familiar.
128
Biographical Information on Darin
Darin
is currently
Antonio
Texas
school
attending high
school system.
His
as a ninth grade
interests
are
student in the
far reaching
from
San
sports to
academics.
Darin
is 14 years old and has been raised in a suburb of San Antonio for the
majority of his life.
Darin has not traveled extensively in or out of the United States, though he has had a few vacations to other areas.
129
Design Research Protocol January
Linda
1989
GW: I am going to ask you a number of questions.
Some of them may seem silly
and some of them may seem more serious than others, but they are all serious. The
questions
are
looking
for
different
things
there are no right and no wrong answers. format:
need
to
realize
There is no rush.
an answer, it is acceptable
alternate
to say so.
Similarly,
decide that it does not matter which
This session is very free form.
thing that I request that you do is to think out loud.
The only
Rather than internalizing
I want you to verbalize everything
as you work through these problems. without
if I present you with
You may draw if you like: I have tracing paper you
can use as well as a variety of pens.
thinking
while others may
It is acceptable to say that you do not feel that it matters
which option is selected.
your thought process
architectural
If you look at a question and you do not
answers to a question you may
alternative is selected.
that
There are no tricks built into the
Some of the questions may be answered quickly
take a bit longer.
are
you
the point here is to study how people think when solving
problems.
have
and
that you
are thinking
I will start to pry if I recognize that you
verbalizing.
Do you know how to read a floor plan?
LH: Yes.
GW:
I
am going to
questions about them.
show you OK.
a number of plan types
and ask you a few
(Reference Footprint Type A Below)
130
6 A M
B 5
N C K
D E
F +-
H4
4
G
3 Footprint Type A
This is Footprint Type A. enter the building.
These arrows represent places that you could possibly
The building is of no particular type.
I want you to tell me
where you think the best place for the entrance is.
LH:
Well I think the best place for the entrance.. .there's only one entrance?
GW:
Only one.. .what are you thinking?
LH:
Well,
aesthetically.
two is more central, Six
but its in the corner.
is pretty central,
And that offends me
but I like four the best and I don't know
why.
GW:
So you like four best.
LH:
I haie a feeling the road's right out here in front of four.
Do you have any sense of where a road might be?
side of the sheet)
131
(the right hand
GW:
LH:
Alright.
Do you have any idea which way north might be?
Six (the top of the sheet) is north.
GW:
OK, (Reference Footprint Type B below)
A
'
B
F
N
+00-4 K
G
I
J 3
Footprint Type B
What's
your
favorite
entrance?
LH:
One entrance?
GW:
One entrance.
LH:
Four, because I visualize a road running along beside it.
GW:
OK, what about north?
132
LH:
Six (the top of the sheet) is north.
GW:
Alright.
Traditionalist.
(Reference Footprint Type D below)
5 #
A
B
-4 K
J
C
I [_ H
3E
I
G
3
2 Footprint Type D
What's
LH:
GW:
LH:
GW:
your
Five.
favorite
entrance?
Because that's the street front.
Five is the street front.
So the street's running parallel (to the top of the sheet)?
Five (the top of the sheet) is north.
OK, now, lets look at this one just a little bit longer.
been asking you so that its not a building type. any sort of building type?
LH:
Where's north?
No...store front maybe.
133
In looking at this I've
Have you in your mind made it
GW:
So you haven't assigned any function to it?
LH:
Retail space, maybe...but...
GW:
OK, what I want to do now is tell you that this is an electronics store.
located
in an inner city
located in an downtown thinking about
area.
So it sells stereo gear, TVs, computers,
or inner city area.
Does that influence
Its
and its
any of your
where you want to place the entrance?
LH: Yes.
GW:
LH:
Speak to me.. .what are you thinking?
Well you have to consider vandalism and walk outs.
want to put the the space.
entrance where
And so you're going to
its very visible from all parts of the store or
And with that in mind the most central looks to be six.
Three might be better. see every place.
Yeah I like three better.
Maybe three.
Because from three you can
Four's a little bit obscured from three, but that's all.
You can
have some kind of security there and you'd probably be OK.
Now lets change it again.
Lets say that this is a
branch library and that its located in a suburban location.
Does that influence
GW:
OK, so three is your choice.
your
thinking?
LH:
Yes - two.
Because this big area back
here (Rectangle ANCB
in which
entrance choices four and five are located) would be a good place to be quiet
134
and be
away
something.
from
everything.
One
and
six.. .that
area could
be
storage or
Two looks like a good reception area.. .good opening part.. .with a lot
of space behind it for stacks or circulation,
GW:
Alright.
these
entrances
magazines, reading areas.
One last question on this plan. and
look
at them
and
pick
If I were to tell you to go through what
you
would
call
a jailor's
entrance...
LH:
GW:
I don't understand the term.
An entrance that a jailor...someone
who works in a jail...a jailor.
Would
you consider any of these a jailor's entrance.
LH: Six.
GW: Why.
LH:
Because its narrow.
Its the only little bitty angle like that.
wall, I assume, that's right on both sides of it. six.)
