Media studies in education

ISBN 92-3-1O 1446-3 French edition 92-3-201446-7 Published in 1977 by Unesco 7,place de Fontenoy,75700 Paris (France) Printed in the workshops of the Unesco

O Unesco 1977 [BI Printed in France

Preface

For some readers, the term "media education" m a y be new, even perplexing. One attempt at a definition was provided by the International Film and Television Council (IFTC),which has been responsible for the preparation of this report; it was originated in June 1973 at a meeting of M e m b e r Organizations held in Unesco and read as follows: "Media education is the study, learning and teaching of, and about, the modern media of communication and expression as a specific and autonomous area of knowledgewithin educational theory and practice, distinct from their use as aids for theteachingand learning of other areas of knowledge, such as mathematics, science and geography". Like all definitions, the text is at pains to distinguish what is, and what is not, to be included in an understanding of the concept: it is an attempt at differentiation. In less precise but more descriptive language, w e could go on to say that media education is an aspect of communication studies, of literary criticism, of journalism, of social studies, of science and technology, but one which is concerned primarily with the interaction between these and the media. It emphasises the way in which communications media impinge upon, and derive from, the relationship of m a n to the society which sustains him and to the technology from which he now draws much of his impetus. As such, it is an area which is all too likely to be neglected if, in our current searchfor curriculum integration and educational systems approaches, w e lose sight of those forms of liberal education which are not traditionally a part of academic instruction. Media education is therefore not a discipline, but a means of understanding the functions of media within a number of discrete disciplines. It is not confined to the school, the university or the learning resource centre, but associated with all kinds of general education (including the training of educators to help them educate others). The last title to appear on this topic in the

series "Reports and Papers on Mass Communication" was Screen Education, published in 1964. It is no accident that this new report has a different title, but a reflexion of change in both thinking and practice. What once tended to be the prerogative of the film student now covers a more complete spectrum of media, and the pages which follow are an up-dating of the position as it has changed over the last decade. The papers stem from a project carried out by the InternationalFilm and Television Council, in association with its Member Organlsation, the International Centre for Films for Children and Young People, as part of a contract with Unesco. Some of the information has been solicited by questionnaire; other papers were specially commissioned by individual workers in the field. The report is presented as a series of case studies, describing work in a number of countries where media education is an active force. They are offered as reference material for further study and analysis; deliberately, no conclusions or specific recommendations are proposed, apart from theviews expressed in an introductory essay by John Maddison, the Honorary President of the IFTC, who has been engaged in this field since the 1930s. But if there are general trends to discover, and principles and materials which cut across national boundaries, some useful guidelines m a y be found below. The amount of space devoted to each country has been governed by the material supplied, and should not be seen as reflecting the relative importance or otherwise of the subjects. Moreover, the choice of a project or projects from one country does not imply that such types of activities are to be found in the country concerned alone. Rather is it that the example chosen usefully illustrates wider trends. The present collection covers aspects of media studies in certain European countries and the United States of America. Later, it is hoped to publish materials from other regions as these become available.

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Contents

Page

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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INTRODUCTION by John Maddison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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I.

MEDIA EDUCATION IN WESTERN EUROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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France . . . . . . . . . . .by Susan Bennett . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Italy . . . . . . . . . . . .by Susan Bennett . . . . . . . . . . .

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Federal Republic of Germany . by Susan Bennett . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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The Netherlands . . . . . . .by Gerard Kruger . . . . . . . . . . .

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The United Kingdom . . . . . by Manuel Alvarado . . . . . . . . . .

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MEDIA EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Denmark . . . . . . . . . .by Jens Pedersen . . . . . . . . . . .

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Finland. . . . . . . . . . .by Sirkka Minkkinen . . . . . . . . . . 56 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . .by Ingrid Stenbeck . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

III.

SCREEN EDUCATION IN THE USSR by Ilia Weissfeld . . . . . . . . . 69

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MEDIA EDUCATION IN THE U.S.A . by John Cameron Sim . . . . . . 74

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introduction by John Maddison

There is a story, apocryphal perhaps, that Euclid taught his theorems over two thousand years ago at Alexandria with nothing more in the way of equipment than a stick and a stretch of sand; and certainly the nature of his subject-matterwould not have precluded his doing so. But the subject of the present volume is not of this kind. Born of modern technology, it demands for its proper study accessto some at least of the products of that technology. Without such access, media study is unreal, and lacks both rigour and substance., And these two factors progress inthe technologyofcommunication and the nature and degree of access to it lie at the heart of any true understanding of media education, both historically and in respect of its present and future development. In Victor Hugo's memorable phrase, "The Gothic sun sets behind the gigantic printing press in Mainz", (1) the invention of printing fundamentally changed the course of history. A second great change took place inthe wake of the Industrial Revolution, when remarkable progress in the technology of printing led to the emergence in the last quarter of the nineteenth century of the cheap mass circulation popular newspaper to cater for vastly increasedliteratepublics in a number of countries. Realisation of the consequences of this has been slow to penetrate education, and especially formal education. But, as Professor Sim points out in his essay in the present collection, pioneers like Dr. Edgar Dale began in the 1930s to indicate the importanceof studyingnewspapers inthe classroom. For the same process of education as regards the first of the ''mass'lmediato emerge in our own times the film access to the technology has, historically speaking, played a differentbut equally important part. For thirty years or so after the invention of cinematography, the products films could not usually be shown in schools, colleges and educationalestablishments because of the fire risks involved. Until the.1920s, motion pictures were invariably printed on highly flammable stock cellulose nitrate related chemicallyto gunpowder. The appearance on the market in 1923 of narrower

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gauge 16" safety films and projectors made it possible for the first time to take motion pictures into classrooms and lecture halls. Although the granting of a Master's degree in an American university for a dissertation on the cinema is recorded as far back as 1916, organized teaching about the new medium came slowly after the introduction of safety films. Such films came to be used increasingly in the schools of many countries in the period leading up to World W a r II. This expansion, though on nothing like the scale reached during the W a r and after, was considerable. But in fact it contributed little to introducing screen education into the curricula, the whole of it lying virtually in the direction of using films as "visual aids" to the teaching of traditional subjects, especially geography and science. Nevertheless, this development did provide access to materials and equipment for those rather lonely souls among the teachers who tried to give their pupils the opportunity (and one incidentally seized on with enthusiasm) of seeing examples of good movies and discussing the finer points. Such activities were however relatively on a minuscule scale and almost invariably extra-curricular. The introductionof sound radio ushered in the most significant and far-reaching change in the technologyofcommunication. But it isthe immense extension of television viewing in recent decades which has beena more important factor in creating interest in media studies. In his essay on Dehmark, Jens Pedersen shows how the spread there of the new visual medium has helped to bring to the centre of interest among educators (as well as politicians and the public) the study of television and its staple, motion pictures. The part that broadcasting can play in contributing to media education is brought out in the essays on Belgium, and, most strikingly, Ingrid Stenbeck's account of the work with Sveriges Radio in this field. Nevertheless, the impression one has from reading the papers gathered here as a whole is that', generally speaking, school broadcasting programmes and others of a specificallyeducationalcharacter could 7

contributeverymuchmore than they do to a better understanding by students of all ages of the fundamental values and processes of audio-visual communication. The fostering of dis criminating awareness in this way is surely one of the best of investments for broadcasters themselves and the organizations they work for. There is no need to dwell on the various technological developments videocassettes, video discs, cable television, applications of holography and lasers, newforms of data exchange and so on which are now modifyingthe patterns and structures of communication. Potentially, such developments are making the problems of access, already referred to, much more amenable to solution. Audio-visual products are already, in principle at any rate, as available for individual and class study as are printed materials or even more so where, as in some countries, satisfactoryarrangements have been agreed between authors and other copyright holders for limited off-air recordingsof television programme materials for strictly controlled and genuinely educationaluse. Manufacture and marketing of some of the new videogram formats has been slower than anticipated. But there canbe no doubt that in the next few years their scopeand penetrationin education will be considerably extended. Media education cannot fail to be affected by these developments. Indeed, there is already much evidence of this trend in the essays collected here, especiallythe increasinguse, sometimes strikingly innovatory and with young children, of the new electronic video recording devices for learning about the media and for self-expression. Such new advances in technology are enhancing the need, and will continue to do so, to re-evaluatethe relationship between educational objectives and these new media, and their use in the curriculum as a whole. Previous experience does not altogether encourageoptimism that this revaluation - at least on the part of academic authorities will automatically take place. Thus, the earliest trend towards an organized interest in the motion picture as a new art came, in Europe at least, from a quite different direction and owed nothing to the formal educational systems of the time. This was the emergence of the ciné-clubs or film societies,the first of which was set up in Paris almost immediately after the end of the First World War, (2)and which spread in the 1920s and 1930s to many other parts of the world. These groups of devotees of the "good" film and the avant garde met in places remote from the "groves of Academe" in the ordinary entertainment picture theatres outside normal hours of business. Though essentially middle-class and intellectually elitist and though their purpose was by no means didactic, the film societies contributed m u c h to film culture and the creation of the climate in which media education could develop. References to film societies scatteredthroughout the present collectionof papers

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indicate that they continue to perform this valuable function. The example of the film societies reminds us that progress in technology and mahufacturing competence are not the only factors conditioning the establishment of media studies in general education. There are other predisposing factors, cultural and intellectual. One is the state of film and audio-visualculture in any particular country. A number of the essays recognise this, the most unequivocal of which is Gerard Kruger's on the situation in the Netherlands. Another is the availability of good materials for study which should particularly include the best and most significant creative achievements in film and the other media from all countries. (3) Such access to good materials is essential to the build up of the apparatus of organised knowledge and critical scholarship on which education in the media must depend. Many of the essays recognise this. Some of them also point to the need they have felt for good and informative critical and theoretical writing and the importance of film and television criticism to media studies. The problems of critical awareness, as they affect media education, are also related to the degree to which provision is made for the professional training of creative workers. (4) There is an obvious relationship between the level and calibre of professional training in the media and the progress and quality of media studies in general education. The impressiononed erives from the essays as a whole is that media education is best conceived as one of a number of processes that can contribute to the advancement of culture through the new media. Better co-operationbetween the various organizations responsible for these processes should be fostered at all levels, especiallyinternational ones. The present collectionof papers reflects more fully than any previous publication the range of experience in teaching about the media acquired invarious countries. Their richnessand innovatory variety will surprise those who learn of these activities for the first time. Together they reveal how media education can enable the good teacher to illumine relationships between education and its social, cultural, ethical, economic and political dimensions in a way difficult to parallel in other curricular disciplines. Personal reports of Susan Bennett on media studies in some countries she visited France, Italy and the Federal Republic of Germany are particularly interesting for the accounts she gives of the varying institutional, ideological and religious contexts of media education in those countries. The essays from Scandinavia underline the importance of the greater political and academic recognition of the status of media education. The essays concern of course many matters of more directly pedagogical interest. One such topic is the relationship between basic theory (or what I. Weissfeld in his essay on screeneducation

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in the USSR calls the "fundamentals") and practice, and its effectson the methodology of media education. Notably vivid here are the accounts of experiments in enabling children and students to learn by doing through the satisfactions of creative selfexpression, by themselves producing films, programmes and other materials. Another recurring topic is the problem of whether to put greater stress on media as art or as communication with, for example, the emphasis in the Soviet contribution on art and, in the Scandinavian ones, on communication. Though arguably necessary on practical grounds, the distinction between communication and art should not however imply any ultimate dichotomy between the two in media studies. O n the contrary, the relationship between them is fundamental and affectsthe approach to media education in a number of ways. Thus, to take one example, some advertising encourages the debasement of art and by so doing helps to debase not only art but also the currency of communicationgenerally. The process of debasement is not of course limitedto advertising. It goes much wider affecting any of the uses of the media, for reportage, instruction, fiction, etc., wherever there is failure to ensure that content is, in Jane Austen's phrase, "conveyed to the world in the best chosen language". Media education can, as a number of the essays show, help to a r m students and throughthem society, against the more dubious applicationsof art and communication,for whatever ends, commercial, political or other. Various ofthe reportsbring up another problem, that of the relationship between media education and the use of the media as aids to the teaching of other subjects. The definition of media education, quoted above in the preface, distinguishes clearly between them. But this proper and necessary clarification should in no way be seen as justifying dichotomy. T o do so would encourage the pernicious notion, prevalent in some quarters, that audiovisual specialists are merely gadgeteers. Conversely, it will be unfortunate if media education specialists are seen as theoreticians with no practical experience of the production and distribution of the media they are teaching. Apart from their c o m m o n dependence on the same financia1 and technical infrastructures,audio-visual specialists and media educationists are both in the end concerned with new ways in which human beings now communicate with each other. N e w vernaculars are, so to speak, being created. The impact of this has led to the emergence of a new concept of the relationship between technology and education. It is reflected in the more enlightened notion of a technology of education. This involves, as Henri Dieuzeide has pointed out in the essay referred to in Professor Sim's essay, moving away from "thinking about technology education, i. e. thinking chiefly concerned with equipment, the elabor ation of ad hoc messages and the incorporation of technology into traditional teacher-centred

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activities to thinking about the technology of education, i. e. the systematic application of theresources of scientific knowledge to the process that each individual has to go through in order to acquire and use knowledge". (5) (And, one might add, to kindle thought and imagination.) The relationship between media education and educationaltechnology in this sense is fundamental. They are part of the same on-going process. There are, however, indications here and there in these reports that the narrower and surely more reactionary concept of educational technology still prevails among some authorities. One suspectsthat the failureto seethe true relationship between media education and the technology of education in this forward-lookingsense contributes to overt or veiled academic hostility and refusal of status from certain directions towards both. Pertinent to this is a central issue raised explicitly or otherwise in all the essays the place of media studies in the curriculum. As m a y be seen, media education in various forms, and in particular screen education, has largely developed within the framework of the teaching of other subjects - literature and language, art, social sciences, civics, etc. The essays reveal these as unsatisfactory solutions. While they m a y be necessary in some circumstances, they are temporary and at best makeshif-.solutions. Learning and teaching about media are now sufficiently evolved as to be worthy of acceptance as an area of study en soi. Reasons for this are put variously by the different authors of the essays. It would, writes I. Weissfeld, "be a mistake to use films as mere illustrations to the school course of literature", and he quotes with approval the following sentiments of another Soviet specialist, S. Ivanova from Taganrog:

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"It is of primaryimportance from an early age to helpthe child see in a film a work of art. ..A film is not an illustration in a literature class, nor a teaching aid to developthe child's speech habits. .. Thus, the first stage of a teacher's work with a film is to use it for developing his pupils' imagination, their emotional m e m o r y and imagery". John Cameron Sim draws attention to yet another aspect of the problem, the criticism: "that teachers m a y tend to make their media courses too specialised and thereby too limited for instance, those whose background and experience is in print tend to minimize attention given to the electronicmedia, while disciples of McLuhan m a y openly scorn print".

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Throughout this collection of essays, one conclusion emerges overwhelmingly. Because of the diversity of techniques, skills and branches of knowledge it calls upon and must synthesise, media education can no longer be encompassed within any of the existing subjectsof the curriculum. In other words, it is, as our definition puts it,

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'Iaspecific and autonomous area of knowledge within educational theory and practice". Progress towards the acceptance of media education as an autonomous area in modern education has been growing, if slowly. It has undoubtedly been strengthened by a factor not hitherto mentioned the increasein the 1960s and 1970s in the exchange of ideas and experience through various forms of international co-operation meetings,reports and other publications. Examples of this are J. M.L. Peters' book for Unesco, Teaching about the Film,published in 1961; the international meeting in 1962 at Leangkollen in Norway on film and television teaching, and Tony Hodgkinson's report on it; the conference in R o m e in 1966 on film culture in universities and teacher training colleges, and the papers prepared for it; the investigation done by the Centre français de recherche opkrationellefor the same occasion; and the international conference in Moscow in 1975 at whichone ofthe papers w e reproduce was presented. The new media can transcend frontiers with a speed and facility of communication hitherto unimaginable. What conclusions are then to be drawn for future international co-operation? What needs do these essays revealthat such co-operation could help to meet? A recurring theme in these essays is the lack, or inadequacy, of suitable materials for use in teaching about media, especially the screen arts of communication. International co-operation could help to overcome this problem invarious ways. A first step would be to provide better and more up-to-dateinformation about what materials are available for such use, and their availability internationally. Catalogues of materials do, of course, exist, but they tend to be limited to the needs and conditions of particular countries, and too narrow in the range of materials they cover. The sort of lists w e have in mind would encourage the use of valid materials of wider geographical provenance. In particular, such lists would reflect some of the interesting work in the media being increasingly done in the new, developing countries. The tasks of evaluatingand procuring materials from other countries remain nevertheless formidable for most teachers and educational bodies. While efforts towards the freer circulation of materials across frontiers are important, something more specific is needed. One form this might take would be the preparation through international collaboration of a series of multimedia packages covering a sufficiently wide spectrum of materials selected by practising teachers from various countries. The scheme would need to provide among other things for making the packages available without hindrances and at reasonable cost, and in a number of language versions. (6) This would contribute to progress both in media studies and in international understanding generally. Clearly expressed throughoutthese papers are the related needs for more people adequately trained

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and qualified to teach about the media and for the basic resources for their training. Besides better facilities for the purpose in the colleges of education and elsewhere, what seems to be required is much more in the way of critical and expository literatureand guidance on methodology designed for teachers. In this latter connexion, the detailed accounts of courses given ill various countries, which are a notable feature of the present work, provide useful pointers. Specimen outlines of courses in media studies at different levels primary, secondary, higher and adult of education derived from the experience of these and other countries would undoubtedly contribute to the better training of qualified personnel. Such documents would need to be based on internationally validated experience of the theory and practice of media education. Their aim would be to stimulate thought, suggest ideas and offer guidance rather than to impose, or seem to impose, any rigid patterns on what is after all an evolving area of pedagogy. International co-operationshould also in our view extend to providing facilities for the training of media studies teachers, particularly from countries where the needed resoui'ces are inadequate. Methods for promoting training of the kind have been successfully developed by Unesco over the years. They represent indeed one of the most valuable contributionsthe Organization has made to the progress of education. These methods the running of regional and international seminars and workshops ought to be more extensively applied in media education, with emphasis on teacher t raining. In the present work, what strikesone who has observed the growth of interest in media education over the past forty years is the evident emergence of a better defined, more intellectually valid and scholarly based set of ideas about the media and their culturaland social significance. Historically, various older disciplines have contributed to this. Analogies with literature and the graphic arts provided the first impulse and their relationship with the media is stillof course abasicone. There followed, after the War, a considerably enhanced preoccupation with the relationships between psychology and the media, the audio-visualmedia particularly, and the attempt to arrive at a "philosophy" of the cinema. Most recently, the seminal approach has derived from developments in linguistics and what m a y be broadly described as the semiology of the media. Though occasionally pretentious and not always free from "waffle", this has had the beneficial effect of focusing closer attention on the detail of the media themselves films, programmes, texts, etc. - and their fundamental structures and systems. However, the critical and expository literature this has thrown up is scattered about in a great many periodicals and books in a variety of languages. Bringing together and synthesising these writings and the

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practical experience contained in the following pages would meet the need repeatedly expressed for a scholarly compendium on the theory and practice of media education as a genuinely autonomous curricular subject. It might take the form of a manual, to be made available in, at the least, the major languages used internationally. This would undoubtedly contribute to the solution of the most serious problem referred to in the papers the failure by most educational authorities to recognise media studies officially and to give the subject autonomous status. But other steps are needed. One of these might be the organization of an international conference to deal specifically with the place of media studies in educational systems as part of that renovation of educationwhichisamong the most important of the objectives of Unesco. Justifications for a major initiative of this kind are not far to seek. Essentially they stem from the two factors w e referred to at the beginning the technology of communication and access to it. For the most part, the examples of media education that follow happen to come from industrialised countries. Butthelessons to be derived from them apply to all countries, developed and developing. They form part and parcel of the problems that come with the expanding access to technology and, increasingly so, as the technological gaps are closed. It is moreover no exaggeration to say that the understanding of media through education represents ultimately one of the most potent weapons w e possess for meeting a major challenge of our times what to do about the impact of technology on the human condition.

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(1) "Le soleil gothique se couche derrière la gigantesque presse de Mayence. 'I (2) The word "ciné-club" was first used in 1920 by the film critic and theoretician, Louis Delluc. The first film society showing took place the

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following year at the Colisée Cinema in Paris. B y then Canudo had created "Le Club des Amis du Septième Art" in order, as he put it, "d'affirmer le caractère artistique du cinéma, d'étudier, de dégager, d'affermir une esthétique du cinématographe, de lier 1'élite des "écranistes" à l'élite intellectuelle pour qui le film reste souvent un divertissement de foire". Unhappily, many valuable films from earlier days have disappeared or survive only in mutilated copies. Only in the 1930s were the first steps takenby a few far-sightedpioneers Henri Langlois in Paris, Ernest Lindgren in London and Iris Barry, founder of the M u s e u m of Modern Art Film Library in N e w York - to try to create for the cinema national permanent collections of the sort which play so essential a r61e in the history and study of printed literature and the visual arts. In consequence, histories of the film were unreliable, based on fading and fallible memories of films seen once only long before or not at all. An isolated exception from.those days was Lewis Jacobs' The Rise of the American Film, based on original research and the viewing of films themselvesmade possiblethrough the M u s e u m of Modern Art. The present study does not, generally speaking, cover training those taking up profess-ional careers in the media. .Muchuseful data on this aspect will be found in the works by M a y Katzen and Ernest D. Rose, listed in the Bibliography. H.Dieuzeide, Technology and Development in Education, Paris, Unesco, 1972. One possible format is suggestedby a current project in a different field. This is "ATLAS, A n International Library of Educational Broadcasting Materials for Teacher-Training", produced by IFTC for Unesco.

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I. Media education in Western Europe

The reports grouped toge%her in this section are of two kinds: a series of essays onthree countries other than her own (France, Italy and the Federal Republicof Germany)by one author, Susan Bennett; and two further essays (on the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) by specialistsfrom those countries.

FRANCE By Susan Bennett In many ways, France startedoffwith an advantage in the study of the media. Cultural movements traditionally come into being flanked by manifestoes and polemics, and there is no supposedly natural division between a cultural practice and its theory. So any type of mass (or élite) communication is almost bound to find its theoreticians, very often among the practitioners themselves. That this is still a privileged activity, which does not necessarily feed back into the educational system as a whole, is a problem that engages the attention of many French teachers and educationalists, and some of their answers to it are to be found in the second part of this study. However, it remains true that, on a certain level, the media are treated with great academic seriousness. Apart from the books of leading theoreticians in the field, such as Roland Barthes and Christian Metz, there is a steady stream of periodical literature, either specialised such as Cahiers du Cinéma or dealing with all the media such as Communications, to provide the teacher who is willing to make the effort with a theoretical background. And, especially sincethe upheaval of 1968, which brought about a restructuring of the university system, it has become increasingly possible to study cinema (and,to a lesser degree, mass communications in general)at university though still not as a major subject. A recent unpublished article, Panorama Systématique de l'Enseignement du Cinéma en France, by Paul Leglise, head of the Cultural Action Service at the Centre Nationale de la

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Cinématographie, lists 23 universities which include film in theirprogramme of studies. Some of the possibilitiesand limitations of such courses for subsequent use in teaching m a y be judged by looking at one fairly comprehensive set of them given under the direction of Jacques Morin (who is also president of ANDEC (AssociationNationale pour le Développementde 1'Enseignement Cinkmatographique), an association for the development of cinema studies) at the University of Lille 3 11. Over a period of three years, students from all facult,iescan attend courses covering cinematic language, the analysis of the image, the sociology of the mass media and many related topics, but only the Art and from 1975 - the Musicstudents working for a teaching degree can use the knowledge acquired in a national examination, the CAPES (Certificat d'Aptitude Pédagogique 2 l'Enseignement Secondaire), and then only as an option. At present there is no internal degree in this area, and M . Morin explains that they are not pressing for one while it is uncertain whether it will get the holders a job. Yet there has been a considerable governmental drive to introduce the media, physically speaking, into educational institutions. Eighty of the Ecoles Normales (Colleges of Education) now have closed-circuit television installations, and INDRP (Institut national de documentation et de recherchepédagogiques), the national institute for pedagogical research and documentation, works to ensure that schools have audio-visual equipment at their disposition. There is also a national centre for the study of educational technology and the production of audio-visual aids, OFRATEME (Office FranSais de Techniques Modernes d'Education). The work of evolving the pedagogic theory in this area is undertaken by the Centre AudioVisuel of the Ecole Normale Supérieure de SaintCloud, headed by Dr. Robert Lefranc. T h e Centre has a graduate research department, under M, Foquet, a production department, and a training department, under M. Strasfogel,which prepares approximately 50 teachers a year for the task of

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training others in the area of audio-visual instruction. Aproportion of such work of course feeds off into the understanding of the media as a whole; for instance M. Louis Porcher's research into the semiology of the still and moving image. But the study of the medía in their social form, as "mass communications", is not one of the Centre's priorities. The orientation of media teaching in the Ecoles Normales is broadly the same. One of the historical reasons for this situation is that media education (or rather film education, since other forms did not exist until recently) has traditionally been an extracurricular activity, carried on by film societies, school clubs and youth organizations, often on Wednesday afternoon, which is a free time for French children. In response to pressure from teachers, and especially from organizations such as the ANPEDU (Association Nationale pour la Promotion des Arts de I'Ecran dans l'Université), the Ministry of Education in 1963 recognised film teaching as educational (in the so-called "Circulaire Capelle" of 31 M a y 1963, 78-213) and teachers were henceforth able to claim payment for it on the same scale as for other out-of-schoolactivities. Film teaching of an unorganised kind in the form of the discussion or lecture that frequently accompanies a movie in Frenchfilm societies is avery widespread phenomenon. There are hundreds of thousands of these film societies (Ciné-Clubs) organised into federations(1)with their own film libraries, magazines and s u m m e r schools. The kind of teaching practised by many of these clubs has come in for criticism recently. The reasons given are described below, but one difficulty that would be recognised by all is the lack of trained organisers. The State has made a move towards improving the situation by including "non-verbal means of expression" as one of the options in a new diploma awarded by the Ministry of Youth, Leisure and Sport. The diploma is called the CAPASE (Certificat d'Aptitude 2 la Promotion des Activites Socio-Educatives). It is intended as a qualification for youth club leaders, community organisers, etc., and normally takes three years. Twenty-one out of the 300 courses which the applicant for a CAPASE could attend as part of his or her training in 1972 were on audio-visual subjects, chiefly film-making quite a good proportion in view of the modest place it occupies in the curriculum. But training in film-makingwould be useless if no facilities were available later, and several organizations are working to ensure that they are. The Association Nationale du Jeune Cinéma NonProfessionel, founded in March 1969, has managed to set upthree regional centres (film-makingworkshops plus auditoria), has four more under way, and has co-ordinatedthe use of many more school facilities. The Centre Français du Cinéma pour l'Enfance has four workshops and organises a once-yearly giant film-making and theatre event

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at the spa of L a Bourboule with the participation of the children who go there for treatment, The educational rationale of children's and young people's film-making is often unformulated, but some ofthe most interesting enterprises seem to have been achieved against the odds; in a youth centre in working-class Boulogne -Billancourt; in the Maison de la Culture at Le Havre. The work done in this latter centre is all the more astonishing in view of its disparity with the orientation of the Maisons de la Culture-in general. These c o m posite arts centres, which have been set up in a number of French towns since the early 1960s as part of the Fifth Economic and Social Development Plan, have a reputation for serving mainly middle-class interests, as the Studies and Research Department of the French Ministry of Culture themselves admit,(2) and it seems as though media policy has been in line with this, i.e. chiefly confined to the exhibition of films. The Unité Cinéma in L e Havre consists of a group of local people: young workers, unemployed, older schoolchildren, working co-operatively under the guidance of C. Zarifian and V. Pinel, to produce documentaries about the local environment, and fiction films, collectively directed and inspired.(3) This sort of activity film-making as part of community action - obviously has close links with video and cable TV, being covered in a report for the Council of Europe. But it does point to a way out of the middle-class 'aias in which the use of film for educational purposes is often embedded. So far, w e have referred only to the discussion and making of films, but one or two educational organizations had already begun to recognise, in the early 1960s, that there were other forms of media teaching. One of them was UFOLEIS (The French League for General and Adult Education, Union Fransaise des Oeuvres Laïques d'Education par l'Image et par le Son)(41, whose director is Francois Chevassu, and the Delegate-Generalis Claude Clastres, now running the regional branch of UFOLEIS in Bordeaux. UFOLEIS is part of the Ligue Française de l'Enseignement et de 1'Education Permanente. (5) It has about 10,O00 members among youth centres, school clubs and junior film societies, for w h o m it provides a magazine, L a Revue du Cinéma, Image et Son, boxes of slides and other informational material, courses, and media workshops in twenty regions. As early as M a y 1966, there was a special issue of the magazine called "Apprendre le Cinéma", in which analysis of films was accompanied by a study of still images, and exercises in telling a story inpictures, with a strong emphasis on filmmaking as part of the learning activity. UFOLEIS' interest in other media has grown, aided by the collaboration of Guy Gauthier, who has made a special study of the semiology of the image. H e has devised a box of slides on this topic for UFOLEIS, and in a recent issue of L a Revue du

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Cinéma - he describes how children of different ages.

it m a y be used with

All these developments are, however, a far cry from the type of teaching traditionally practised in the ciné-clubs. France is a country with a strong avant garde tradition, and at their best the cinéclubs have fosteredthat tradition,helping to produce a passion for cinema, and thinking about cinema, which has fed back into artistic and critical production. Though, to put this in perspective, it must be remembered that the audiences who flock to the Art et Essai cinemas (repertory houses which account for 12% of all ticket sales in France) are predominantly urban and middle-class.(6) The Circulaire Capelle gives an idea of what was frequently meant by film education in 1963: .'I ..to give pupils the necessary training to appreciate precisely the aesthetic and dramatic value of films by comparison with similar works of literature and art. In addition, psychological and social analysis of the works shown should lend the pupils to reflect on the human value of this type of entertainment 'l.

And this remains the formula for many ciné-clubs today: projection of a film,followedby a subjective type of discussion, often basedon literary-critical models. It is true that the circular went on to warn teachers that the cinema had a specific character of its own; they should: "explain the technicalmeans for expressing certain themes. The material conditions of film-making should be studied, the shooting and editing of films, the means of expression used...'I, But the ciné-club leader who avoided the dangers of subjectivity and vagueness was all too often likely to fall into a cold analysis of "techniques". This approach is still flourishing, sometimes under the cover of phraseology borrowed from semiology, but without a full understanding of the semiological approach. It, in fact, much more resembles another tenacious form, the analyse de texte (theminute dissection of a passage from a l'classicll book) which still haunts the teaching of literature. A third tendency is to try to assimilate the cinema to other, more conventionally accepted forms of art. A recent textbook compares Westerns to Greek tragedy, and repeatedly asks the students to describe how they would film passages from literature. One of the first attempts at an extensive prog r a m m e of media teaching in school hours was started by Father A. Vallet in the mid-1960s and now covers 200 Catholic schools in the St. Etienne region. It is run by the Institut du Langage Total, a higher - institute of-pedagogy in the Catholic University at Lyons, publishes books and a regular journal and has spread, on a modest scale, into several other Catholic countries. The programme consists in an attempt to unify all the arts, of the past and present, in a "total language". A picture

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by Breughel, a film,advertisements,would all be studied as part of the same course, which, it is often suggested, should be grouped around a theme. F r o m a certain point of view, these courses filled gaps that had long existed in French education, for until recently the visual and dramatic arts and music were meagrely covered by the usual State examinations and so were neglected in school. The dominant approach in their publications (e.g. Initiation: Cinéma, Presse, Télévision, published by Ligel, Paris, 1966) is an aesthetic one, towards the role of the individual artist: "The work is in the image of its creator. There is a close bond between him and it. If the work is an anonymous creation, this means that M a n has expressed himself imperfectly. There has been, in some way, a failure in creation". When the Langage Total courses began, media teaching had no official blessing as an in-school activity. But, in the last few years, French education has been moving in directions potentially favourable to it, at least from an administrative point of view. Until the early 1960s, French school life was one long series of examinations, with the toughest pressure taking place in the academic schools, the Lycées. John Ardagh explains the change that has taken place: (Up until 1963)'I. ., though children from all social backgrounds attended the same State or Church primary schools, at the age of eleven the lycées took their own privileged stream while the rest went to junior secondary schools, where they either left at fourteen or fifteen or, if they were lucky, went on to some kind of technical college. Under the 1965 reform, the junior classes in lycées and the old junior secondary schools gradually lose their old identities and are merged into a network of new comprehensives for eleven-tofifteen year-olds, the Collèges d'Enseignement Secondaire (CES). Selection from these for sntry to the lycées at fifteen is not by exam but by teachers' recommendation and general school record. .. .'I (7)

So one obstacle to the teaching of subjects not so far "sanctioned" by an examination has been removed: the emphasis on getting over academic hurdles. But the pressure sets in again at lycée level for the Baccalauréat, the stringent end-ofschool examination which qualifies for university entrance, and experience has shown that media teaching makes most headway in the CES, and especially in classes for the less academically gifted. But the most decisive influence on media education has come from a law of 1973, now commonly known as "the lo%", which, together with its corollary on media, Introduction to AudioVisual Education, are of such importance that they are worth quoting at length. The first is Circular Number 73-162of 27 March 1973:

"1. .. .I have decided to put 10% on the yearly totalof school hours at the disposition of secondary schools.. .(8) 2. The purpose of this measure is to make the organizationofteachingmore flexible; it should also contribute to developing the life of schools as communities by permitting all those involved to participate more directly in defining and putting into practice educational aims suited to the conditions of the institution and the type of pupil. 3. I shall not give any specific instructions as to the use of this 107'0, because in order to safeguard the spirit of such a measure, it is essential that the way in which it is applied should be defined at single-school level, within the general framework set out below. 4. The fund of timetable-hoursthus released must not be regarded as the private property of each discipline, but will belong to all. 5. The head of the school will ensure that it is used, first and foremost, for activities involving team-teaching.. .The normal division into streams or classes need not be adhered to. . .. 7. The hours can be used, for instance, for: independent work; collecting information; and external activities relating to the curriculum, as for example courses and excursions. Club-type activities cannot be regarded as entering into the definition of the 10%. ... 9. It should be remembered that theatrical activities can play an important role in the teaching of arts subjects... 10. The emphasis laid on the convergence of subjects is intentional; its function is one ofopeningup. O n the other hand, it is undesirable to adopt a single theme for all disciplines. As research stands at the moment, the selection of such a theme could not but be very artificial. It is better to institute co-ordination on a smaller scale, using actual convergences between the different programmes". (9)

The measure was welcomed by many teachers interested in the media, as a step towards breaking down rigid subject-divisionsand giving more of a community atmosphere to schools - both factors potentially favourable to media education. But there was some uncertainty as to whether the 10% of school hours allocated in the circular could be used for such purposes, until another circular settled the question: "11. Subject: Introduction to Audio-visual Communication (10) The CRDP (11) of Bordeaux has obtained some positive results in the area of introduction to audio-visual communication (CAV) under the auspices of INDRP and O F R A T E M E . In consequence I have to inform you that I can see nothingbut advantagein those secondaryschools which practise this teaching doing all or some of it during the 10% of school hours allocated by the ministerial circular of 27 March 1973.. .