I guess this is solid and so is this.
OK
(Reference Footprint Type C below)
135
MN and KL either side of
They look like they'd be solid.
like it would be narrow and creepy.
GW:
(Legs
There's a solid
It looks
A
B 6 E
P
F
L N
K
+-3
M 2
Footprint Type C
What
LH:
is your
Two.
favorite
entrance?
I don't know why.
GW:
Think out loud about why you think it is.
LH:
Because it looks like the rest of this (?) was designed for space and two is
sitting there reaching
GW:
LH:
GW:
LH:
out in
front of the structure.
Where's the road?
Its still in front of two.
(The bottom of the sheet)
Where's north?
Six.
(The top of the sheet)
136
GW:
OK, look at this from point N to point M, which is the leg that entrance
number two is on.
What dimension do suppose that is?
LH:
(Mutters)
GW:
Why?
LH:
Because I'm still thinking store front I guess.
Maybe twenty feet.
Be enough for a door and
some glass and some display maybe.
GW:
Now lets think just a second.
Nothing to look at this one.
think about this idea of the branch library.
Close your eyes and imagine ... no
rules.. .the perfect - the dream
- branch library.
What
in
would
be
characteristic
your
mind
I want you to
of
the
perfect
branch
library?
What do you think of?
LH:
We're not talking about an academic thing I have to do for a paper?
branch
in
a
Just a
neighborhood?
GW:
Pure dream.
LH:
A lot of space...a lot of...maybe a lot of glass with a lot of light coming down.
Comfortable
seating... some
loft... something comfortable
like
that
secluded where
areas that you
seating.
137
you
could.. .just
can read. the
Maybe
reading
even
a
rooms...with
Why is seclusion a good thing?
GW:
OK, you've talked about seclusion.
LH:
In a neighborhood library there are always a bunch of little kids and you
can't sit and read or study or do anything unless you can get away from them. There needs to be an adult's section and a children's section - secluded back away.
Lighting - why is lighting good?
GW:
OK.
LH:
You need lighting to read.
GW:
When you talk about lots of space what does that mean to you?
LH:
I'm visualizing a lot of overhead space but that goes with the lighting.
I like natural lighting anyway.
gives you a feeling of intimacy when you're working somehow. be closeted.
I don't like to
I like the spacey - open feel...the one that looks like its cool.
spacious it looks cool but not cold.
GW:
LH:
GW:
So your thinking volumetrically?
Yes.
OK.
The last one of these.
(Reference Footprint Type E below)
138
It
Its so
5 6
B
A
|kC
M K
D
1E 4
L
3 I
J
2 Footprint Type E
Alright.
LH: too
What's
your favorite
entrance?
Looks like one I've already seen. wide.. .number
three's
too
My favorite entrance.
narrow.. .lets
go
with
number
Well number two's four.. .because
its
just right.. .its sticking out there.. .I don't knew...
GW:
Where's the road?
LH:
I still think the road's in front of number two (to the bottom of the sheet)
that was my
GW:
first impression
anyway.
Where's north?
LH:
Number five (to the top of the sheet).
GW:
OK, in looking at this plan do you see any geometric forms?
139
-
LH:
There's a W...(She gestures to the W shape.)
GW:
OK, anything else?
LH:
Not really.
GW:
When you see that W... how quickly when I put this down did you perceive
a W?
LH:
Pretty quick.
I see the shapes before I look at the whole thing.
GW:
Do you suppose that W has anything to do with picking number four?
LH:
Could be ... I hadn't thought of that, but since number four's at the bottom of
the W...
GW:
Why don't we play that out a little bit, just think through it.
LH:
But see if that was the case I'd make a new entrance...six is here?
GW:
Six points to that corner.
LH:
OK - to the corner.
See I would put a entrance right here (points to leg MN
near the corner where six is indicated) between six and wherever the center of the W.
That appeals to my sense of order.
140
GW:
Alright,
well thank you.
tracing paper and drawing tools,
(Note that although
Linda
was supplied
with
that she did not draw during any part of the
process.)
141
Biographical Information on Linda
Linda
currently
school
system,
designer
teaches
learning
impaired
children
in
the
San
Antonio
though she is trained and has worked as a professional
in the past.
She has a degree
in interior design
Texas interior
from a college
in
Texas.
Linda is 38 years old and was raised in a small town near Amarillo Texas.
She
lived there until she entered college in a medium sized town near Dallas Texas. From there she moved to south Texas and eventually to San Antonio where she left the
interior design field to enter the teaching
profession.
Linda has not traveled extensively either in or out of the United States.
142
Design Research Protocol January
Lora
1989
GW: I am going to ask you a number of questions.
Some of them may seem silly
and some of them may seem more serious than others, but they are all serious. The there
questions
are
looking
for
different
things
are no right and no wrong answers.
format:
and
you
There are no
to
Some
take a bit longer.
of the questions There is no rush.
have an answer, it is acceptable alternate answers
may be answered
to a question
alternative is selected.
architectural
quickly while others may
If you look at a question and you do not
to say so. you may
Similarly,
if I present you with
decide that it does not matter which
You may draw if you like: I have tracing paper you
can use as well as a variety of pens.