Nonetheless, heads of schools should ensure the existence of the following conditions: that the teachers who volunteer should be trained by a CRDP, notably that of Bordeaux, which will diffuse the method to the other CRDP's through the intermediary of the INDRP and

OFRATEME; that it be put into practice in a rigorous way, i. e. with the use of the proper equipment, the formation of a local team of trained teachers; the appointment of a person in charge; and the evaluation of the results in conjunction with the CRDP. Directors of CRDP's who are solicited by school heads for their support for anICAVproject will only give it to projects fulfilling the preceding conditions, with priority going to those schools where it has already been started. Finally, like any educational activity, ICAV will be subject to the scrutiny of government inspectors'l. This circular represented the culmination of ten years of efforts by the director of the Bordeaux centre, René L a Borderie, and his group of colleagues to establish media education on a sound basis in French schools. Not only did he finally authorise media education as part of the curriculum, but it provided for something which the centre had always insisted on as essential: the training of teachers, and the rooting of every programme in research. In conclusion, we give a short account of the work of the CRDP of Bordeaux, and describe one ofthe coursesgiven in conjunction with this centre.

ICAV and the Work of the CRDP of Bordeaux ICAV (Initiation à la Communication AudioVisuelle) is a subgroup of a regional educational research and information and publication body, the Centre de Recherche et de Documentation Pédagogiques, which comes under the authority of the Académie. (12) It co-operates with the local branch of UFOLEIS, and has a long history of collaboration with that organization. Thus, in 1966,(13)when a group of local teachers involved in the Film Society Movement were beginning to formulate some of the aims of what was to become ICAV, one of them, A. Jeannel, now the head of the ICAV research team, contributed to the M a y 1966 issue of Image et Son, devoted to the theme Apprendre le Cinéma. The same issue carried an article by Guy Gauthier on "reading the image". It also has many links with the University research department and runs conferences jointly with them (e.g. the one on le Fonctionnement de Codes Spkcifiques(l4) in which, among others, R. L a Bor,derieand Metz tookpart). Metz has long been associated with the CRDP, and helped to formulate the original plans for ICAV. 15

The work of ICAV cannot properly be separated from that of the CRDP,reflecting, as it does, one side ofthe latter's general interest in the processes of communication. Here, w e concentrate on those of the CRDP's activities including ICAV most related to media education, while attempting not to divorce them from their context. The following extracts from the 1974information leaflet, Prksentation du CRDP, give an idea of their scope:

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..The CRDP is an advisory body, whose work is to intervene, systematically or at specific points, in the renovation of education, through documentation, research and co-ordination. It provides help to all teachers, advisory and administrative officials of the Académie. It is also responsible nationally for research and training in audio-visual communication. Services: Documentation: this is concerned with the further education of teachers, providing them with the necessary written materials and carrying out documentary research in line with CRDP policies.. . The service prepares abstracts of books and reviews, some of which are published in the magazines SELICAV (publishedby CRDP) or MEDIA (publishedby OFRATEME).(15) It is also preparing a thesaurus on the semiology of messages. Production: this is designed to increase the supply of materials for teachers, particularly in the audio-visual area, and to support the research and other activities of the centre. Productions, which range from simple brochures to television programmes,. ..m a y come from individuals, whether working within the education system or not, and from organizations. The latter was the case with the current multimedia operation, "L'Aquitaine au présent", which is part of the OFRATEME series: L a France Face 2 l'Avenir(16). .. The production service takes account of the wishes expressed at meetings held frequently with teachers, and tries to respond to them, within the context of the general policy of the centre, and of technical and financial limitations. Research: this service organises teaching projects covering basic needs for experimentation in all types of educationalinstitution, by organising teams of teachers in the field and analysing the work in relation to field conditions. The activities of the research service are very largely oriented towards the study of phenomena of communication, particular1y audio-visual communication. ICAV has done a study ofthe functioning of communication in the media (forhigher elementary, and secondary schools). .. The financial or administrative means (e.g. obtaining pay for extra work by teachers, or time off from teaching) come either from INDAP or OFRATEME or the Académie. This enables meetings to be run for reflexion and co-ordination by the researchers, documents prepared describing 'I.

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the work, and making the necessary contacts with the field. Teacher training: this service supplies information and stimulus for pedagogical renovation, the induction and further training of teachers". (Most of the activities of this service are omitted: the following two are, however, of special relevance to media education): I'. ..training 'animateurs' (animators or roughly group-leader-tutors)for work in APAV;(17) ...informational activities going beyond the framework of school education, into general problems (the lecture-cycle Messages et Media, for example.'I

The role of ICAV is defined as follows. II.. .to enable children to understand 'master cultural codes'. The method is twofold: reflexion to help children analyse the phenomenon of audiovisual communicationat both levels: transmission and reception; practice to help them express themselves and communicate by audio-visual means 'I.

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ICAV practice is described in more detail below. But to be correctly understood, it must be seenin its context; the SEDF's concern with education as communication, which covers a wide area, from the examination of social interaction in schools, to the most minute analysis of codes. (la) A n example ofthe former is the new book L'Etablissement c o m m e Lieu de Communication (the educational institution as a site of communication) published by CRDP,Bordeaux, 1975, which studies how types of teaching (group work, audio-visual teaching, etc.), school institutions (marking, etc.), and the internal organization of types of school (in this case, the newer type of French secondary school, the comprehensive CES), embody certain forms of communication. F e w of these, they found, corresponded to the ideal whereby a child would acquire 'values proper to his own condition (and not to authority)through work with other children, and meet the adultworld in a relation of reciprocal influence".(19) This idealof what the communication process in school should be naturally affects the CRDP's attitude to the use of the audio-visual media. T o take a basic example: as part of their training at APAV, teachers are asked to "try out" the materials they produce at the sessions about each other, thus learning, it is hoped, to see the communicationprocess from the pupil's viewpoint and to recognise that it is as important as theirs. But the exercise also demonstrates that there is more than one way of communicating, and that the absolutelyunambiguous message (which in any case they seldom succeed in producing) is not necessarily the ideal, since it leaves no room for creative interpretation on the part of the recipent. The CRDP have also, of course, themselves

produced audio-visual materials (20) for use in various areas, and define their position on this

" 'Closed'messages: these should be reserved for the transmission of strictly definable concepts (for instance, the TV series on technology produced by the CRDP of Bordeaux using programmed learning techniques). 'Open-closed'messages: these seem better suited than the above for educationalpurposes. One of the elements of such messages transmits a certain content, but the other is not highly structured, so the the whole is received in various ways. This gives riseto reflexionon the content presented, as well as on the differentways ofpresenting it, and on the diversityof the ways in which it is received".

Implied then, in the study of any audio-visually transmitted content (whether in school or through the mass media) is a reflexion on the cultural codes employed in transmitting it, the purposes of the one transmitting it, and the circumstances conditioning its reception. The purpose of ICAV is to give khildren the ability to make such an analysis themselves, and to produce audio-visual documents. There are now three ICAV courses available, which use a series of books, entitled L e Monde des Images, sets of photos, slides and work material to go with them. They are intended to cover the junior and intermediate sectors of the secondary school. The first book (Serie I, Cahier A)covers the still photograph, the sequence of photographs andthe advertisingimage. The second book (Serie I, Cahier B) continues the series on advertising, and also includes comic strips, and analysis of a short film. The third book (Serie II, Cahier A) includes analysis of the short film,introducing the idea of 'elements of meaning', and returns, at a more complicated level, to analysis of the still image, and still images in sequence. (The discussion is accompanied throughout by practical work, and the childrenanalyse films and photographs produced by themselves.) The middle section of Book I, dealing with sequences of black-and-whitephotographs: "Introduction

A photograph on its own, without a caption or a context, generally has a multiplicity of meanings (polysemy). In the same way that adding a context or a caption to a photograph fixes one meaning, and gives the photograph a particular sense so a succession of photographic images reduces the polysemy of each one of them. Thus one can tell a story in pictures, without adding an explanatory text or dialogue as with photo-novels. However, since the succession of images leaves a considerable freedom of interpretationto the 'récipient', it is possible to construct several different stories from the same succession of images. These stories can, in fact, be totally

contradictory, and the initiative of the 'récipient' can, according to the type of montage presented, be as important, or even more important, than the initiative of the 'transmitter'. One meaning can also rapidly become so fixed in the mind of the 'récipient', that he will consciously or unconsciously transform the content of certain images to the point of 'seeing' elements in them which are definitely not there. Finally,the cultural context,the contemporary situation, the psychology and centres of interest of the viewer, consciously or unconsciously, import meaning to the interpretation of the succession of images. Nevertheless, images in sequence do lose some of their polysemy and are indubitably a means of communication between the person who has made them, or arranged the sequence, and the person who receives them. W e shall see how images in sequence canbe perceivedas a message". Lesson 1 deals with reducing the polysemy of an image by adding another. For example, a slide of a little boy crying is shown and interpreted by the children in a number of ways. It is then followedby anotherof a m a n eating a cake - so he is crying because he is hungry.(21) Lesson 2 concerns the limits onthe reduction of polysemy of images in sequence. Three photographs are shown: a m a n smiling, looking serious, another m a n holding a revolver. The children are asked to arrange the slides in such a way as to show: (a)that the m a n with the revolver is the enemy of the other, (b)that he is his friend. This demonstrates that a montage implies a meaning, but several montages can have the same meaning. There is, however, a limit. In order to imply that the m e n are friends, the smiling face must always come after the serious one. Lessons 3 and 4: narrative in the succession of images. In lesson 3, the children are asked to construct a narrative on the basis of a series of slides, one c o m m o n interpretation of which (though many are possible)is that a little boy runs away, and has an accident. In lesson 4, another slide is added showing the little boy still alive and well, thus discounting one interpretation. In constructing their narratives, the children have also introduced the time factor: "he did this, then that happened I'. So, it is demonstrated that: I' 1. ..the interpretation of a sequenceof slides can vary. 2. That these variations are a functionofthe importance attached to one image or another. 3. That one can construct a coherent story out of a succession of images. 4. That the coherence of the story is a function of the introductionby the pupil of the time factor. (N.B. Other factors can make a narrative coherent, but for pupils of this age, w e have restricted ourselves to the study of time)". 17

The additionofthe final image shows that "a single image can change the sense of the whole series". "The next lessons show how it is possible to create a succession of images which will be interpreted in the same way by all the group. I' Lesson 5 concerns the place of the object in the sequenceofimages. Six slides areused: (a)general shot;(22) (b)mid-shot: a boy with his bicycle; (c)view from the balcony down onto the boy; (d) close-up of the boy looking up; (e)the washing falling off the balcony; (f) the boy picking it up. The children are divided into six groups, and together see the six slides in sequence. They all write down, and classify in order of importance, the objects in slide 1, but at different stages. Group 1 do it after seeing slide 1 only; group 2 after seeing slides 1 and 2, and so on to group 6 who do it after seeing all the slides. The following table of replies resulted: "group 1 : boy/balcony/washing/bicycle/grass/ flats/path/door; group 2: boy/bicycle/balcony/washing/flats; group 3: boy/bicycle/balcony/washing; group 4: boy/balcony/washing; group 5: boy/bicycle/balcony; group 6: boyfwashing. When asked to derive a story from the pictures, the reply: "The washing falls down and the boy picks it up". "The children selected two elements of image 1 through having seen the ones that followed it. One can then point out that a simple, monosemic story has been established from the content of the first image andthe literalmeaning of the others, without any external element entering the narrative. (23) Lessons 6and 7 deal with the role of interpretation in a sequence of images. They aim to show that: 'I 1. A succession of images whose literal content does not change remains at the level of interpretation as polysemic as the single blackand-white image without a caption (Chapter1). 2. If one adds to this sequence (which forms a homogeneous whole) a further image retaining certain elements of the others, one reduces the polysemic character of the interpretation. 3. Finally, as a third step, if one adds to this same series (2)an image which does not contain any of the literal content of the preceding images, the polysemic character of the interpretation is further reduced (one m a y even obtain a single, unanimous interpretation). Five slides are used: (a)a boy working from the front; (b)a boy working, head raised; (c)a boy working, threequarters front view, from right; (d) the boy's exercise book, with a sketch of a little girl; (e) a little girl. When the children interpret the first three images, they have to resort to hypotheses (e.g.

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the boy is doing his homework), deriving from their background. A s a complementary exercise they are asked to find comparable polysemic sequences in comics (these must of course be wordless). Only when the fourth slide is added are they able to draw inferences based solely on the evidence of the images. 'The boy is drawing a little girl in his exercise book'. Thus: 'The introduction of a heterogeneous element into a homogeneous sequence directs the pupils towards an unequivocal interpretation of the whole'. I I The children are then again asked to find sequences in comics illustrating this principle. Lesson 7: when a fifth, totally heterogeneous image is added (that of the little girl)the polysemy of the images is further reduced,(24) i. e. he is not just drawing a little girl but drawing a specific little girl (the children usually say he is looking at her). If asked to make a narrative out of it, they say something like: "He is dreaming of a little girl he had met that morning". In both cases they have added something: (a) "looking", ("'dreaming' - m e t that morning". The results of ICAV sessions can be and are fed back into research. A n important document here is a study conducted by Alain Jeannel, since it relates some of the most basic problems of educationalpractice, in an extremely detailed and rigorous way, to the study of the audio-visual pro cess. "Approche Analytique des Processus de Verbalisation", published by CRDP, Bordeaux, in 1971, is an account of research conducted by the author, A. Jeannel, in 1967 with a group of 25 children aged between 12 and 14, in the fifth form of a secondary school, in the context of a weekly ICAV class. Jeannel showed three short films: a wordless Polish film about a childhood friendship, entitled: PREMIERE ET MOI, C. Marker's documentaryon Israel, DESCRIPTION D'UN COMBAT and COLETTE, written by herself, directed by Y.Bellon. The children were given afewminutes after each screening to write down their impressions of the film,and from a detailed examination of their replies (which are reproduced in full in the study)he analyses the various processes whereby they organise their perception of the film for the purpose of verbalisation, and the types of verbalisation they employ. Under types of verbalisation he found: (a) a listing of film events without explanation of their underlying significance (puredenotation); (b) an interpretation of the film but no description (pureconnotation); (c)description and interpretation. A fourthtype, resembling (c)but more succinct, grouped the entire experience of the film around a theme (in this case, that of friendship). One of these types frequently dominated in any given reply, and type (a)dominated overall, but the type adopted by each individual fluctuatedconsiderably from film to film. A child's personal code was far from immutable.

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B y means of further analysis, Jeannel arrives at certain hypotheses concerning the mental processes, whereby the childrenorganise the message they receive from the film into the message they express. Process 1: the child replaces what he/ she saw in the film with something more or less related to it which he/she was already familiar with. (Jeannel calls this the "acquis culturel". ) The "something" can be individual words, e. g. some of the children elaborate excessively on the market presented in the film about Israel, presumably because they know a lot of words connected with "market", or it can be the whole "model" for the description e. g. the child who reformulates his perception of the Israel film on the basis ofhis ideas about "democracy". Process 2 (which often results in type (a) of verbalisation, the "list of facts") consistsof arejection of the role the child's prior knowledge played in histher perceptionofthe film. There is a refusal to interpret. A s the author comments on one student: "he prefers to remain vague in order not to say something stupid". Process 3: the children are able to describe what they saw as they really saw it. Jeannel comments about this process: "It has the particularity of being set in motion while the child is perceiving the message, and thenonlyneeds to be remembered". (This tends to produce type (c) of verbalisation.) Process 4: confrontation. "The message transmitted is the result of a confrontationbetween what the child perceives the film to be saying about a subject, and what he/she already knows about the subject. I' The child quite consciously gives an opinion. The result is oftentype (b)of verbalisation. Under process 5, the child adopts a known model, e. g. that of "literary criticism" to describe the film,thus giving little information about how he/ she really perceived it. The result is often verbalisation of the second type. In demonstrating how the perception of a film is transformed into expressible form, the study is of interest to the media teacher, as well as the teacher of the mother tongue. (25) For the teacher cannot in fact know how a film has been perceived by the students, unless he or she is aware of the distortions that their process of verbalisation m a y impose on their account of the thingperceived. But the study also gives some hints as to how the various components of a film are perceived in relation to each other. The author originally expected that the commentary or dialogue would help the children in their written expression, but this was not so:

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"Elements from the film are selected and used according to the same process, whatever their origin. Whether the process is applied to a word or an image, or to a group of either or to a mixed group, it submits all the elements to the same treatment.I' In fact, it was certain that stimulated one process rather than another: for instance,

PREMIERE ET MOI tended to produce process (c), HISTOIRE D'UNCOMBAT,(a)or (d), the children apparentlyperceiving them as audio-visual wholes. The study also opens up many more questions than it sets out to solve. Such as: W h y was one film more amenable to description than another? And, what role did the children's social origins, or their relations with the other children, or their "intelligence" as measured by the standard tests play in their performance? Jeannelgives considerable data about all the last three points at the beginning of the study, without relating it to the object of analysis. However, the inclusion of such information leaves the document open to further examination from other points of view. Some of the major ones are: Fédération Française des Ciné-clubs; Film et Vie; Fédération Jean Vigo des Ciné-Clubs de Jeunes et des Cercles de Culture par le Film: Fédération Loisirs et Culture; Fédération d'Associations et Ciné-clubs FAC; Union Nationale Inter Ciné-Clubs. Some Aspects of French Cultural Policy, Unesco, 1970. For a further account of the work at L e Havre, see: Cahiers du Cinéma, No. 250. "The French Non-ReligiousUnion of Education through Image and Sound". This body is an interesting example of the power of institutions to renew themselves if what they represent remains a live issue. Founded in 1866, out of the struggle for free schooling for all, it has consistently made a case for non-aligned education, i. e. independent of church and State, and has been quick to move into new areas, hence the vivacity of UFOLEIS. See: Terry Lovell, "Sociology of the Cinema", Screen, 12/1/1971;and Anne-Marie ThibaultLaulan,L'Image dans la Socikte Contemporaine, Denoel, 1971. But a recent study tends to contradict previous findings to the effect that the cinema as a whole was a predominantly middle-class entertainment. Digne, Paillet and Maunier, Pratiques Cinématographiques des Eleves de l'Enseignement Secondaire, Marseille, CRDP, 1973. The N e w France, Penguin Books, 1970. The centralisationof authority in French education has previously meant that schools had very little autonomy in deciding their o w n curricula. B.O.E.N.,No. 14 (51411973) signed Joseph Fontanet, Minister of Education. ICAV (Initiation à la Communication AudioVisuel). Centre de recherche et de documentation pédagogiques. The regional education authority, als o covering the University. The date is significant. The same year saw

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the publication of Tardy'sinfluentialLe Professeur et les Images (Paris,P.U.F.). It came after a period of five years when the review Communications published articles on mass communications and semiology,but before the publication in book form of such major works as Barthes' Système de la Mode (Paris, Seuil, 1967) and Metz's Essais sur la Signification au Cinéma (Paris, Klincksieck, 1968). Published by the CRDP as Etudes sur le Fonctionnement des Codes Spécifiques. The CRDP works in conjunction with the national technical service OFRATEME,whose review Media is largly concerned with audiovisual technology. SELICAV deals with materials and activities (e.g. conferences) concerned with audio-visual communication. This was a series of programmes on the local environment, shown on school television, which the teachers and students were invited to use as a basis for research. The students could write in to a panel of experts, posing questions related to their projects, and these were discussed over local radio. Aide 2la PédagogieAudio-visuel. The scheme is designed to supply elementary schools with teachers who can then instruct their colleagues. Some idea of the ranee can be obtained from Messages, a twice-yearlyjournalwhich comes with the subscription to SELICAV. For instance, Issue No. 3 contains: an article by F. Robert on the child's perception of the representation of depth of field in still images; a semiological analysis of comic strips by Arias Terron; a discussion of teaching experiences in the analysis of films by S. Lafond of the ICAV erouD. and an analvsis of Eco's L a L

The CRDP also submit teaching documents of an audio-visual nature to close analysis. Thus, a recent research seminar (February 1975), concerned with the "RBle of Audio-visualDocuments for Certain Scientific Approaches", included a discussion of the possibilities of conveying mathematical processes in film form, based on materials made and presented by Guilbaud; a study by Ripert and Sluys of embroidered pictures submitted for a competition in a women'smagazine, and adiscussion of the use of film in teaching history. Only part of lessons 1 and 2 is describedhere. The "general shot''shows a boy cycling past a block of flats with a balcony above, from which washing is hanging. (23) It would also appear to show the power of a narrative construction (in this case, 'subjectobject-action") to exclude all visual elements not related to it. It is interesting to observe how the new picture brings elements in the others tolight, e.g. the

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boy's expression. The narrative is, once again, "organising" perception. (25) This is not the place to dwell upon the implications of the study for mother-language teaching. However, the author's conclusion evidently has implications for any discipline where verbal skills are called for, including media education. H e says. "It is not the standard of verbalisation - the possession of what has been called the 'tool'of language that is an obstacle to written expression. One could almost say that there are no children who are let down by the level of their verbalisation. When they have something to say, they will always find a way of saying it. Bad grammar will not stop them communicating. It is when they do not define the role of their verbalisation adequately, that it does not fulfil any rB1e whatsoever".

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ITALY by Susan Bennett Italian media education has a very diverse base: not only in the universities and schools, but also in every kind of political and religious and other association. The very different models which result from the different social objectives of the second of these categories from the main substance of the present essay, together with the situation inside the schools. But I begin with the universities because, especially since 1968, an increasing number of those concerned receive their training there, often as part of a degree in literature or education. There are quite a number of lecturers(l1 in mass communications in Italianuniversities, often either in or having close links with the education (magistero)faculties. The author was only able to visit the universities of Rome, Naples, Milan (Sacro Cuore) and the Pro Deo university in Rome. (2) But there is also Bologna, and (quoted by Professor Evalina Tarroni who holds the post at Rome), Salerno, Urbino, Naples (where a study group is headed by Dr. Pironello and A. Picone, where the lecturers are: G. Tinacci, Manelli and Pio Baldelli). (3) This is almost certainly not an exhaustive list, and does not include the many courses on film studies which are often closely related to teacher training, e.g. that run by Professor Visalberghi at Rome, or the one (recentlyterminated) at Parma, run, until recently, by Professor Mario Verdone, Delegate-General of the International Film and Television Council. Brief examples of work being done in this area follow. R o m e University has a long history ofmass communicationsstudieslinked to education, and Professor E. Fulchignoni, who occupied the lectureship before Professor Tarroni, was one of the pioneers. But more recently there has been an enormous growth of interest among students

for such courses. According to Professor Tarroni, the Humanities courses have only in the last few years escaped from the total domination of Gentile and Croce. Literary departmentsare now beginning to accept the study of sociology, psychology, etc. as an intrinsic part of their work, and an essentially cross-disciplinary subject such as mass communications(4) has at last come into its own. But the student demand for such studies has created many problems, especially since the statutory change permitting students in one faculty to follow courses in another came into force, when Professor Tarroni suddenly found herself with 3,O00 students. She receives many invitations to participate in teacher re-trainingprogrammes, and records a sharp increase of these in the South (see below, under Regions). And the department undertakes external research projects, for example, they did a study of a school's news programme at the requestof RAI (theItalian broadcasting corporation), which is now published, in which the form of the programme and the theory underlying it are analysed in the most minute detail, and judged in terms of a complex structure of educational/ communication theory. In Milan, the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore runs some degree courses in mass communication, and has a large and active graduate school, the Scuola Superiore delle Communicazioni Sociali. These courses, in 1969, contained: V. Melchiorre: The film image; G. Bettetini: The motivated reading of filmic signs; L. Perrone: The young Lukacs and the forms of bourgeois art; A. Rarassaino: Hypotheses for a rhetoric of photographic communication; A. Rigodanza: Towards a study of African radioITV systems, the case of Nigeria. GianfrancoBettetini, besides writing and teaching at the Università Cattolica, also teaches at BolognaUniversityand works part of the week as a producer in RAI'S cultural department. A research institute which has considerable influence is the Istituto "Agostino Gemelli" per lo Studio Sperimentale di Problemi Sociali dell' Informazione Visiva in Milan, founded in 1960 on a relatively small s u m provided by the province. There are many links with the Sacro Cuore University, through an exchange of personnel, participation in similar work, etc. The Institute in fact grew out of a conference held at the University in the Psychology Faculty, on Films and Social Relations. It makes its findings known through publications, chiefly the journal Ikon. To illustrate the Istituto Gemelli's activities, particularly relevant to media education, here is a selection of work proposed for 1972. Full-time researchers (group): The models of rationality in the ideology of the dominant groups in Italy, 1945-1970; Individual researchprojects: The State and changes in psycho-pedagogic content in the officialideology of the educationalinstitution; the emergence of the "writing" of contemporary cinema; Theoretical

foundations and semiotic interpretations of the concept of censorship; The process of identifying symbolicmodels, and learning them by observation; The relationship between the discourse of "value" and the discourse of "efficiency" in political propaganda and ideology; Projects by part-time grantholders: Analysis of an audio-visual communication made by a restricted group in their social environment; Semiological and anthropological/ cultural reading of a series of Italian "black" comics (Satanik); The image of w o m e n in responsible jobs as presented by TV. Media Education in a Catholic Framework The influence of the Catholic Church has been modified considerably since the 1950s. Many organizations, such as the federations of film societies,have given up their Catholic affiliations, the official censorship body, the Centro Cattolico Cinematografico, has lost much of its power, but the continuing influence of the Church should still not be underestimated. In many places, outside the big towns, the only local film shows take place in the Church hall; Italy'smajor 16" distributor is a Catholic company, Sampaolofilm, and a media education group run by a Jesuit priest, the Centro dello Spettacolo e della Communicazione Sociale, finds sufficient demand for j.ts work to sell 1,000 study units a year at 150,000 lire a time, and runs numerous and well-attended courses. Apart from being a distributor, Sampaolofilm also makes religious films and films for children, and offers an advisory service to potential hirers from its agencies in all large towns. It also publishes various specialised catalogues and a monthly illustrated review of new films on its books, commenting on them in religious, moral and aesthetic terms, and suggesting points for discussion relating chiefly to their content. Since Sampaolo films are often the only ones to reach rural parishes, the service consequently aims to provide not only thought-provoking films, but unobjectionable entertainment; a policy which has been criticised as "commercialism". The Centro dello Spettacolo, while maintaining a vigorous Catholic (and Right-wing)line in its review EDAV, differs from the majority of European Catholic organizations in proposing, in its study documents, a sophisticated semiological analysis as an essential prerequisite for any form of evaluation. Its director, Nazareno Taddei, used to work in the Jesuit cultural centre San Fedele where E. Bruno now works in adult film education), and started the media sector of their journal, Letture. For a time, in early days of Italian television, he directed religious broadcasting there. H e also gave courses on the media, which have had some distinguished "graduates", Professor Bettetini and the film-maker Ermannd Olmi among them. For along time,Taddei's attempts at popular media education remained a one-man enterprise,

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but it has now expanded and has many international contacts, especially through the Church's teaching orders. N. Taddei outlines his "method" as follows: (in the introductory leaflet published by the Centro Internazionale dello Spettacolo e della Communicazione ): "Starting from the recognitionthatthere is a distinction (though not a division)betweenthe three worlds: external reality, knowledge and expression, w e go on to study communication as a phenomenon of knowledge and of expression, in its relationship with the 'thing'known to the communicator, and with his idea of it. The mental content of the communicator knowable to the receiver through the 'sign' which represents 'thing' and which 'signifies'that 'idea'. Our analysis, then, is of the sign, particularly that produced by the mass media, discovering some of the characteristicsof 'unnoticed'communication...which are used to turn people into a 'mass' and manipulate them. In this way, mass media studies do not get stranded on the usual sandbanks of psycho-sociological or literary interpretation. The typical 'sign' of the mass media is defined and studied as a 'technicalimage' (including words) 'which implies a specific language'. I' The aims of the programme are defined as "safeguarding mental liberty" in the face of a lack of spiritual value which has: "led m a n to the point where he even begins to seek theoretical explanations for his own mental confusion, to destroy irreplaceable institutions (thus throwing the baby out with the bath water), to negate the objectivity of knowledge, and of human 'nature' itself". One further example, the Milan branch of the Centro Studii Cinematografici, scarcely enters into the "Catholic" framework, since the teaching has no directly religious content. However, its mild, apolitical tone so much resembles that of some other European Catholic organizations, for example, CEDOC or "Langage Total" (which the general secretary, Mariolina Gamba, quotes approvingly in a recent article), that this seemed the most appropriate heading for it. The work, began in the early 1960s and in the period from 1967 to 1970, entered a phase of expansion with the project known as SPESS: Sperimentazione Parallelo per l'Educazione allo Schermo nella Scuola (Parallel experiments in screen education in the school). Teachers interested in media education answered an enquiry put out by the federation, and a programme was adopted at three age-levels: elementary, secondary and teacher's training (which in Italy begins around the age of 15 for teachers of younger children); the teachers m e t before and after each term, and workbooks and teachers' notes were produced. In all, the programmes took three years, involving, between them, about 700 children, and the area of research

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covered Milan, Cremona, Como, Bergamo, Messina, R o m e and Mantua, leaving out many teachers influenced by the work in these areas. It is a programme which can be readily inserted as a "subject" without radically disturbing the rest of the curriculum, which m a y have contributed to its success. Three lines of activity were formulated, to be carried out concurrently: 1. Presentation of films and television programmes, to which an initial reaction is invited in the form of drawings, mime, etc., followed the next day by discussion. Subjects should include story, scenes and principal characters of the work, leading through to the discovery of its theme, and then to the evaluation of two levels, the first aesthetic ("How is the theme expressed? ,)'I the second moral ("Is the theme valid or questionable? Does it correspond to reality? I'). Finally, the children are asked to put down their findings in writing. 2. Discovery of the language of images and the technical means by which they are produced. The former includes such exercises as assembling random cut-outs from magazines to form a story; the latter, construction of optical toys, including a very simple camera. 3. Production of comics, then projection of slides with texts, then finally films, This account is abridged from the December 1973 issue of the R m , edited by Mariolina Gamba, and contains a very full description of their methods, as well as accounts of numerous courses, including several of the "discovery of the environment", described later, and one very interesting "discovery of theatre" course for children incorporating film and photography.

Film Societies and Political Organizations Like most European countries, Italy has various long-established federations of film societies which have connexions with youth work either occasional, due to the interest of certain members, as in the case of the Cineforum movement (see below), or permanent, through the establishment of an education section, as in the case of the Centro Studii Cinematografici. &her organizations also have a media sector, like the Umanitaria foundation in Milan. Apart from its work in trade unionism, and its participation in such projects as the setting - up and running of the 80 Centri di Servizi Culturali, founded by government initiative in the late 1960s, Umanitaria is intended to provide "cultural" activities for regions lacking in them, has a media department (under A. Conti) to encourage the use of video, as well as newspaper and poster production in industrial and community affairs, services film societies, especially by producing books and the magazine Critica Reprint, and runs other societies with a "junior" department. Cineforum is a federation with a Marxist

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General Secretary, Sandro Zambetti, and a concern with the use of film that is actively political. In this, the organization is no exception. Italian political thinking as a whole takes much more cognisanceof the ideological/culturalfront than is c o m m o n elsewhere in Western Europe witness the recent reconstitution of RAI (after a major political battle) to provide (among other changes) two news services: one Right-wing,one Left-wing. As an example of Cineforum's line on the use of film in education, one m a y take the long section entitled Cinema nel1 Scuola: dal Decondizionamento all Politica in the December 1971 issue of Cineforum including three accounts of work in schools. The leading article, by L. Fantina, entitled "La Prospettiva dalle Classi Dominanti", written after discussion with a group of teachers from the Trevigiano film society, rejects the notion that:

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"to liberate oneself from the influence(ofthemass media) it is sufficient to possess the instrument, which is done by getting to know their language, especially from a historical point of view.. . (the pupils are thus led to believe) that if you want to counterposea different contentto that of a dominant culture, you still have to pass through certain syntactic/grammaticalcomponents of the language in use. This means, inevitably, suffering from a relationship of dependence and inferiority towards the authors and works of the past. The pupils experience what is, in reality, an expropriation of the means of cultural production by bourgeois culture at the expense of the proletariat as an inability to produce works of their own". The approach recommending a comparison of movies with "rea1ity"is also rejected in that every film is an interpretation, as is every judgementon it. The only acceptable approach is: "to analyse politically the thing represented, that is to say, to use the values of the exploited class as a criterion, those parameters of judgement (among which the fundamental one is exploitation) which constitute popular culture and are the only components making possible the formulation of activity with a view to changing history". Changingthe school is seen as one way of changing history: either indirectly, by causing it to transmit a different content as in the case of the school which showed Rosi's critical war film Uomini Contra, and then talked to World W a r I veterans; or by causing reflexion on existing content as in the case of the school which used l'Enfant Sauvage to discuss the Enlightenment conception of education; or directly, by changing, or learning to change, institutions as in the case of the third school where a series of films were shown as part of an effort by some teachers to do away with what they regarded as class discriminatory school practices such as grading, or the strict division of the content into "Subjects" favouring a cult of the expert. The resulting conflict in the school had

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considerable impact on the children and was held by the teachers to be politically formative in that it made clear to them the school's authoritarian structure. One extremely large and important association, grouping not only film societies but also cultural organizations of every kind, is the Communist/ Socialist-orientedARCI (Associazione Ricreative Culturale Italiane). It was founded after the War, but membership has doubled since 1968, and there are now 200,000 members in the Emilia Romagna region alone. In this region, particularly, there is widespread co-operationbetween local government and ARCI, facilitated by the political trend in the area. (The particular modification that has been given to media education by the "community politics''of Bologna, is discussed below. ) At a conference organised by the T o w n Council of Bologna, ARCI put forward their proposals (many of them tested in action) for intervention in school and after-school activities. Such intervention is made possible, not only by ARCI's large staff, but by the existence of numbers of voluntary workers, active in local communities. The most characteristic section of the programme, which covers a wide field ranging from the study of the image to theatrical activities, concerns the use of video ir school: "The premise for a correct intervention is that the work of the animatore (animator, in the sense roughly of tutor organiser) and the specific properties of the medium, should be applied to an already existing activity, in order to build a real process of understanding which will also involve teachers, school helpers and parents. This premise is fundamental to a socialized, nonauthoritarian concept of cultural production. .. The aims should not be to produce something like 'a film'but something in which those who watch it can intervene, leaving room to insert the result of the confrontation, which in its turn will be debated.. .'l. The conference paper concludes with a statement summarizing ARCI's view of their own role with reference to the school: "The animatore is seen as a point of reference necessary at this stage to stimulate the interweaving of the school and the social environment". Media Education in the Schools The official curriculum, which many teachers are quite content to follow, pays little attention to the media. Their importance (though chiefly as teaching aids) was recognised in the setting up, a few years ago, of a national network of Centri per i Sussididi Audio-visivi which stock equipment and some films, slides, etc., and even, in some cases, (5)produce journals but these centres have always been gravely handicapped by