This session is very free form.
thing that I request that you do is to think out loud.
as you work through these problems.
The only
Rather than internalizing
your thought process I want you to verbalize everything
without
that
It is acceptable to say that you do not feel that it matters
which option is selected.
thinking
realize
tricks built into the
the point here is to study how people think when solving
problems.
are
need
that you
are thinking
I will start to pry if I recognize that you
verbalizing.
What we are going to do is very simple.
I am going to show you a number of
plan types and ask you a few questions about them.
GW: (Reference Footprint Type A Below)
143
6 A M
#B
5
N C K
D E
L2
F
44 J
I H
G
3 Footprint Type A
This is Footprint Type A.
These arrows (1 through 6) represent places that you
could possibly enter into the building.
The building is of no particular type.
LM:
Nobody lives there - I mean nothing happens there?
GW:
Something happens there, but I am not saying what it should be: I am not
telling
you anything
entrance
LM:
about it.
What
I want you
to do is to tell me
into the building is the best.
Well, part of it depends on like how you're approaching the building, what
the building is, does it have private areas
in the front, or public areas in the
front - it doesn't matter?
GW:
LM:
which
It may matter, but in this case we don't know that.
OK well, number two is the worst.
144
Two is out - Five is out.
GW:
Why?
LM:
Well because it's always awkward to have an entrance in the corner of a
building because you - unless you have some sort of an additive thing there or its hard to delineate something that looks like an entrance at two.
Five looks
like some sort of a service entrance or something like that.
Same
thing: you're not going to be able to make an entrance look viable there.
Now in terms of the other ones, since the masses are all broken up quite a lot, and since up
with
there's enough
no program
yet, you might have a better chance
surface ... no...I
don't know.
Well,
terms of...this, this and this (entrances six, one, their
proportions,
and
six is quite narrow..I
gestures toward, but does not draw on,
GW:
What are you gesturing to?
LM:
I'm putting
lobby
for business.
I'm
thinking
of coming
of.. .solely in
and three) are quite similar in
don't know...1
keep
thinking...(she
the footprint.)
in furniture in this thing and thinking about some sort of a
And at the same time, four is different because you have more surface terms
of the
entire mass
to come up
Entry - to articulate the entry.
with
So I am
favorite.)
145
some
sort
of an entry
area in
statement.
going to pick number four. (as her
GW:
OK - Where is north on this plan?
LM:
Where is north?
know the climate?
Well that depends on the climate I would say.
We don't
And the climate doesn't matter at this point?
GW:
It may matter, but we don't know it.
LM:
OK - So, lets say that north is that way.
(North is to the left of the sheet.)
GW:
Alright, do you have any feel for where a street might be?
LM:
Well,
A major street?
since I said four was the entrance I think that the street should be
along this axis. (Parallel to the right hand side of the sheet.)
GW:
How about a parking lot?
Is there a parking lot?
(Based on her selection
of office as the building type.)
LM:
Well, OK.
There's no parking.
GW:
Now we have another one.
I hate parking.
(Reference Footprint Type B below.)
146
6 Af
F
N
+.04 K
G
4
J
Footprint Type B
These
floor
plans
have
certain
similarities
and
certain
differences.
What
I
want you to do is to look at this one now and tell me which is your favorite entrance.
LM:
Well, I immediately, of course, I'm knocking off number five because it's
in the corner. the courtyard
Absolutely not - no way. of a Peking
house.
But
Two is interesting because it looks like I wouldn't
choose
it for most other
building types.. .then I would not choose two - or there also isn't enough area to do a dry climate house.
Let
me
turn
it
(the
So, I'll knock off two.
plan)
around.
(She
turns
orientations.)
GW:
Why are you turning the plan around?
LM:
Because
I'm thinking about building approach.
147
the
sheet
in
different
GW:
How does turning it around help you do that?
Because
LM:
I imagine
that this
is a simple form.
I imagine
it in three
dimensions as a simple, just blocked out form and what it would seem like when you
approached
this one.
How does it help you?
GW:
LM:
Well
similar
it helps me imagine a real place.
instance of approaching
I might perceive as put
myself
there.
(number four).
a building that has a similar entrance,
a similar entrance Like
this
or what
in terms of the whole form and then I
one.. .even
though
I
would
not pick
that one
By looking at it this way I would not pick four.
So.. .this might be a neat courtyard (number two). there.
I think about.. .like probably a
Yeah, I mean just the space
So for some reason I see this one (Footprint Type B) as a house because it
got the...
I guess I'll pick three.
GW: Why?
LM: one
Well, this
(She turns sheet upside down so that entry six is on the bottom.) (number
six)
there's
not
enough... I
don't
really
know
how
to
describe
this.. .well unless.. .well we don't know a scale for that, but I can't imagine (?).
148
These
are all equal distances (FE, BC, DE).
you're
going to have to do something
stand out.