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contradictions in their administrative/financial sfatus,and their work has largely been taken over by a commercially-runbody, CNITE, headed by Professor Visalberghi, director of the Institute of Pedagogy in the faculty of literature and philosophy at R o m e University. The educationlaws of 1974,the DecretiDelegati constitute one recent development which could, potentially, encourage media education. One of their provisions is that teaching should be adapted to the local environment. (6) This has, in fact, been happening for some time, and w e discuss below how it affectsmedia education in two regional centres Bologna and Naples. Another is a provision for centres of educational research to be set up all over the country, for which the present Centro Europeo dell'Educazione, at the Villa Falconieri, Frascati is to be the national coordinator, and for more "experimental" schools, i. e. those given extra money and far-reaching freedom from the usual academic regulations to try out new forms and contents. Media education has already profited from the rank-and-filechallenge to the traditional curriculum and school timetable which helped to bring forth these laws. Traditionally, the Italian school runs only in the morning. Afternoon teaching, where it occurs(7) is freer (theofficial curriculum having been "dealt with" in the morning). But pressure for co-ordinationbetween morning and afternoon school, and to bring the "non-academic" subjects into relationship with the academic has resulted in some genuinely interdisciplinaryteaching, and in the media coming into the school in a more integrated way. T w o examples of such courses, one elementary, one secondary, are given below. At the Villa Torchi elementary school in Bologna, a great deal of teaching proceeds on a non-subject basis, the schedule being so arranged that all the traditional areas are subsumed under studies of the children's immediate environment. Maestro Paganelli, who teaches in the "communication" area, has the children producing their own media: newspapers, comics, stories, but also watching TVprogrammes, and then rewriting them (or remaking them, e.g. they made their own "television serial''with slides) as they would like them to have been. Such courses are run concurrently with others to incorporate different areas of knowledge: e. g. a study, scientific and social, of the local traffic and road system. A secondary school, the Instituto Technic0 Statale a Ordinamento Speciale, fn Milan, besides running a specialist course in "audio-visual communication" for possible future professionals, has an Italian language and literature-cumhistory course in which the teacher, Professor Campagna, uses advertising and ''classict' literature to cast light on each other and to lead through to a study of aesthetic/communicationcodes themselves and their relation to history. Comparison

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of advertisementswith poetry leads to a discovery of the function of "metaphor". The different structures of poetry, advertisements and prose are compared in terms of their arrangements as blocks of sound in time, and as spatial arrangements of words on a page. This leads to a consideration of their social functions, the relative need for memorability, for instance, or for clear or ambiguous meaning. The "phraseology"of various forms is discussed: for instance, the students fed a vast number ofpoliticalspeechesinto a computer, and came up with the typical "political diction" of Right, Left and both, bringing out the crucial importance of the context in determining meaning. At the same time, twentieth-century history is studied, with special emphasis on the economic and social conditioning of communication. It is on a local, rather than a national scale, that one must look for "official" stimuli to media education in Italy. Here are brief accounts of such activities in Naples and Bologna. The SeminarioPermanente per la Sperimentazione e l'Innovazione Pedagogica e Didattica in Naples recently (in May 1975) organised a conference the first of its kind there on "Ambiguita elo l'Immagine nei Mass Media" organised by V. Gaudiello, under the auspices of the local inspector, S. Serpico. The conference included many illustrated accounts of work in schools in Naples and Positano. Lectures by local speakers were on: "The image as anti-pedagogy,'I "The image in periodicals", "The image in children's books", "The advertising image", with one from the visiting lecturer, Professor Tarroni on "The image in comic strips". One recurring feature of the descriptions of local work was the use of photography and film to explore, comment on, and often criticise, the local environment, e.g. a multi-mediatreatment of Naples' rubbish-disposal problem. This use of the media as a l'record''to prompt enquiry and/or action is very widespread in Italy. It is, in a sense, the counterpart of adult demands for local control of the means of communication: factory newspapers, communityrun cable television, etc. In Bologna, media education has been very much affected by the strong local organizationthat characterises its civic system, which has been Communist-run for over 30 years. Teachers, parents and community workers collaborate with the central film library and advisory service, the Cineteca Communale (director, Signor Boarini) to provide free film shows for children connected with a subject being studied in local schools (as, for instance, recently the Resistance), or with bodies like ARC1 to engage in video projects on contemporary issues. In quite concrete ways, the schools prepare studentsto work for the community. For instance, at the E. Sirani Technical School, the Publicity Department has been entirely reorganised under the new headmaster, C. Sacchi, to train students for non-commercial, public use

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of the media. Many "graduates" will, it is expected, work for the municipality.(8) This department (and the rest of the school, which includesnursery, nursing and tailoring departments) were recently involved in a project onChile which was presented to the public as part of a week of solidarity with the Chilean people. One of its most important projects was a gigantic mural (which was also filmed)in which various symbols of the Left (the clenched fist, the spray, the dove) undergo modifications depicting the rise and fall of the Allende government. The students make a particular study of signs in society, and especially of the use of symbols (in the sense of images which "stand for" something) as a favoured mode of mass communication "shorthand". T w o elements in this concept of community seem prevalent in those schools (allofthe primary, and some of the secondary ones) run directly by the municipality. One is, that it is only through contact with the real world that children will really understand how their society lives and works. In this sense, anyone can teach; for instance, one particularly stimulating theatre project in an infants' school started at the instigation of one of the cleaners. There is no doubt that the cameras and tape recorders now being supplied to all primary schools will be used in this sense of social enquiry and participation. But, from another angle, there is the phenomenon that the practice of every type of institution (including those for adults) will, on occasion, coalesce around a single theme. For instance, this year, thirty years after the end of the War, it is the Resistance and the continuing dangers of Fascism. Such "themes" as the Resistance, or Chile, as well as concentrating public attention on something considered important, are held to be a counterweight to the mythologies propagated by the media. But do they become mythologies themselves in the process? The extraparliamentary Left sometimes claim they do, and that this (predominantlyCommunist) cultural practice distracts public attention away from ills nearer home. Whether this is so or not, as an educational practice it is extremely coherent, and its strong component of media teaching, when combined with an analytic and productive scheme such as those suggested byARCI, has an all-round impact that few other systems could claim.

"I1 Cinema Fatto dai Bambini'' The following is a brief account of a film-making programme for young children. Unlike some other projects described in detail in the present essays, the work of the Cooperativa di Monte Olimpino, now (with slightly different personnel) the Laboratorio di Realizzazioni e Ricerche Audio-visive has met with considerable opposition. The reasonsare not purely pedagogical. Though profoundly original, this work forms part,

nonetheless, of a diffuse movement, what might be termed the "far Left of education". Trends w e have seen elsewhere the attackon institutions, the destruction of the "subject", the rejection of pre-selected themes, the emphasis on autonomous production, the anti-authoritarianstance - are all part of the background to the group's work. It began in the mid-1960s when Marcello Piccardo, a former television director, and s o m e of his friends who were engaged at the time in experimentalfilm-making,were asked by a school for subnormal children to try and see whether film-making could help them to discover and make sense of their environment. They were so surprised by the results that they decided to try out the method in elementary schools (from age six upwards), and the work has continued in much the same direction since, though with fluctuations in the membership of the group and with an increasing degree of theorisation. They get no help from the State and support themselves through work in other areas. They call the method "research cinema" and it is intended to stimulate a creative discovery of the environment. This will be discussed further below. First it is necessary to describe some of the films, since they, in a sense, embody the methodology. One of their most striking features is their rasclical departure not only from the typical "subject" or "story", but often from the narrative form itself and from the filmic conventions of verisimilitude which go with it. This, and the unusual conditions of their production, has attracted the attention of film theorists, Apra, Baldelli and Zavattini among them, and they have been shown several times on Italian television and in Germany. One very typical form is the "observational" film containing an element of fantasy, e. g. I1 Telefono, made by mentally-handicapped children, consists very largely of close-ups of telephones against a black background, while a child's voice enumerates fifty properties of the telephone, among which are included the images that its form conjures up (e.g. the receiver, with its earpieces towards you, looks like a car's headlights), while the shot changes, rhythmically, with each new development of the text. Or I1 Gioco dellIOca (GooseG a m e the Italianversion of "Snakes and Ladders"), made by an elementary school, has all the symbols of the game, including the goose, in their real-life form, parked on a gigantic board drawn with chalk on the pavement. T w o children are seen playing it with an enormous cardboard dice. The step-by-stepprogression of the game is reflected by the schematic changing of the shots, and the sudden insertion of colourfilters. Another typical form is the brief projection of an imaginative process. For instance, La Scatola Chiusa (The Closed Box), made by the "backward" class of an elementary school, juxtaposes a coloured image of a gift-wrapped box,

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with black-and-whitesequences(allthe same length) of what the children imagine themselves finding in it. The little girl who invented the story "found" nothing in it. Another frequently occurring form is the ''sliceof life" filmed in almost natural time, e. g. I1 Vechietto, a few minutes in the daily life of an old man; or Lo Spazzino, about a housewife who drops rubbish out of the window and is harangued by the dustman. The children manipulate the medium in a surprising way. If the text is held to be more important than the image at a certain point, the screen will go blank for the duration. This can also occur to mark a difference in content, for instance, the account of the doings of one old m a n being preceded by a blank screen with children saying what they have observed about old men. If a particular object is to be emphasised, it is fixed head-on, by the camera for many seconds. The form of the films canbe noticeably symmetrical, or noticeably interrupted. For instance, I1 Pagliacco, which is about how a clown transforms himself by make-up, has a precise advancing-to-close-up, close-up, then retiring-to-long-shot structure: the clown is seen with other circus employees in a field, looking like anyone else, then he advances, sits down and makes up in close-up, then walks away again, into the circus tent. Or the converse m a y happen: for instance, a film about the properties of the camera, L a Macchina Fotografica, suddenly takes off at the end into an unexplained series of flashing lights which seem like the lens plunging towards the viewer, or alternatively like a source of light seen through the lens. The camera is worked by an adult, to the children's precise specifications, which they convey to him by means of texts, drawings and a homemade framing device. They also specify the length of the shots. The subject (or, as the group call it, the "idea") is determined by a preliminary discussion, in which the teacher's only part is to dissuade the children from any subject "borrowed" from another source. Every child does his or her own drawing and writing about the subject. It is then refined down into a "treatment" by further discussion, then into a script. The teacher must never intervene, except when requested for advice. The children collect the materials and find the actors, then produce the shooting script, after which the shooting and editing take place according to.plan. It has been objected that the method lacks spontaneity. The group are, however, very emphatic that spontaneity does come into it, but simply at a different point in the process, namely at the moment when everybody's interest in the 11. idea" in general suddenly converges around one way of concretizing it.(9) This is what they describe as the most "creative" moment in the process of discovery,when a diffuse area of thought becomes "attached" to a form, and the excitement it generates is, according to the group, sufficient

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to carry throughthe original concept in its original freshness, right through to the moment of completion. They also claim that it helps to eliminate competitiveness - the idea of one or a few being freely adopted by the rest as 'lour idea". The childrenhave, in fact, at times gone to considerable lengths to make the process as "democratic" as possible, e.g. in L a Scatola Chiusa, by givingeach child equal time exactly on the screen. S o m e other "Left" teaching groups have objected that the method does not have any political content, but the group claim that, when left alone, the children will produce that content themselves. For example, they wrote a film about one of their number who was going to be "demoted" into the class for backward children: I1 Differenziale (as the class, and the project which exists in written form, are called), but it "showed up" the attitude of the teachers concerned to such an extent that the Head prohibited its being made. In any case, the group claim, really collective work is a far better encouragement to a "correct" political attitude then the transmission of information by a teacher. Ideally, they would like the film-makingto take up allthe children's school-timeat the given period, and this has occasionallyhappened. All the necessary educational processes are, according to them, covered by it. The chart, drawn up for a presentation to ARCI, and people concerned with education in Bologna, demonstrates how they think this happens: Phase of Educational film-making activity

Learning process

Social aspect

Idea

Observation

Motivation

Formation of personal ideas

Treatment

Writing and reading

Co-ordination Group work. of movement. Relations with Acquisition of the community graphic &verbal symbols. Co-ordinationof perception

Placing of props shooting script

Scientific observation

Shooting

Autonomous Focusing of action experiences

Internal equilibrium of the group

Camera, light-meter, framing device, stop-watch, tape-measure

Editing

Scientific observation. Mathematical calculation.

Individual and group work. Relations with the community

Moviola, stop-watch.

Projection

Autonomous Focusing of action. experiences Scientific observation

Construction

of perceptive models. Memory

Construction of perceptive models. Memory

Instruments US4

Inquiry interview Recording, stop-watch, tape-measure, drawing props. light-meter

Individual Inquiry, and group interview, work. drawing Relations with the community

Projector, light-meter

But the group go further in that they claim filmmaking is, potentially, uniquely educative, for the young child in particular, in that it does not require the mastery of a symbolic code. In her book, I1 Cinema Capovolto (Guardaldi Editore, RiminiFlorence, 1975), ElviraVincelli who, together with the original cameraman Andrea Piccardo, is now chiefly responsible for the organization of the work, justifies this claim in the following way. The film image is, she says, not an iconic image. The latter, according to Eco (in L a Struttura Assente) whose definition she adopts, is: .

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"a sign which has the property in c o m m o n not with the object itself, but with the perceptive model of the object, of constructing a model of relations between graphic phenomena homologous to the perceptual relations which w e construct from our knowledge or m e m o r y of the object". Elvira Vincelli writes: "The construction of a cinematic image of a cow does not involve the emitter in choosing pertinent traits in the code of perception. ..nor still less in setting up an equivalence between (them) and conventional graphic signs, but reproduces the conditionschosen in perception a process permitted by the technical possibilities ofthe cinema - in that it is the cow itself which produces its own cinematographic image,though under the perceptive conditions of the emitter".

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Whether this argument is correct or not cannot be discussed here. But its implicationsfor the activity of the group are clear: the childrenareencouraged to work out their perception of the object, and to apply the film-makingprocess to that, rather than to develop their knowledge of film-makingand then apply it to an object. But the process is not one of mere reproduction: it "brings about a continuous rethinking of the real". That this has taken place is evident from the originality of the films themselves. But the group stress that it is not simply the end product that is important: the work "activates all the logical and psychological categories with which w e think of the real itself". The post is often called a Cathedra "chair", but, in fact, it usually corresponds to a section of a department in an English university. This University, founded after the W a r by a Dominican Father on returning from an involuntary exile in America, is intended "to promote international understanding", and has many foreign students. Its media course is not discussed here since it appears to relate chiefly to journalism. Though Pio Baldelli is probably best-known abroad for such works as Sociologie del Cinema (Editori Riuniti, Rome, 1963) or Politica Culturale e Comunicazioni di Massa (Pisa, Nistri-Lischi, 1968), he is the author of,among other educational studies, Comunicazione

Audio-Visiva e Educazione (Florence, L a Nuova Italia, 1967). Professor Tarroni has many students from the faculty of architecture, who have been developing such studies as that of symbolic values in town planning. Like the Quaderni Didattichi produced by the Centro Provinciale for Rome, which includes such documents as "I1 Cinema come Espressione di Problematica Storica" and "Insegnamento della Filosofia e Mezzi di Comunicazione di Massa". Though, as G. Cavallini points out, in his introduction to the collection of essays i& Decreti Delegati, (Milan, E m m e Edizione, 1975), this could be interpreted to mean almost anything from training children for local industry, to teaching I Promessi Sposi in Lombardy and L a Divina Commedia in Tuscany. And where it occur the school building shortage is such that in some areas two sets of children use the same building in relays. This was also a practical move in that Milan already has something of a monopoly in training for the advertising industry. For more details of the work method, see: M. Piccardo's book: I1 Cinema Fatto dai Bambini (Rome, Editori Riuniti, 1974).

can

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THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY by Susan Bennett Rather than try to cover the entire German media education situation, which would have been impossible in the limited time available, I concentrated on two areas which appeared to be richest in possible connexions - the impact of technology with special reference to schools' television, and the media in social studies. Technology Consumption of mass media has increased at an extraordinary rate since the beginning of the "economic miracle" in the Federal Republic of Germany. Horst Holzer gives the figures:(l) "Between them, the three media (press,radio and television) reach on an average working day (Monday to Saturday) 93% of the population. O n average, every German citizen spends three hours ten minutes a day on the media. Besides these impressive distribution figures, the following three factors should be takeninto account: (1) the astonishingly wide distribution of the daily press results from the high level of circulation of the regional dailies and, above all, the lightweight press. The big papers like Suddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Allgemeine, Die Welt play only a minor part. They reach only 6% of the population;

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(2) The distribution of the illustrated press is concentrated in the picture newspapers and magazines,radio and TVpapers, and women's magazines. Cultural magazines and the political press have a relatively small share; (3) The comparatively smaller coverage of TV compared with press and radio is, above all, due to its later arrival on the scene.. .All recent statistics show its growing importance at all levels of the population". The differences between the figuresfor the various media are in fact slight: 79. 870 of the population read daily newspapers regularly, 83.4% popular magazines, 83% of the public have a radio in their homes, as against 73% for TV. The rapid expansion of the newer media for home consumptionhas beenmatched by the development of the educational market. One hypothesis relates the two more directly: "The decrease of sales outlets produced by saturation of the free market has led industry to seek a further market in schools with more and more types of technology. ..This means in practice that marketing strategies suggest to the individual teacher that he cannot do without educational technology .(2

It is not our purpose here to analyse in depth the relation between commercial imperatives and the spread of educationaltechnology. W e are concerned with the facts of distribution (i. e. the hardware and software that the teachers have at their disposition) and by the ideological form taken by the teaching. However, the figures quoted above need to be taken into account, not only as a hint of needing to be donein the future but also insofar as they form part of a cultural critique of the teaching situation and within it. Institutionally, there has been a drive to make software available to all schools, and every region has its Landesbildstelle (media resources centre). One such centre is the Landesbildstelle for Nordrhein-Westfalenat Munster. Set up in 1970, it now has six district branches, and six more are planned for the near future, allwith media libraries and equipment for hire. A regular van service delivers schools' weekly requirements. These centres are responsible for giving students in their teaching practice year instruction for the audiovisual diploma now one of the required credits for qualification as a teacher. The existence of a film study organization in the area (nowdefunct) before the centre was set up has fostered a certain interest in media study, but the emphasis is overwhelmingly on visual aids. Muchof the materialused in the centres comes from the national Institut fur Film und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht (FWU)(Institute for Film and Image in Science and Education). This institution is responsible for producing and/or distributing much of the national consumption of audio-visual aids. It also publishes two journals:

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AV Praxis, which "provides information on theoretical and practicalquestions of school and out-ofschool education in connexion with the audio-visual media", and AV Forschung, "a reseasch journal for educationists and psychologists who wish to keep informed on modern developments in educational technology". Out of some thousands of items, the hire catalogue lists 106 devoted to media study. Certain of these (e.g. Ein FilmDrei Einstellungen, which presents a single script filmed in three different ways, and Ein Film-Drei Texte, whichpresents the same images with three different commentaries) reappear again and again in local centres' libraries and are constantly in use. Now, however, the Institute has received a large subsidy from the Education Ministry for the purpose of fillingthis evident need,and the resulting products scheduled for release during the autumn of 1974: Meinungsfreiheit oder Werden wir ManiDuliert? and Presse. Fernsehen. Film. Ein Lernsystem (Freedom of Opinion, or Are w e being Manipulated? and Press, Television, Film, a Learning System). The course was not yet available at the time of writing. However, the Institute has provided an outline(3) for the guidance of possible future users (including, it is hoped, teacher training colleges, educational television services and media education bodies in German-speaking countries abroad)(4) and excerpts from this are quoted below. The purpose of the course is described as being: "to give the critical recipient the knowledge about the media to enable him to recognise his own interests and proceed from them to use the media as an aid to understanding and a means of learning". The method used is as follows: "The learning system comprises sixteen lessons. The contents are programmed into parts, which means that the didactic plan and the sequence of learning stages cannot be altered at random without affecting the rest of the programme. . .Users are advised that eighteenlessons (thirty-sixhours) are needed to cover the material.. . Learning techniques ...Personal media: individual work, group work, class discussion, lectures by the class leader... Non-personal media: leaders' coursebook, programmed learning materials, material for written work, 16" film, slides, tapes, folios for overhead projector.. . Types of exercise In order to maintain constant motivation for the student, w e have deliberately chosen not to employ one single technique. Programmed sections alternate with the information units which have the purpose of presenting complex contentsin a concentrated form. The same is true of the students' question sheets within the programmed section (whichtakes up about three-quarters of the whole). There is a variation between: (1)multiple-choice

exercises; (2) exercises in which gaps have to be filled in; (3) exercises to prompt insights and attitude-formation on the part of the student; (4) exercises of a more or less playful character which nonetheless have a direct relation to the theme; (5) exercises to permit connexions with other aspects of the mass media. ...The learning system is so conceived that it can also be used by course leaders who have not thought of themselves as specialists". The FWU are not the only producers of media education materials. Another growing source is the television services; most ARD(5) stations run a regular schools service, and the major regional producer of networked educational programmes, Bayrischer Rundfunk in Munich, have their own research institute, the Wissenschaftliche Institut fur Jugend und Bildungsfragen in Film und Fernsehen (Scientific Institute for Questions of Youth and Education in Film and Television). in Cologne has been Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR) broadcasting its own programmes of media education regularly since 1973. Each series consists of a cluster of programmes in mid-term, with preparatory and follow-up work suggested in the teachers' notes. So far, the series have been: For 1973/1974: Late summer: Stimmungsmacher (Mood creators), comprising programmes on: the work of a "sensational" newspaper: the production of a pop record; advertisingand entertainment;T V . Spring: a new series which makes imaginative use of playlets and cartoons is entitled Tatort Fernsehen (The reliability of the TV message; W h o makes the programmes (and why); To w h o m does TV belong? (its political structure); The world in the living-room (the communication situation of the TV medium and the viewers). Once a month, in term-time throughout 19731975, these programmes have been supplemented by SchUler Machen Filme (Schoolchildrenmake films)which presentsprogrammes made by children themselves, with minimum help from the staff of the television service bringing the film produced by the children up to professional specifications. The staff stress that they follow the children's instructions exactly in so doing. One such experiment with predominately working-class adolescents(6) is described by Bodo Brucher in A V Praxis for August 1974, The result was a fictional portrayal of the pressures of school on a young girl, Ein Unlosbares Konflikt, which conveys a teenager's life with sharp emotional accuracy, while also revealing (in the words of the script): "the undemocratic nature of the school system", a point of view formulated, at least in part, around the film-making.

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Social Studies The questionof the placing of such programmes as those of the WDR network in the school curriculum is an important one. A way in has frequently been

through social studies, but as this subject has in itself been a nodal point of changes in German education, the concept requires further elaboration. The area variouslv known as Politische Unterricht (political education) or Gesellschaftslehre (knowledge about society) or Sozialkunde (social studies) is an obligatory part of each federal region's school system. At junior level, it is often placed within what is known as Sachunterricht, a combination form often taking up the third largest part of the timetable after German and mathematics, and includinghistorical, geographic, scientific and social information, acquired in the process of studying everyday life, everything from a steam iron to the local police force or what is seen on television. Eachregion has its own centre for political education, Zentrale fur Politische Bildung, which has its own library of media and sometimes also produces them. There are also part-timeadult education institutes devoted exclusively to this activity. The generally accepted reason for the importance accorded to social studies is SO that the individual m a y be given an education which will not only "enable him to develop his personalit 'I but "to take part in social decision-making". In such a concept the importance of receiving the correct information about current affairs is likely to be stressed as a pre-cond.itionfor informed action. It is in this rBle that media teaching often appears to play a part in basic social studies courses. For instance, in one further education television course dealing quite pragmatically with social questions likely to affect the young schoolleaver, there appears among programmes on the law and the individual, military service, social security, etc., a whole group on the press, with particular emphasis on how to assess the accuracy of newspaper reports. The teachers' booklet for w n quotes the notorious piece of misinformation with which the outbreak of World W a r II was announced to the German people: "At 5:45 w e started shooting back" to warn against a monopoly of information. Further, the booklet states, by voluntarily choosing partial means of information (such as the "sensational" press), the citizenis condemninghimselfto remain a "political minor" (pp.10-11). Not all writers strike so stern a note, but throughout German media education the concernto ''seethrough"mass communication runs deep. As the FWU course Meinungsfreiheit oder Werden wir Manipuliert(8) puts it:

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6)

"The aim of the programme is, then, to shed light on the mass media as part of that reality in which people live largely unreflectively and without selfdetermination". Quite often, such analysis is confined to mass media presentations of traditionally "political" subjects, the range of material studied ranging from the overt appeals of the propaganda film(9) 29

through the documentaries and news. Some very sophisticated study material has been produced on the documentary. For instance,the Berlin Bildstelle collaborated with local schools' television to produce a series on film as historical evidence, Zeitgeschichte in Film. In a widely-used text, (lo) a film-maker, Bernhard Wember, suggests an alternative commentary to an FWU geography film Bergarbeiter im Hochland von Bolivien (Miners in the Mountains of Bolivia) to give it a more political slant. But, of course, the political reflects of entertainment material also come under analysis. A frequent view is that the media lull the recipient into inactivity. The passage quoted for discussion in WDR's Stimmungsmacher course from NoelleNeumann /Schulz: Publizistik(l1) reads: "Whenever the immediate desire for the real satisfaction of a need proves impossible, and psychic stability is endangered, a substitute satisfaction is sought, which permits the person to imagine a differentoutcome. Either someone's real situation does not permit the living-outof instincts, feelings or energies in general (including mental energy), or else he lacks the energy to get the better of life, and looks for an easier substitute satisfaction instead...Frustration and the feeling of being prevented from self fulfilment or, alternatively, lack of energy have been revealed in all studies on the subject as characterising people who consume mass media entertainment in overlarge quantities".

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Not all teachers would agree with the particular moral tone of this argument. (I2) But the idea that popular entertainment provides a pseudo-life which can adversely affect the real life of the recipient is an influential one. It is held to share this function with advertising, and the two are often studied together, a procedure that is encouraged by the fact that advertising on German television is concentrated in the early evening family viewing time, and the programmes in this period (serials, varietv. etc. 1 are Drofessionallv known as the "frame" (forthe advertising): "Rahmenprogramme". H. Holzer analyses what the two have in common, and their potential influence: I -

"The offerings of the mass media are favourably received and have the chance to influence attitudes, opinions and modes or interpretation, if their entertainment and publicity content surrounds the information content (withits potentially problematic implications) with a world exuding safety Welt - the phrase is now famous) and optimism: 'Everything comes out all right in the end', or ' W e never had it so good', so compensating for and reducing dissonances in the mind of the public".

(*m

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In such a deceptive atmosphere, the substratum of anxiety can be channelled into a persuasion to buy. That commercial factors condition such entertainment is a point stressed by all such courses, often with a wealth of detail as to advertising

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revenue, financial structures, etc. (e.g. W D R ' s Stimmungsmacher) and, in some cases, becomes the leitmotif virtually of a series (e.g. the Berlin programmes). The latter course incorporates a substantialpart of current educational thinking on the subject, and is not discussed further at this point. The "attackingl'positionof many of the courses described when it comes to popular entertainment might prompt the questions: What about its less commercialised manifestations? ; Culturally abrasive TV comedy, the grass-roots pop group, the film which disturbs ideological preconceptions?(13) The choice to concentrate on the commercial aspects of media production has been a deliberate one, based on an assessment of the cultural and political imperatives. It also represents part of an evolution in that, as a reaction to the simplistically negative attitude of many teachers to the post-W a r boom in Hollywood films, the avant garde of German media education, represented by the Jugend Film Fernsehen group in Munich, and the Aachen-based film club organizationheaded by Rainer Keller, the Bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft der Jugend-Film-clubs, (14) concentrated for a time on the culturally enriching aspects of popular cinema. There is still a very strong demand for an alternative film culture to that offered by the dwindling number of commercial cinemas, and the film bookings by the non-profitmaking(l5) 16" distribution library of the Bundesarbeitsgemeinschaftder Jugend-Film-clubs have doubled yearly since its inception and now number 6,000a year. The low-pricedbooks on cinema published by this organization are widely read, as are the film review sections of the magazine Jugend, Film, Fernsehen, all the more so since there is now a dearth of publications on the cinema on the German market. However, both these organizations note an orientation towards the social in their own current evolution. Jugend, Film,Fernsehen now carries a high proportion of articles on education, and members of the film club movement are currently debating whether their next annual conference should be upon "Educational problems of the entertainment film", or "Women's liberation in the entertainment film". And both organizations draw their members' attention to films dealing with contemporary social issues, (e.g. Jugend, Film, Fernsehen's forthcoming - article on the Berlin film group whose work (such as Der Lange J a m m e r or Schneeglockchen Bluhen im September highlight the problems of working-class people in fictional form). This increasing concentration on the social implications of the media has not been confined to the youth club leadersor the social studies teachers. The teaching of German has undergone some radical rethinking in recent years, and the concept of the "classic book" and "literary history" have been challenged, in favour of a wider understanding of cultural phenomena. This has led to an almost

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unlimited widening of the list of suitable themes for study, including of course mass media. The Hessen Rahmenrichtlinien for secondary school German, 1974, provides an example of what the new German-teaching could be like. The sample curriculum given in detail gravitates around a set of problems, one of which is the question of crime and punishment. Subjects for study include: TV crime programmes, real legal procedure and a classic book that hinges around a crime: Annette von Droste-HUlshoff'sDie Judenbuche. Alongside the crime theme runs a parallel, one which concerns: style, parody, word-games, pedantic knowledge, rules and regulations, the examination as an instrument of oppression (and so back to crime and punishment). Among the more unusual subjects studied in this area are: apublicnoticeto tenants; the rules of a children's home; crosswords and quizzes. The course is, in fact, an exercise in thematic teaching - the authors stress that that was what they intended and is perhaps one of the most successful attempts so far to deal with its dangers. Through the second theme of style, parody, etc., the students' attention is constantly brought back to the text in hand, and the teacher discouraged from treating it merely as a vehicle for extraneous information. The course which follows combines all the elements previously discussed. Designed for use within the new German teaching, it has a strongly socialemphasis, and makes creative use of all the audio-visual media.

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A Sample Course The course described below is the result of collaboration between the broadcasting station, Freies Berlin and the Landesbildstelle for Berlin (director: Herr Therseen). Those chiefly responsible are: W. Schulz, initiator and chief author of the series; R. Horbelt, co-author and director; W. Funke, producer in the schools' television section of FreiesBerlin; and W. Schillof the Landesbildstelle, who developed the accompanying material. A team of schoolteachers also took part in the planning and contributed to the accompanying literature. The title of the T V series is Wir lassen uns nicht fur d u m m verkaufen ( W e won't be taken in), and the teacher's book is entitled Massenmedien: ''comics, TV, records, children's books and schoolbooksas objectsof study". Material includes five TV programmes, slides, children's work sheets and wall posters, teacher's books and children's readers. It is conceived as a comprehensive unit, but the production team insist that the prepared elements are only meant to lighten the practical work of the teacher, not to take away his responsibility to adapt the course to his ownsituation. The ideal of curriculum planning, accordingtothem, is for teachers to:

''use the planning elements in a co-operative, critical, creative way and not to try and insert preplanned units into an existing situation with the least friction possible". This educational process is conditioned by the goals of the course, which is intended as a pilot unit for the transformation of the teaching of the mother tongue in the sense described in Part 1. The production team are very explicit about their reasons for wishing to transform this area in the earlier years of school life (the age range of the course starts at 10 years). They claim that the processes which favour the middle-class child in school are particularly evident in the teaching of the mother tongue, in that the "classic''literature upon which it is still widely based has nothing to do with the cultural background or interests of the majority of children, and is in fact a means of maintaining a minority cultural/political hegemony (teacher's book, p. 11). But they are clear about the limitationsof education in producing social change: "We know that a less bourgeois teaching plan cannot ensure equality of opportunity when the 'forgotten part' of society, whose disadvantages w e work to remove, was created by economic and political conditions outside :he educational sphere, and which canonly be removed there. ..The contradiction (between the declared aims of society and the reality) should not be concealed (inschool)and so stabilised or even increased; education should revealit as much as possible and make its causes visible; education should be a necessary, though in itself unfortunately insufficient, condition for the humanisation of society through the struggle of its members to help themselves (p.10). 'To help themselves' (jointly of course, not individually), is in fact the keynote of the whole course. It is designed to bring home to the students, through their own independent work, exactly in what way society m a y oppress, make money out of and culturally deprive children. This is not done in a sternly didactic way. but through activities that seem like games, and articles in the reader that take the children'sside are written in their own language, without pandering to commercially-inculcatedforms. The reader is illustratedwith cartoonsand strips, and irreverent songs intersperse the T V programmes, e.g. the one that begins and ends each programme, which goes, freely translated: ' W e aren't going to be bought or sold, Or do exactly what we're told, And anyone who thinks so, doesn't know. W h y should a puppet be a star, And books all tell us how happy w e are? H o w do they know? There's money in pop, comics and TV, The businessmen know it but so do we. W e know''l.

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In the interest of making the programmes as entertaining as possible, the producers decided on a great variety of forms within each unit: cartoons, playlets, documentary inserts, studio discussions, all interweaving with each other in the course of each programme in quick succession (quicker,they point out, than would be possible in an adult programme the viewing habits are different). But they did not want to forgo the advantages ofthe series form by removing all elements of continuity. This posed a problem since they did not want to have an announcer, as this would bring the prog r a m m e too close to the traditional classroom teaching situation. They found another solution:

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"In each programme, the same identification group appears: five children, of the same age as the viewers, act out the playlets, ask questions, or have discussions among themselves. Their r61e is to represent the juvenile consumers of mass media. They were chosen because they had very different characters and mentalities. As actors, they appear in various kinds of social milieu. T w o of the children reappear as the cartoon figures Atze and Helli, in animated sections which are used to present difficult theoretical problems. (16) The group are rehearsed in such a way that what they say is usually their own improvisation".

The television programmes are only a small part of the course, which can be followed without them. This applies to the last section of the course, a critical analysis of schoolbooks, containingattacks upon, among other targets, the sexism of reading books, the romanticisationof work and the excessive place occupied by nature in other forms oftextbook. It appears to have proved too "strong" even for this relatively progressive authority, since no TV programme on it was produced for the course. It should not be thought that the course has an exclusively attacking function. In fact, it is equally strong on building up a "counter culture". Far from discouraging children from all "light" reading, the section on children's books, after a fierceattack on much of the contemporaryproduct, recommends the reading of a small number of historic children's books from Struwelpeter onwards, for their sociological content (and entertainment value) and then goes on to recommend some innovatory children's books of the present (one of which is distinctly "rude"). The televisionprogramme for this section also has an interview with a w o m a n librarian who shows how easy it is to join a library. Examples from more classic literary productions are not shunned, if they fit in with the course and can be easily understood. For instance, as a counterweight to the attitude of typical history textbooks, the child is invited to consider Brecht's, "Who built Theves. . .? 'I. The following note on the unit on comics illustrates the method: Lesson 1: The

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children conduct independent

research into their own reading habits with regard to comics: money spent, time spent, parents' attitude, etc., and enter the findings of the class onto the wall-sheet. They discuss quotations about comics from the reader, and interview other people (childrenand adults) about their opinion on comics, recording the interviews on a portable tape-recorder. Lesson 2: The children get to know the different types of comic by studying the illustrated description in the reader, and making awall-exhibition of types of comic from their own reading. A history of the strip cartoon is given in the reader, together with details of the sign language of the form, and of how strip cartoons are produced (and exported the "bubbles" are filled in with the language of the importing country). In the TV programme, there is aninterview with an artist and story-writer. In the reader, an interview with the head of a firm publishing comics is reproduced, describing the principles he adopts for entertaining the consumer. The second part of this lesson concerns the comic-strip hero. The children analyse the characteristics of favourite comic-strip heroes of their own, and make a wall-exhibition of the results. The reader analyses the chief characters of a well-known strip, Fixund Foxi, then describes the typical plot of a comic-strip story. "Atthis point': the teacher's book notes, "the children should come to realise, through discussion, that there is a relationship between their personal situationand what they want to read". T o encourage this realisation, the students are asked to act out two scenes: 1. In which Superboy is confronted with an exercise in school for which he is not prepared, but fixes it with the aid of his supernaturalpowers. 2. In the same situation, Superboy has only the powers ofthe normal schoolchild. The students come to realise that "in the act of identifying with the hero they can overcome social reality without problems, but after this process the real situation remains unchanged". Another improvised play is suggested to show a conflict between two comic heroes, say Superman and Mickey Mouse, sticking strictly to the character of each. The outcome will be deadlock because both, in their own way, have to be invincible, whereas the child is not. A n article in the reader brings these various points home:

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"Rolf Kauka, who publishes comics, thinks that they are read because they satisfy children's needs. H e says, 'You want to lead a full life, even if it is only in imagination'. Another need: you want to enjoy yourselves, laugh. 'A full life? Well, you can have that playing, doing handwork, painting, writing. But: in our country there isn't much space for play, and lots of playgrounds are just boring, climbing frames. Laugh? Have a good time? There is not enough opportunity for children in our country to do that!. (Aphotomontagefollows, showing children in a depressing backyard, all

dreamingthey are Tarzan, Mickey Mouse, etc., and figures about child poverty, criminal mistreatment of children and lack of social facilities.) 'Many parents do not have enough time for their children because they are overworked and come home tired. Many teachers want quiet and discipline in school because they could not teach any other way. School classes are much too big.. .All that is not to say you shouldn't read comics. O n the contrary! But the reasons for reading them are not always very cheerful''I.

in social decision-makingis desirable is not uniformly agreed upon in educational as in other circles, and the controversy around the Richtlinien (especially those on German teaching)is a reminder that such principles are open to numerous interpretations in practice. See also page 28. Not confined to film. Thus the DUsseldorf Centre has tapes of marching songs. Objektiver Dokumentarfilm?, edited by the Landeszentrale fur politische Bildungsarbeit, Berlin. Publishers: Colloquium Verlag, Berlin, 1972. The experiment was originally described in the magazine Jugend, Film, Fernsehen, No. 2,3, 1971. Fischer Lexicon, Frankfurt, 1971, p. 346. But the author had the impression that it corresponds to a good deal of grass-roots thinking on media education, in a country still deeply marked by the Protestant ethic. Of course, there is no lack of an avant garde in contemporary German cinema, witness Straub, or the flourishingunderground. There is also the magazine Filmkritik, and the third television channel, but teachers point to the small audience for such productions. Both organizations operate largely with clubs but have a pronounced educational bias. Herr Keller organises the pedagogic section of the Mannheim film festival. The group receives a subsidy from the Ministry for Youth, Family and Health, but this barely covers its costs (those who work for it are volunteers) and an increaseis being applied for. For instance, the inseparability of information and concrete practice is demonstrated by the little girl cartoon-figure attempting to do some carpentry. She has all the material, but no information on how to do it.