Those are all equal distances,
really special
so
here in order to make it
I mean, I 'm thinking of it again in terms of building approach and
making an entry.
And also it might be sort of hard to.. .well we don't know a
scale so...(she mutters).. .I just want to pick that one (entry three).
This one (entry one)
might be sort of hard because I've assigned this value as
the courtyard,
and
it might be sort of hard to make this courtyard work ...plus
this elevation
plus
this.. .these
This one (three)
three
different items.
looks like it would be the easiest and still after you enter the
building
somehow there might be some kind
as
of the
one
number
major public
areas
in the
of an opportunity beginning
(the
two).
GW:
So you've picked three.
LM:
Oh yeah...ok.
GW:
Sure.
Where is north?
North, can I take a little while for this?
Just think out loud.
LM:
Is it OK if I assign a meaning to this of some sort?
GW:
Sure.
149
to include this
space
around
entry
If this is the entry.. .if three is the entry then this is the more private part
LM:
of the space, perhaps. parts
private
you
area around
(The
are
probably
going
entry
to
number six.)
want
to
And the
more
again
have.. .oh...then
depends on climate whether you want a lot of east/west exposure or not.
it
Its too
hard to control it, so...I will either put north here or here. (Either at four or at And, if its here.. .then sun goes this way... in the west...so in the morning
one.)
they're not going to get any kind of exposure (mutters).
But its the same...its
pretty much the same thing only you get morning and no afternoon. my goodness. this has Because
to
be
I've put
a courtyard
north.
(To
here (area
the right
hand
Oh!
around entry number two), so
side of the
sheet at entry
four.)
(the area around) two is a courtyard.
GW:
Where is the street?
LM:
The street...I think this is skewed a little bit, its going to go like this.
GW:
What is skewed?
LM:
No, it should go like this.
like this.
GW:
Well
The building is skewed.
The street comes around
(She gestures)
So the street cuts a diagonal across the lower left hand corner.
paralleling is located.)
the angle
created by the saw-tooth
Why?
150
shape
where
(Roughly
entry number five
LM:
Why?
approach
Because this is pretty interesting form so it would be nice if in your
you
could
can see.. .you can
see
the forms
of this building.
(She
gestures to the saw-tooth form at entry five which runs from B to F.)
Yeah
and then
we can tuck this courtyard
away to make
private
cause
works
or lives here can make this a more private space.
opportunity
for
maybe.. .maybe
exterior
this
courtyard
space here
BC, CD, DE, extra surfaces.
Great.
I have another.
(gestures
big
enough
toward
so
that
whoever
See they have all this
sawtooth)
I mean all surface area goes here.
its interesting to have a perspective
GW:
is
it a little bit more
with
all these
And ... sometimes
view of the entry.
This is Footprint Type C.
(Reference Footprint
Type C below.)
A
B 6 E
F
L N
K
+3
M
2 Footprint Type C
I want
you to look at this one.. .I might ask a few different
one...
LM:
Alright! Good!
151
questions on this
But I'll ask first what's you're favorite entrance?
GW:
LM:
(Mutters)
Well...its a toughie.
GW: Why?
LM:
Well you know, if these were not perfect squares (the squares defined by
ONML at entry two,
JIHG at entry four, and
DEFG between
entries
five and
six).. .these are all almost perfect squares plugged onto the side of this, or this is the extension on...from And not
of this
they're
(OPAB
the exterior of the building as being
if they were as
rectangle...whichever
deep
then
tucked back... they
might
at entry one), almost a perfect
square.. .right?
if they were not perfect squares, if they were be more
appropriate
for entrances.
so deep... and I'm thinking of this roughly as...eighth
a little bit too deep for an entrance.
all of... whenever
But since
scale, then this is
(The LM, JI, and ED distances)
of these are similar instances because side its because these
but this reads
So all three
I never pick the short
are almost perfect squares, and its hard to get.. .to have
things to fill up.. .I don't know how to verbalize that but, to have something to do in there before you get to the main stuff.
Its not appropriate for the core of
a large building, its.. .if its a porch then its going to look tacked on, if its just a vestibule of some sort, its going to look tacked on.. .chances are. I've
been
picking
these
So I.. .usually
shorter ones.
This one is hard because.. .six is hard as an entrance because if you walk into six chances
are you're
going to want to have openings
in this...either the DE side
or the BC side and its a little bit.. .you have this extremely public space here and
152
two very
potentially
more private spaces
while moving straight into it is public.) more awkward.
here.
(Either side of six is private
Right,
so that makes
Also its a little bit too confining for an
that a little bit
entry.. .you walk in
there and its a little bit too private a cove in there for that to be exactly private. Like it might make whoever is walking into six feel uncomfortable to have...
GW:
And that is a bad thing?
LM:
Yes it is.
You don't want anyone to feel uncomfortable.
picking that long side again.
So, well gosh, I'm
(Number one)
GW: Why?
LM:
At
least
I'm
consistent.
Well,
obviously
that's
from
a
process
of
elimination.
GW:
Where is the road?
LM:
Here we go again.
it?