Lesson.3: The children learn about the finances of comic production and sale by doing their own mathematical calculations and sticking the results on a wall-chart. Information about this aspect is contained in the reader and the T V p r o g r a m m e : they discussthe relationshipbetweenneeds, production and commercial gain with referenceto comics.

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Lesson 4: T w o sessions Production by the children of their own comics on the basis of two (easyto-draw)figures given in a slide, with a basic story that "the tall, thin one annoys the short, fat one, but he gets his own back sometimes". Ifthere is time, the children are invited to produce other comics, which they either draw or make out of a collage of cutouts from the commercial production: 1. reversing the normal, good-bad, friendenemy relationshiw - -: 2. presenting real-lifesituationsfrom school home. In Gescheiterte Aufklarung? (Failed enlightenment? ), Piper, Munich, 1971, pp. 124-125. This book -has an excellent bibliography of works on cultural influences on German media teaching the Frankfurt school in particular. Holzer's own influence has been extensive. Engelmann and Zametzer: Kommunikation und Handeln (Communicationand Action) in Jugend, Film. Fernsehen. No. 2. 1974. It should be noted that the authors are not objecting to the media as such, but to the conditions prevailing in their production and use. In a Sonderdruck (reprint) from AV Praxis, 1974, entitled: Lernsystem Medienkunde, by Wolfgang E. Lehmann and Steffen Wolf. Although the course is stated to be for adults, indications are that it will be used for youth education as well. ARD: Arbeitsgemeinschaft der dffentlich rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundes republik Deutschland the office linking regional broadcasting services. WDR's mediaprogrammes are directed at the lower to middle ranges of secondaryeducation (12-16 years). Quoted from the second edition of the Hessen Culture Ministry's controversial guidelines for teachers, Rahmenrichtlinien Sekundarstufe 1, Gesellschaftslehre, 1973. Ofcourse, the extent to which the citizens' participation

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THE NETHERLANDS by Gerard Kruger I.

S T R U C T U R A L DEVELOPMENT

Audio-visualeducation remains marginal in Dutch schools though the situationis changing. For years, the main emphasis has been on cognitive aspects of learning and the transmission of knowledge in abstract andverbal ways. Education was not childcentred, nor seen as contributing to the pupils' other faculties. So, as with other activities,audiovisual education had to be an out-of-schoolactivity. Such activity in the schools themselves was (and is) confined to the use of equipment and materials (school films and television programmes, slides, tapes, etc. ). In some cases, other films were shown, shorts or features, because they dealt with subjects and themes related to lessons in social orientation.

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Media studies of a sort developed in out-of-school education, mainly as a leisure activity, and inspired by the view that cinema-going was harmful to young people from whose influences they should be protected. Activities were often limited to special screenings in youth clubs and organizationswithno follow-up. Most active were the religious organizations, who set up specialised institutions two Protestant andone Catholic - to provide information on the quality of films and how to discuss them: some even began distribution in 16". Very importantly, they also organised training in film education for teachers and youth leaders. Although strongly moralistic, these courses did form the first group of teachers of the subject. Activities concentrating more on film as art and communication were met with in film societies, social and cultural centres and folk high schools. Many school groups attending residential courses at them were first made aware of film education in this way. Among the obstacles to the development of screen education in the schools was the fact that there was almost no film culture in the Netherlands. The only film-makers of importance were documentary film-makers. There were very few film magazines and almost no Dutch literature on film. Then, under the direction of the film theorist, Dr. J. M.L. Peters, the Netherlands Film Institute started a series of publications on film,organised study seminars on various cultural aspects of film and began distributing films for screen education. Those activities were of great help to the few pioneers in the schools. The national filmarchive also started to distributed on 16" some of the films in its collections which could be used infilm education programmes. In 1968, screen education received a new impulse: the new law for secondary schools laid down more emphasis on education as a means of developing all the child's faculties. "The art of film'could ' now be introduced as a non-compulsory subject in the secondary schools - a first step towards the official integration of audio-visual education into the curriculum. Although the law could be so freely interpreted as to enable all aspects of screen education to be integrated into the officially recognised subjects,there will never be official support for carrying it out efficiently until the subject as such is officially recognised. This also affects arrangements for the training of the teachers, since film education is not included, as it does not exist as a fully recognised subject. The possibilities created by the law of 1968 are therefore insufficient. In a curriculum made up of many subjects, audio-visual education needs to be a separate one, although among those concerned with teaching methods, there are many arguments for seeing it as a series of activities integrated into other subjects. One effect of the law of 1968 was to lead teachers who already dealt with screen education to mobilise their efforts. They asked for

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arrangements for them to exchange ideas and information about their experiences, for training and for assistance. Their demands were met in three ways. First of all, the Netherlands Film Institute and the Institute for Film and Youth (created in 1947 as an institute for research on the different aspects of the place of film in the life of children) organised a national conferenceon screeneducation in secondary schools. This conference led to the setting up of an organization for teachers in film and television. The group still exists and now concentrates mainly on exchanges about teachers' experiences. This is necessary because many teachers are stillpioneers strugglingwith financial problems, misunderstandingswith their colleagues, the school directors, inspectors and others. This exchange is organised through the publication of a magazine (Optiek) and at national and regional meetings. The second way in which the teachers' requests were met was through a series of nine television programmes on film education in secondary schools broadcast by the television organization for adult education (Teleac). The programmes were followed up by meetings with the people who had taken part in the course. Most important however was the third type of measure undertaken. In 1969, training courses on screen education for teachers were begun. These courses still continue: participants can take three stages: an introductory course, a study and workshop week (residential)and an advanced course specialising in film-making. Certificates are only awarded to those who carry out a project with their own class and submit a written report on their experience during the project. The effect of this is that many of the teachers discover how to carry out a project in their own school situation. Each year the courses are held at three or four different places in the Netherlands. Each course lasts for 240 hours in all. A factor having greatly contributed to the development of audio-visual education has been the growing interest in art education. All kinds of initiatives were taken to stimulate the growth of art education in the school curriculum and in outof-school education. But it is symptomatic that it was the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and not the Ministry of Education that initiated discussion of the improvement of training courses in this field. Committees were set up to draft curricular designs for the various areas of education. For the first time audio-visual education was considered on an equal footing with music, art, drama and dance. In 1970, a special committee was set up in order to work out concepts for the training of teachers in audio-visual education. Initiated by the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, this committee now operates as a working group of the national film council (an organization including all the non-commercial organizations concerned with

audio-visual media). Representatives of both the Ministries of Education and of Cultural Affairs sit on this working committee. So far the following courses have been arranged or planned:

A training course on audio-visual education for graduates at the film school and other film professionals who want to become audio-visual teachers (lasting240 hours, the first course was fiven in 1973); A three to six year full-time training course for those who want to become teachers in audiovisual education in secondary schools and in higher education. This course has been set up along the same lines as those of the scheme for the training of teachers in secondary education, and always includes two subjects (e.g. one on language and one on audio-visualeducation). The Ministry of Education had not accepted this course at the time of writing (November 1974); A n applied course for those who already have a qualification for teaching at secondary education level in another subject (lasting 500 hours, the first course started in 1974); A training course in audio-visualactivities for nonprofessional youth club leaders integrated into a general art education course (started in 1972, now run at ten locations); A n applied course for cultural workers as part of a general course in art education (not yet started). Afirst concept has also been worked out of the way audio-visualeducation might be integrated into the curricula of colleges training teachers in primary education. Apart from the publications mentioned above on various aspects of film study and films suitable for use as illustrations in lessons on film,there were no materials available to help teachers with their work. In 1973, the Institute for Film and Youth published the first manual on audio-visual education, giving practical information on methods and creative work with 8mm film,photography, video and tape recorder. This was soon followed by the publication of a book laying more emphasis on the integrative aspects of audio-visualactivities. So far these are the only books dealing with methods of audio-visual education. In addition, there are reports on some ofthe projects (described below). Notes and pamphlets have also been published (mainly by the Institute for Film and Youth and the Foundation for the Advancement of Amateur Photography). In promoting innovation in the schools, a number of experimental projects have contributed to the development of audio-visual education in various spheres. Their function is: (a) to make teachers aware, in the practical context of their school conditions, of the possibilities offered by audio-visual education;

(b) to gather information on experience gained from these various possibilities.

So far the following projects have been undertaken by the Institute for Film and Youth: The 8 m m camera in the school - 24 carefully selected schools experimented during the school year 1972-1973 with 8 m m equipment. The various processes involved have beendescribed and evaluated and, together with the conclusions, published in a final report, distributed widely to the different authorities working in school education. The final stage was a presentation of the results, illustrated with examples from the film materials produced, to the heads of the different departments of the Ministry of Education; Audio-visual education in Drimarv schools - Professional audio-visual teachers visit primary schools and give the class teachers-help in setting up and carryingoutaudio-visualprojects in their school programme. This project mainly consists of an introduction to the language of sound and images, production by the children of slide series with sound or 8 m m films based on the various aspects of the schoolprogramme. So far these projects have been carried out in three towns and about 30 schools; A school radio programme series on audio-visual education for children in primary schools (nine years old) - (seven programmes of 20 minutes each) - The series was produced for the children but at the same time tried to reach the teachers by making them aware of the method employed. The accompanying visual material (studentbook and slides) was very important. In the school years 1975-1976 and 1976-1977, two new series will be broadcast; Audio-visual education in teacher training - This is an experimental project in seven colleges for training teachers in primary education. The aim is to gather data on how training in audiovisual education within the colleges might best be organised. The project will be carried out during 1975- 1976. The preparation will include a short training course for those responsible for the projects in the various teacher colleges; Film education in secondary schools This project, scheduled to start in January 1975, is to be carried out in 120 secondary schools. It will be carried out by teachers with no special training in film. They will use three feature films (on 16"). Each film is accompanied by a package of students books, teachers' notes, slides and film extracts. The themes to be dealt with are: film as industry; the film tells its story; and a film and a film-maker.

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A further step forwardtowards official recognition of audio-visual education is the proposal for the Ministry of Education to establish a committee for the curriculum development of audio-visual

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education. This committee will function alongside existing committees for education in art, music, dance and drama. N o w under discussion also is the proposal for the foundation of an institute for the development of audio-visual education. This institute will concentrate on innovation, research, development of methods, help and advice for teachers, development and production of teaching materials, etc.

II. THE CONCEPT OF AUDIO-VISUAL EDUCATION A s w e have seen, audio-visualeducation originated in the desire to protect children from the negative influences of film and cinema. The activifies consisted in looking at films with an alternative effect and discussing them (most of the time moralising about them). With the discovery of film as a work of art, developments were influenced by a more mediaconcentrated approach. The aim of film (and television) education was to give children the opportunity of discovering elements making a film recognisable as a work of art. The emphasis was mainly on the technical and aesthetic aspects camera angles, montage, etc. Publication of the results of mass media research encouraged a more sociologicalapproach to film and television. The audio-visual media had to be seen as media within mass communicationas a whole. Until 1968, audio-visual education has mainly emphasised the study of film and television. Since 1969, creative work with the camera has acquired importance. Many factors have contributed to this development. Besides the fact that simple and cheap equipment has become available, there has also been a greater awareness of the fact that handlingthe camera yourself can give you and your students a much more fundamental understanding of many aspects of the medium and the way it communicates. Very important was an international conference on film-making by children, held in Amsterdam in 1969. Confronted by the methods and experience of other countries, many people working in teaching and especially in art teaching were stimulated. Since the conference, film-making has become more and more an integral part of audio-visual education. The emphasis in educational circles on art education, already referred to, has been another inspiring factor. Although the approaches w e have been describing are still adopted, the general trend now is towards the concept of audio-visual education as education in audio-visual communication. A s described in various publications, audio-visual education is learning to handle the language of images and sounds as used in photography, film, televisionand sound. Dependingon the aim followed, the emphasis m a y be laid on:

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education towards the av-media. that is, the training of the abilityto recogniseand evaluate the information (facts, ideas, feelings)offered throughthe av-media (andespeciallyphotography, film and television), the way it is offered and the aims behind it: handling av-media for self-expression, that is, learning to use photography, film and the electronic recording of images and sounds as a means for self-expression.

An important strand in this concept isthe factthat m o r e than one medium (not only film but also photography, tape-recordingand video work) are included. The emphasis is not on those media as art forms but as means of communication. What are those media telling m e as a recipient? In what way and with what means? H o w can I use them to communicate with other people? The central issue therefore is the study of the language of sound and images, both in a receptive and active way. The methods being used are inspired by certain methods used in semiology (structural analysis, narrative analysis) and by some aspects of communicationtheory. The work of Golay, and the way Douglas Lowndes has translated it, can also be traced in this approach. The latest development in attitudes towards audio-visual education is to treat it as a separate subject purely for tactical reasons (see under I. above) but to stress its integrative aspects. The various projects carried out during the last two years have brought out the point that film-making by children, producing series of sound slides, photography, tape-recorderand video work, can have all kinds of effects which m a y be considered as educationally valuable in a broader sense. These activities not only widen possibilities for self-expressionbut are also very helpful in the training of perception, theme exploration, social orientation, group activities, etc. After the first pilot studiesinthisfield, more systematic research on the role of creative work with audio-visual media as a teaching aid willnow have to be carried out. III. TEACHING PROGRAMME As an example of how ateachingprogramme might be introduced into the curriculum for children in a primary school (age 9-10 years), w e describe below a programme carried out in one class during the school year 1972-1973. This programme has proved a most inspiring example not only for other teachers in primary education but also at other stages. Being so fundamental, it has started off the first attempts to develop a method on the basis of the concept w e have beendiscussing. The structure has also been used in a more restricted form in the school radio programme on audio-visual education broadcast during the school year 19741975. The aim which the teacher who organised this

programme throughout one whole school year had in mind was to train children in audio-visual communication. The emphasis was not on the technical or aesthetic aspects but on learning how to handle audio-visual information. He, therefore, planned a whole series of exercises and projects which offered the children the opportunity to discover what is important when you try to tell something in pictures:

story about an animal, the animal in the four drawings has to be the same shape, colour, etc. ). Making a story out of a number of still pictures by arranging them. Each story made with the same picture is different. Discussingthe ambiguity of the image.

B. Aim:

Discoveryofthe structuralelements of a series of images découpage. Methods: Making cartoon strips and evaluating time lapses, angle, story-telling. Discussing existing strips. Making a photo-series with the polaroid camera in which you describe your class. The story has to be told in eight pictures. The selection, of what it is essential to choose for the series out of all the elements you could show, is important.

in one picture; in a series of pictures; in still pictures; in moving images. The programme was in fact multifunctional. Much of the work aimed not only at training in handling audio-visual information but also as a means relevant to other aspects of education. The programme was carried out within certain subjects language teaching, drawing, social orientation and even biology and arithmetic. Many of the projects and exercises were carried out in small groups working simultaneously or one after the other. The order in the notes below is not the same as that in which the programme was carried out.

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1.

First group of lessons single frame

- Elements

3.

Observing and understanding connotative elementswithin a single frame. Methods: Looking at stillpictures and discussing how elements refer to things not visible inthe picture itself (wholives in this room? At what time of day was the picture taken? ). Making a collage: assembling different existing elements and putting them together in one picture to give them a new meaning. Discussing advertisements, stressingthe connotative elements.

2.

Second group of lessons

A

Aim :

- The sequence

Observing and understanding how two or more pictures influence each other. Methods: Tell an existing story in four drawings, each child making one drawing: evaluation of the work on resemblances and differences in shape, colour and composition (if it is a

photo-

Introducing simple darkroom techniques. Methods: Making photograms: (a) printing existing objects; (b) printing cutout figures; (c) printing leaves, flowers, etc. for a herbarium. Printing and developing existing negatives.