But this time (she
Well this looks almost exactly like the other one doesn't turns sheet in various orientations and mutters)
Can I
assign meaning to what kind of road it is?
GW:
LM: have
Sure.
On this one there's a lot of.. .the main road is out here and were going to a circular drive come
up and drop them off at the porte cochere.
153
(The
main road parallels the left hand side of the sheet, but there is a circular drive that comes in.)
GW:
Alright.
LM:
Although I don't know ...maybe if the road came up like this ...no.
GW:
You thought about bringing an L shaped road in parallel with the bottom
Where's north?
and turning up to the right.
LM:
Yeah,
but
then
you have
being too exposed to the road.
problems
with
your potentially
(Around five and four)
service area
A little bit too exposed to
the road.
Oh yeah, where's north?
Well again we have got this little courtyard.
want this to be a sand..a desert in there
(at entry
six).
would like to have some sort of green in there (at entry six). want to get some sun in there to nurse those plants. sun should be over here.. .this is north. entry
two.)
GW:
Alright.
LM:
How many more are there?
I have another.
154
We
We don't
would probably
So we're going to
So again I think that the
(North is to the bottom of the sheet at
GW:
It doesn't matter.
Alright, this is Footprint Type D.
Now, I might ask you
some different questions about this one this time...
LM:
You didn't ask me different questions about the last one.
GW:
Let's look at this one a little bit. (Reference Footprint Type D below)
know.. .what's
your favorite
entrance
I don't
on this one?
B
D I
J H
C
E G
i
2 Footprint Type D
LM:
Well
for the
same
reasons stated
before
about the proportions
additive pieces, I would not pick two or four...no ...yeah.. .two, four, or one. don't know...what different
the heck.. .(She
turns sheet to
look
at it from
of the No I
a variety
orientations.)
This seems just the same only I think your just twisting it around aren't you?
GW:
The plans are similar.
155
of
LM:
Are you just rotating them?
Are they almost the same?
Is that what that
Can I look at the old ones?
means?
(She is not allowed to see the previous
shouldn't back up too far.
We
GW: plans.)
Its just the same as number one...I
Number one!
LM: rotating
consistent...I
with naming that long
GW:
That's OK.
This
is
(Laughs)
It may be more different than you think.
is going
(number five).
side the entrance.
process
The thing is is that I'm
what he's doing.
think that's probably
bored
LM:
see if my thought
to see if I'll make...to
it on the page
knew you were just
to be.. .well,
I know
that's
what I
chose before
though
But now I'm thinking about it and its going to be like this (?) I don't know.. .I guess we could make it work but its
there and something there.
Because
of its relationship to the rest of the form ...you
Not four because of the square.
Not two because of the square, but for some
still kind of awkward. know.
reason number one doesn't seem as bad. think,
although
I
know
I
rejected
And the reason it doesn't seem as bad I
another
one
that
looks
like
this.. .I
know.. .it doesn't seem as bad.. is because of this extra form here (LMN). the LMN entry.
makes it not seem as awkward. (number
one)
standard number five.
I don't know. Long side.
Still,
don't Right,
its kinda skinny space for an
It's between
number one
and my old
Number four.. .I don't like number four as an
156
entrance
because
course is out.
its
skinny,
because
of
the
Number six is out. Unless its a prison.
bored with the long side as being the entrance. number
GW:
squareness.
Number
three
of
And, what the heck..I'm
I think Lora you should choose
one.
Where's the street?
LM:
The street
on this one (turns sheet in various ways)
is...I think...the
reason I keep choosing the street even.. .its not just because the street is usually in front of a building. buildings
are
I mean I think there's a reason for that.
I like it when
polite.
GW:
Meaning?
LM:
Meaning that there is normally that there's a little bit more of a formality
about how a building is in relationship to its neighbors, and it has some sort of gesture that says this is where.. .this the formal way to enter this house, and I'm sort of putting on my best cloths as a member of this community.
And usually
what better place to say that but where people will hear you. (Laughs)
GW: So this all adds up to?
LM:
But I think the street is quite simply along the left hand side of the page.
(Parallel to the left hand side of the sheet along entry one.)
GW:
Where's north?
157
LM:
Well
I just made this a house you see... although this looks like a Frank
Lloyd Wright house doesn't it?
Well if this were a house...if it were a house,
then I would not make it so that north was.. .to the bottom of the sheet (at entry two) because that would mean that you'd only get morning sun in the front of the building which... and to the front of the building, and chances are that's in this public
part of the building, and people might.. .I mean whoever lives there
would not be in the most public part of the building in the morning. they're
either going to want morning sun in their bedrooms or in the kitchen
or near a dining room or something advantage bottom
Like
of the morning
of the
page...
east..oh its back here. have evening
sun there.
sun.
like that..some
place where they can take
So other than the fact that it is not at the
If north is here (at the top)
then the sun rises as in
Its going to show in right in there, and we're going to And you're this whole long area ... with absolutely no
light during the day.
GW:
What area is that?
LM:
From K to N and A to B ...no light.
(the right hand
Just only diffuse light so, north is here,
side of the sheet) the sun rises here, comes around and goes
here.. .but in the morning I mean you get this and in the afternoon you will get this.
So that's the best place for north.. .on the right side.
likely.. .you have more controllable
GW:
OK.
Because you're more
sun all day long.
So you made a comment earlier which I want to follow a little bit.
you were going to say any one of these entrances was a jailor's entrance...
158
If
LM: Six.
GW:
Why?
LM:
Well
because, its the smallest entry.
It has this...it seems like a service
entrance...it looks like its just about wide enough for a door. scale for this, but personally its wide enough for a door.
We don't have a
It doesn't have much
of an entry statement and why should you have a entry statement to the jail?
I
have
to
mean
you
shouldn't
really
celebrate...I
mean
you
don't
necessarily
celebrate the entrance to a jail.
GW:
That's fine.
In looking at this I didn't give you a building type for it, but
what have you decided this is?
LM:
On this particular one, well I like houses.
Houses are fun because its easy
to come up with a program for it...its quite small and its very familiar.
So I
assigned it a house program, but you can give me another program if you want.
GW:
So entrance
number one is your entrance
dimension from K to J at entry one?
for this house.
What is the
From point K to point J...what dimension is
that?
LM:
Oh you know, you did it on this one.. .right when I picked my new entry
you make me pick a dimension for this.
GW:
What are you thinking?
159
LM:
I'm thinking
closets
and maybe half baths and...and you don't want it to be too big because
about what goes in an entrance
you won't have anything to put there.
to a house
and like coat
Are these definitely walls?
(Points to a
line of the footprint.)
GW:
Yes.
They're walls.. .you can do anything with them, but they are given
walls.
LM:
But you can't add walls outside.. .you can only add walls inside.
dimension
GW:
is sixteen feet.
We will come back to that.
building
type
is
located
in
an
What I want to do now is tell you that this inner city
located in the inner city.. .the footprint, stereo equipment, TVs, and so forth. the
entrance?
LM:
(Laughs)
Yes!
metropolitan
and its an electronics
store.
area
and
is
They sell
Definitely.
What entrance is your favorite?
LM:
OK ... its an electronics store
GW:
area.. .a
Does that effect the way that you located
GW:
parking
OK, the
in an inner city.
lot?
We don't know.
160
Does it have to have
a
LM:
Don't know yet.
An electronics store.
Well chances are if they're going to
have any windows at all they're going to pretty darn small.
GW: Why?
LM:
Well for crime reasons.. .for security reasons.
is there
some sort of connotation
So.. .when you say inner city
of inner city like
a particular kind of inner
city or like Boston?
GW:
No, just a built-up area.. .no ghettos.
LM:
(Laughs)
If it were Harlem maybe this was the entrance...number six.
OK, Definitely.. .no matter what three is usually a lousy choice if you have other choices.
Forget three.. .so three and six are out.
Do I get to.. .No I don't know.. .Will it matter.. .Does it matter if I pick a dimension. Sixteen
feet is now the dimension... right?
GW:
That's out.
LM:
Two's out because of the proportion of IHGF... its too awkward to get people
in there
We're done with that.
and.. .unless you have...the
only good thing
about two, that would be
neat about two, is the fact that you could have a vestibule.. .oh but no, you don't want to do that because then that means that if its in the city then the street's going to have to be there.
OK, well...then
161
what the heck are you going to do
Can you put another
with that one? buildings
GW:
sitting
potentially
building there or like
another..are
other
in with this?
We don't know.
LM:
I mean is it OK to make assumptions about that, like
You don't know.
putting
buildings
in...
GW:
Sure, assume away.
LM:
Ok well, I would say that five is the best entrance on this one because you
get the most
frontage
store
area...you have the
potential
for store
front plus
they can sell this little.. .well either.. .the street is here ... you're going to ask me that.
Along the top of the sheet.
GW:
Well, I wasn't, but since you said.
LM:
Well there's the street, along the top of the sheet.
You have your entrance
there, you have the most area for store front, and just enough for some sort of a reception
or check Plus
form. different
you
out area
and then
all
area for the
either have the
opportunity
to have
some
system
like trees,
benches,
that
layer..urban
layer
the area outside of ANK).
rest of this
sort of park or sort
of stuff (in
Or you could potentially build-up in there too to make
more of a street front line along in there.
GW:
this sales
Build-up meaning?
162
LM:
New building...another building in the ANK area.
GW:
Alright.
LM:
OK!
What do you suppose the dimension of AB is?
I knew this was happening because now I have to since I made the
assumption that perhaps to make it worth property
by
Exposure.
(AN is half of AB) forty
building in there
your while to add a building in there.
is prime stuff.
dimension. feet
you can add another
feet...God
So this dimension
then you have
Cause street front
is roughly half of this
And we don't want AN to be any less than twenty
that's
huge..
Well
what the
heck..we
don't
have
a
program or a budget here, so AN is twenty feet and AB is thirty feet.
GW:
Alright.
again.
We
Now looking at this now I want to tell you that we're changing it are going
Massachusetts entrance
LM:
that
its
now
a
branch
in a quite suburban
library.
Does
that
area
effect
in
your
selection?
It definitely
same entrance
Well,
and
to say that it is located
if its in
will effect
again,
selection, although
I may
pick the
I don't know.
a suburban
library to be friendly.
my entrance
area
and its
a library
then you
So everybody will want to come in.
definitely
want a
So your going to
really want to play up the entrance to a library and at the same time make it so the rest of it gets the most light as possible.. .even thought I guess in libraries there are areas that need to be away from the sun too, but usually that's not a
problem.
This is a little branch library you say?
163
GW:
Yes.
LM:
Well this way the (number) two entrance for this one has the potential of
Think out loud.
being kind of a cutesy little formal entrance of some sort. times
can
have
pretty
formal
faces to
the street.. .little
And libraries a lot of civic
buildings
(?) or
something.
One is out - too awkward.
Six is out - too awkward.
Five would work, but maybe
not.
This is too hard (number four).. .hard to make it look.
even
though its just a little branch library
Massachusetts.. .this... even definitely
want...the
if it were
entry is going
a really
and
its small
large
scale
to be very important
In a library branch, and its its too to
in suburban awkward.. .you
a branch
library,
and its going to want to be slightly more formal than a house entry or a retail entry
or something
like that.
So this is going to be too hard to make that
work ...too hard to make four polite.
So, and three is of course always out.
I think this one, lets pick number two.
GW:
OK.
Because it satisfies this criteria you've been working with?
LM: Yes.
GW:
Where's the street?
164
LM:
The street is somewhere along the bottom side of the page (toward entry
two).
It could be turned.. .I mean it depends on if the street is curved or not. Pretty boring.
its a straight street then its along the bottom side of the page.
What's the dimension of HG (at entry two)?
GW:
OK.
LM:
I don't know..I'm picturing how big this.. .how big is this?
Twenty five feet? check out area coat
room
would
either here or...in Massachusetts
because
you don't
although.. .I'm
be,
and
library...I've another
What are you thinking?
Twenty feet?
I'm thinking that it might be kinda of nice if we have our
want people
I guess
never
done
little space
to
trying they a
think
so
for cataloging
and
and
stuff and
a so
I guess we would probably want where
about
usually need
library
your going to want to have
dragging in snow
were going to have to have an entrance here. (mutters)
If
the
another space
I don't know, wherever
in the back
but
desk
circulation
they
the librarians
of the need
probably work.
And I
don't think its fair to stick the librarians in the middle where artificial light is because
they're the people who
deserve natural light too. thinking that maybe and
then
and
picking a scale. coat rooms
if
have to be there
all
day long.
I think they
So I think the librarians will be here (at LMN).
it might even be possible to put circulation desk
this
were
large
enough
(she
gestures
to
I was in here
IHGF)...since
I'm
But it would have to be awfully large in order to get things like know book cubby hole things for people or
and book shelves...you get
criteria
for
the
entry
to
circulation
desk it might be a little bit cramped
humongous and then put the circulation
all
the
something
area
of
there.
165
building
and
unless you made it absolutely
we're out of our branch library scale. desk
the
So were going to
Maybe we can have a coat room.. .if that's twenty feet.. .twenty, forty, sixty (she across the face of the building).. .I don't really know how much
adds dimensions room for books.
Sixty feet though, about branch library size isn't it?
not.. .maybe.. .twenty five, thirty, ninety (she adds dimensions across the building).
If it gets much bigger than thirty what the heck
Maybe
the face of
are you going
to do with it all?
Thirty
GW: the
Feet.
HG is thirty feet.
OK.
Looking at this do you see any geometric shapes in
plan?
LM:
You mean like squares, rectangles and stuff?
GW:
Do you see any geometric shapes?
What do you mean?
Are there any geometries that you see
when you look at this plan?
LM:
In
the
relationship in
of all
here,
these
and
continuing
through
rectangle?
Yes, I see geometries.
GW:
What do you see?
LM:
Well I see lots of different things.
pieces?
squares
166
Like do
plugged
This lines up.
on
I or
see
a
rectangle
maybe
MN and DC line up.
this
a
GW:
I'm talking about a bigger... for example, some people look at this and see a
W shape.
LM:
GW:
Right.
Do any of them hit you.
anything.
LM:
I did not see that W shape.
It doesn't have to be that, I mean it could be
Some people also see little pods attached to a central....
OK.
Well there could be lots of different things.
The things.. .the things I
see are...
GW:
Don't think about it.
LM: Yes.
Definitely.
Have you seen one thus far?
The thing that really hits me, especially on some of those
other
ones
are.. .because
more
easily
identifiable
this
is almost
as a square
a
and
easier for that to be a plug-on piece.
perfect so
square,
this... as
then
that
square is
a separate entity.. .so its
That's why I've had trouble calling that
the front of the building because it looks like its a tack-on piece because its a perfect
square and it kind of takes on its own identity.
time... like these two pieces.. .this one is (DCB)
So.. .but at the same
harder to see as a plug-on piece
even though I know that its the same proportion as KJI and IHG because its at the end of this other piece...from either side...unless you look at four... side four as an entrance you still have that plug-on feeling, but from this side it makes a rectangle there, so four is not the same.
So in this one its very.. .I see this as
this lightning bolt sort of thing with two plug-on squares.
167
GW:
So what you're seeing is part of a W with two squares.
LM:
Or I see it as this L shape with one square plug-on and one rectangle plug-
on.
(DMHGFE with square LKJI plug-on and rectangle NABC plug-on)
I see it as just this rectangle... .DMIE with two squares and a rectangle.. .did we already do rectangle,
that one.. .no...or you can break it down to just this rectangle, this and these two
squares
as being
plugged-on.
Also, I also think of this too, especially if you turn it a different way, I think of this KJED as.. .even though its not a whole shape, I think of that as a core and these two (IHGF and NCBA) being plug-on pieces.
GW:
OK, that's fine.
LM:
Especially if you think of that like as a,...like a linear piece. (She looks at
the drawing with the left hand side at the bottom of the orientation.)
(She turns sheet upside down and gestures to its
like the Robie House, sort of. likeness to the Robie House.) main
piece
This looks
So I would see this (NABCDEF) as being almost a
to this one (FGHIJKL)... just these
two...
and
this
as
the plug-on.
Even though these are two separate pieces but when you look at it from this way - upside down - these two pieces can be like two main pieces with just this one
skinny
auxiliary
rectangle
piece
-
LMN
or the tertiary
-
plugged-in,
form.
168
and
this
(LMN)
as
being
the
GW:
OK.
Lets just do a couple of more pieces.
Look at this (Footprint Type C)
real fast and tell me if you do or do not see a geometric figure there.
LM:
The first thing I see is a U with two plug-on pieces.
GW:
OK, do you see a geometric figure on Footprint Type B?
LM:
This one seems more complex.
I see this one more as an L and a lightning
bolt, or a U with two plug-on pieces.
GW:
The L being ANED and the lightning bolt being ANLH?
LM:
No, I don't see that.
do in a volume.
I see that (the lightning bolt) more on the sides than I
I see the lightning bolt thing as more in the face, but the
volume.. .the lightning bolt ... this one (MLKJIHGF), and this (ANEDCB)
is the L.
I
bisect it along NF.
GW:
In looking at this one (Footprint Type A) do you see any geometric forms?
LM:
OK, this almost the same as the other one.
lightning bolt.(MLKJIHGFED).
This one is easier to see the
Yeah and the only add-on piece to the lightning
bolt here is (she gestures to ABCN).
GW:
LM:
So you're calling the W shape a lightning bolt?
Yeah.
W shape - W shape.
169
I want you to think about the idea of a branch
Alright, last question.
GW:
library on a suburban site, and to very briefly tell me, as if this was a dream...if you were branch
doing
library
branch library. branch
LM:
library?
a branch library for yourself, and this
- built exactly
you wanted,
how
was going to be your
then this
would
be the
ideal
What would you say are just four of five features of the ideal What is characteristic
of it?
Very light with windows.. .lots of natural light.
Some sort of courtyard or acceptable outdoor space to read.
that was,
Something
well,
No
in
libraries
So the children's area a little bit more secluded for noise, but You know,
circulation is also in there and happening. integrated
best
concentrate
to monitor...I
I like a lot of stuff going on, but not usually lots of kid
that are not too quiet. stuff going on.
its hard
the circulation is more
in with all the rest of the area.
plastic
furniture
(laughs).
Doesn't need to have
pods...not necessarily plastic
cubical pods, but to have a
row of pods where you can completely go and seclude yourself away from other Like the Exeter
people, but still have the opportunity to not be that way too. library.. .those are pretty nice and a desk to work at. outside
the
- those chairs
- but, cause they have
a window
The great thing about that library too is that you can see
window.. .not just when
faces the window and they have
you
sit down,
very low sills
170
but they
have
in the Exeter
seating
that
library which I
really love because you can sit down and it doesn't limit your view from waist high
or from just below
happens below too.
What else?
eye level
up to the
sky.. .your allowed to
see what
That's nice.
Refreshments.. .you're allowed to drink and eat in this library, but
its the ideal library so everyone still takes care of the books but they can eat and
drink
in
there.. .but
situation.. .so everyone
its
everybody's
library
so
this
is
the
ideal
is careful with the books too.
GW:
OK, that's enough pieces...thank you.
(Note
that Lora did not draw
paper
and
ample
branch
drawing
during the process
materials.)
171
even
though she had tracing
Biographical Information on Lora
firm in Boston Massachusetts.
She has
a four
Lora works
in an architectural
year degree
in architecture from a college in Florida, and has over three years
of
experience.
Lora is twenty seven years old and was raised near Tampa Florida in Dade City, where she lived until she was eighteen years old. Gainsville
Florida
to attend
college.
At that time she moved to
After graduation
Massachusetts.
She has traveled in Europe and eastern United States.
172
she
moved
to
Boston
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