A. Aim :

B. Aim :

- Introducing

Aim :

within a

Observing and understanding denotative elements withina single frame. Methods: Looking at still pictures and discussing what you see and how you know what you are seeing: clothing, objects, location,facial expression. What do these elements tell singly and together?

Third group of lessons graphic techniques

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4. Fourth group of lessons A.

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Introducing sound

Aim:

Discovering the communicative aspects of non-verbalsound. Training in the technique of the tape recorder. Methods: Listening to existing sounds around you; describing them. Making sounds with existing objects, recording them on a tape recorder and making a simple sound structure. The evaluation is concentrated on the characteristics of sound (pitch, length, volume, timbre, etc. ) and on the meaning of sound (abstract, illustrative, connotative ele m ents). Making human sounds and using them as means of communication.

B. Aim:

Discovering the communicative aspects of verbal sound. Training in the technique of interviewing. Methods: Verbal games. Dialogues (improvised or otherwise). Sound plays. Exercises in interviewing with the portable tape recorder in the classroom. Discussing the results and talking about the technique used in the interview. (What are good

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questions? H o w do you get the right information? ) Interviewing exercises outside the classroom. Simple forms of montage. 5.

Fifth group of lessons (Introduction)

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D. Aim:

Introducing documentary film; the discovery of how reality is structured by filming it; introducing montage; film and sound. Methods: Making a reportage on 8mm film (also using a portable tape recorder) about a theme from real life (the milkman, the police, etc. ). Making a plan, recording, editing, sound.

Projected images

A. Aim :

Introducing the projected image; structural and iconographic aspects. Methods: Making glass slides (drawing and painting on slides). Making scratch slides (scratching in the emulsion). The use of words is not allowed. Discussing the use of visual elements as means of communication.

E.

B. Aim:

Introducing the projected sequence; discovering narrative structures. Methods: Making a series of scratch slides which tell a story. Discussing the structure of the story and the way it could be improved by alteringthe order. (What do you see onthefirst slide? What kind of information comes in on the next slide? H o w it develops on the next slide? H o w does this story end on the last slide? )

6.

Sixth group of lessons

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Images and sounds

Aim:

Discovery of the interferences between words and images; the use of the camera and the portable tape recorder as means for exploration. Methods: Producing a series of slides with sound on a theme from real life. Preparation: découpage of the theme; making a plan, re cording, arranging the slides and editing the sound to it; making a commentary and music. Duringthe whole project all kinds of additional information have to be assembled by the children. 7.

Seventh group of lessons

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Film-making

A. Aim :

Introducing the projected film. Methods: Making a scratch film,by painting and scratching on 16" film.

B. Aim :

Exploring the camera; introducing action before the camera. Methods: Each child introduces himself in a short scene filmed by some other child; evaluating technique and story-telling.

Introducing animated film C. Aim : Methods: Animationon 8 m m film of drawings that tell a story. Making animated films in small groups: clay, drawing, cut-out figures, toys, self-made puppets, etc.

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Aim:

Introducing film using actors; further exploration of narrative possibilities. Methods: Making an acted film on : " 8 scripting, acting and recording, discussing the rushes, editing. Evaluating narrative elements: how can the audience understand what we want to let him see?

The groups of lessons in 1-6 above could be carried out with almost no equipment and at very low cost. For the seventh group of lessons it was necessary to have 8 m m film equipment. The costs were somewhat more but, considering the amount of time the children worked on the various parts, they were still relatively low. This programme, which was used in one school year and in one class, has now been incorporated in a scheme that will include all the age groups (starting at six years up to twelve years old).

THE UNITED KINGDOM by Manuel Alvarado

I.

S C R E E N EDUCATION

Since the general rule in British education might be said to be independence, variety and flexibility, it is as difficult to talk about aims of screen education as it would be to talk about models of study. Individual regions, schools and teachers have, within certain broad limitations, considerable freedom to conceptualiseand organise particular areas of study. Screen education is still a minority subject in the United Kingdom, though it is noticeably growing, as elsewhere in Europe, and most of it, until recently, has been initiated by individual teachers rather than imposed from the top. Although there are channels for the interchange of information and views (especially the Society for Education in Film and Television and the Educational Advisory Service of the British Film Institute (B.F.I. ) ), communication and debate on a large scale have been limited. Some historical perspective is necessary to contextualisethe particular descriptionsof current work which follow. W h e n the B. F.I. was founded in 1933, its aim was "to encourage the development of the art of

the iilm, to promote its use as a recordof contemporary life and manners and to foster public appreciation and study of it from these points of view". At this time the major influence on thinking about film in the country was the silent Soviet cinema, and this gave rise to the formulation of an orthodox aesthetic of film owing more to this cinema than to anything else. This aesthetic had an influence on the documentary film movement of the 1930s in the United Kingdom which was both stylistic (the importance of montage) and social (the development of "citizenship"). Linked to this emphasis it is important to remember that it was in the 1930s in America and the United Kingdom that fears of the corrupting influence of the commercial cinema were at their height. In the United Kingdom this fear, sustained by the dominant and educationallyinfluential views about culture and society which had developed from Matthew Arnold's ideas in the nineteenth century, was expressed most forcefully by writers and literary critics such as F.R. Leavis. Although the position has now been substantially challenged and lost much of its hegemony, it is still far from dead and in various guises it continues to inform the thinking of many people about film and television. A s a broad cultural position in reaction to which screen education has developed therefore, but also as in some senses the informing and containing culture in which it has developed, the view merits some elaboration. Basically it might be expressed as follows: modern society is unsatisfactory because its industrial, mechanistic nature prevents it from meeting the essential human needs like contact with work, nature and other human beings; great art, as the direct personal, creative expression of the individual offers a critique of modern society, and embodies "great" moral values; since the mass media are products of technology, one of the most important features of the industrial system, they cannot possibly be art and are in fact corrupting in that they express false moral values. Clearly, if such a position were accepted absolutely, the study of the mass media would be impossible. In fact, the position derivedbymany screen educators from the Leavis view took the form of seeking to protect young people from the corrupting influence of the cinema in general, while inpracticeallowing that some cinema could nevertheless,be considered more positively as art which, since it demonstrably embodied great moral values, could be used as a criterion by which to judge corrupting cinema. Jh terms of educational practice, the dilemma this leads to is well s u m m e d up by Alan Love11 in a paper delivered in 1968 at a B. F.I. Education Department seminar,"The Aims of Film Education":

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"Something should be said about Leavis' actual critical method and its suitabilityfor film education. In terms of critical analysis the position creates

a dilemma. O n the one hand it is committed to the analysis of works of art, on the other the art it is most interested inanalysing, art of high quality, has this quality because it is 'organic' and therefore presumably not amenable to analysis. In practice, this dilemma has led Leavisian critics to neglect developing a critical apparatus and to evolve a method which consists essentially of quoting a passage and then asserting something about it. So far as education is concerned, such a method has severe limitations. As the critical method is not articulated, it is very hard to teach to anybody. But since the method is in outline a very simple one (it is not, in Leavis' o w n critical practice, I should say) it is easy to mimic. The result is most characteristicallythe student who can make confident judgements on no real basis. Critics and educationists who have worked in the Leavis tradition have been aware of its limitations and have tried to confront Leavis' élitism and attachment to high culture with their o w n attachment to popular culture. The result is to broaden the Leavis tradition at the price of destroying its o w n coherence: once you say that the media can produce art of quality not just on an accidental basis you clearly cannot accept Leavisian attitudes towards technology, and once you do this you must go on to re-examine the whole position".

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This re-examination i. e, a challenging of a received cultural orthodoxy suspicious of most mass media products except those with a discernible social purpose - took place throughout the 1960s, which were in the United Kingdom a period of immense rethinking of education at almost all levels. In the field of secondary education (ages 11-16 and traditionally the age group in which film education has takenplace)the Newsom Report (1963) in particular attempted to reorient educational thinking. As far as film and television are concerned, the N e w s o m Report presented a much modified but still recognisable version of the Leavis view of mass media popular culture. For example: "The media help to define aspirations and they offer roles and models. They not only supply needs (andcreate them) but m a y influence attitudes and values. Little as yet had been effectively undertaken in schools in the way of offering some counterbalancing assistance. W e need to train childrento look critically and discriminate between what is good and bad in what they see".

At the same time there was in the Report a recognition of "film as a unique and potentiallyvaluable art form in its own right as capable of communicating depth of experience as any other art form". Elsewhere (notably in Stuart Hall and Paddy Whannel's, The Popular Arts, 1964) there was a much more direct critique of earlier positions and

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a serious consideration given to popular forms. It was on the basis of this kind of thinking that screen education was able to grow in the 1960s. Aparticularly interesting example of the application of the Leavisiteapproach from literary criticism to film criticism is to be found in the writings of Robin Wood. This influential criticlteacher takes up individual directors (especially American ones Hitchcock, Hawks, Penn, etc. )and offers detailed evaluative studiesof their films in terms of notions of formal excellence and moral worth. Although the implicit value systems in his criticism have recently come under attack, it was undoubtedly due to writers like RobinWood that teachers were able to substantiate claimsfor studying cinema seriously in schools and colleges, in that his critical approachdemonstrated admirably in its own terms that respectable literary critical methods could be transposed to the study of popular art forms. Whether in fact by the application of his approach the films are effectively conceived of and treated as popular forms is another matter, and it is in this area that critiques of Wood have beenmounted. The broad societal impulses which generated the Newsom Report are difficult for a nonsociologist to identify with any precision, but clearly the Report was conceived at a time when public opinion in the United Kingdom was waking up from the complacency of the post-War years. Virtually for the first time since before the Second World W a r all aspects of life and culture in the country from the Royal Family and the glorious Commonwealth through education and religion to the sexual mores of the young were coming under widespread scrutiny from many different sources, and fragmentation and articulate dissent were starting to replace a virtually monolithic assent to a dominant ideology succinctly, and expressed by the Conservative Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, in a speech in the early 1960s: "You've never had it so good". More specifically the Newsom Report derived its notions from the child-centred philosophy of the American John Dewey, and the fairly rapid result of its publication was to "officially" sanction what many teachers had already been moving towards desiring namely: a gradual breaking down of the traditional school curriculum and the growth of interdisciplinary,multi-media project work. This development provided an opportunity for screen education to take a greater place inthe curriculum, either as a subject in itself or, more usually, as an element in English or literal studies or humanities courses. Frequently, however, this meant introducing imaginative film as a stimulus for the exploration of personal experience and little more. Just as in English teaching there was a move away from teaching formal grammar to an approach to language and literature through human or social themes, so in screen education there was a shift from the film grammar approach to an exploration of film through themes. This approach retained

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the emphasis on personalexperience and relevance but aimed also at beginning a more systematic thinking about film. Jim Kitses and Anne Mercer, in their book Talking About the Cinema, 1966, characterise the poles of this approach very well: " W e wanted to establish that films do have a connexion with reality, and at the beginning w e planned our lessons so that students were encouraged to find links between the films they see and the life they experience outside. Also, however, by taking a particular experience and exploring the different ways it is treated, the point can be made that a film-maker always has some kind of relationship with the experience. Thus the emphasis is placed on the director, inviting the students to discuss what one m a n has chosen todo in comparison with others, and offering them the opportunity of becoming sensitive to different styles in the cinema". The shift in educational thinking was also reflected in a different approach to film-making, much aided by the rapid development of simple, cheap, 8mm cine equipment. Again the Newsom Report pointed the way here: "Film-makingis a particularly interesting example of a creative craft which combines exacting practical technical skills with invention, visual imagination and selective judgement. To make peoplemore observant of the world about them, more responsive and more discriminating is potentially to enrich their personal lives a great deal". In fact the 1960s saw a move away from the carefully scripted, "well-made film"towards the use of the cine camera as a means of personal expression, and of exploration, both of what the camera can achieve, and also of the properties endemic to it which allow for particular results to be obtained. Although never explicitlytheorised at the time, and depending on the emphasis placed on it, this type of work could in fact either endorse dominantnotions of realism the camera catching "truth1',etc. or else act as a critique of them. The best documented guide to this type of work is Film Making in Schools, by Douglas Lowndes (1968) where implicitly the emphasis is on subverting notions of realism. Although as an educational activity this type of work is stillwidely practised, in many ways perhaps the most interesting developments recently from this position have been in work on media other than film and especially in practical work with video cameras and portapaks. Clearly, however, the provision of such equipment in schools and colleges is even less frequent than that of cine cameras and is likely to remain so during the present economic climate. The other major influence on screen education in the 1960shas been the debate about film criticism and film theory. In part, this debate, centred on

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attitudes to popular cinema and the American cinema especially, derived its terms from ideas developed in France in the 1950s in the magazine Cahiers du Cinéma. Critical notions such as authorship, mise en scène and genre became the subject of heated debate in the 1960s. and proved very useful in helping to suggest a conceptual framework for the content of film education in which it was argued that the subject of film study must in fact be film criticism rather than film. The critical and theoretical debatesof more recent years (the complex web of structural anthropology, linguistics, and Marxist aesthetics) are far less clearly understood intheir details, but nevertheless stemming from the broad impulses behind them, people are beginning to recognise the need to go (in principle at least) beyond impressionism in, for example, reading and studying images, and are starting to structure into courses some recognitionof the problems to which notions of semiotics and ideology give rise. Some indication of these developments and the extent to which they qualify earlier positions is evident in Jim Hillier's introduction to the revised edition (1974)of Talking about the Cinema:

"It is not that discussion of themes or experience is regarded as valueless, far from it. Rather, it is that when this emphasis predominates, as it often has, teachers and students are no longer 'talking about the cinema'as a specificform. One's impression is that this reaction (...to exclusively thematic teaching) has various sources: growing experience of the problems of balance in the thematic approach; possible advances in thinking about the specificity of film coupled inevitablywith an increased awareness of the need, and problems, of teaching the reading of images; experimentation with new film teaching approaches and materials". Interestingly this awareness of the problems of the thematic approach - using film as ''evidence''for the discussion of issues in the "real'' world did not come about only because teachers became more aware of theoretical complexities in the study of film;it came about througha practical involvement with the thematic approach. , In the late 1960s, the staff of the Educational Advisory Service of the British Film Institute were heavily involved in the preparation of f i h "resources" for a very influential educational project - the Humanities Curriculum Project. The aims of the Project were to offer students materials of all kinds books, newspaper articles, tape recordings, films, etc. about themes "of wide human significance and controversy''in order that they could make up their own minds about issues on the basis of an assessment of the evidence presented to them. Complex issues relating to the ideology of objectivity and the r6le of the teacher as exclusively negotiator/chairperson in any "disputes"that might arise were explicitly raised by the Project, and

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although it is impossible to debate them in this report it is worthnotingthatit was as m u c h through keeping an awareness of these issues in mind while providing film resourcematerials as through any awareness of theoretical issues that E.A.S. staff began to seriously question the viability of the use of film in this way. It will not have escaped notice that (in the tradition of British empiricism)this paper reports very little discussion about formulated aims of screen education. Traditionally, aims have not been formulated above a very simple level and have usually been implicit rather than explicit, although it is now finally being recognised that w e have for too long ignored any examinationof socioeducational rationales for our work and that it is precisely this lack which most clearly distinguishes the variety of screen education work in the United Kingdom from the pedagogically controlled and centrally organised and monitored courses and programmes of work developed in many other European countries. Nevertheless, the British orientation does seem clear enough, and in fact the tensions it contains within itself could perhaps be best characterised by the two principal terms used to describe it: quantitively, the term most used in British screen education has been film appreciation with all that the term implies about quality, the "good" film, etc., while polemically, the term in most current use now is film study with its own implications of a primary concern with aesthetics and criticism. In its title and from time to time throughout the body of the text this paper has used the term . screen education a relatively new n a m e which has been adopted in order to include television as an object of study. It should be pointed out, however, that until recently progress in television study has been relatively slow and unsystematic. This stems from two causes: firstly even more than film it has lacked and still does lack any distinct theory and/or critical tradition, and secondly, linked to this, there has hardly existed in the United Kingdom any tradition of studying the ideological nature of institutions. This latter situation is now slowly changing as the following quotation from a brief survey of current work in the area shows, and it does seem in fact that at the moment, along with largely untheorised practical achievements working with video cameras, developments in television study are being generated from other disciplines such as communication studies, sociology, politics, etc. :

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''Until very recently only three institutions of higher education in this country have been pursuing research into television. These are: the Centre for Television Research at Leeds University, the Centre for Mass Communication Research at Leicester University, and the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studiesat Birmingham University.

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At Leeds the work, under Dr. Jay Blumler, has been primarily concerned with the relation between politics and television, studying, for example, the effects of political programmes on voting patterns. But Leeds has also done work on what it calls 'uses and gratifications'; this attempts to find out not so much what programmes do to people as what people do with programmes (i.e. what use they make of them). Leicester has also pursued research into the effects of television, particularly its effects on young people. Much of the work, under the direction of' Professor James Halloran, has been published. Recently, however, Leicester's work has broadened out to include study of television broadcasting institutionsand the production process. The approach of the CCCS at Birmingham, working under the Acting Director, Stuart Hall, has beendifferent. Its concernhas been primarily with the ideologicaldimensionsof the televisionmessage, which has been analysed from a Marxist and/or semiotic perspective. Some of this work has been published in the Centre's journal, 'WorkingPapers in Cultural Studies'. Lastly, the British Film Institute has recently established a research studentship at the Polytechnicof Central London; the holder of this studentship is working inthe area of television drama. Through the E.A.S. the Institute is also involved in the publication of a series of short television monographs, designed for a general public but more specifically students and teachers and covering such topics as the institutions of broadcasting, the nature of entertainment programmes on television, the coverage of sport, etc. 'I. The rest of this report, in detailing a range of work all of which in one or more ways reflectthe overall changes of approach to screen education noted in this introduction, details in fact the "British Orientation'I. II. PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS IN FILM STUDY A s the general introduction points out, screen education in the United Kingdom developed in the 1960svery much in reaction to the traditional curriculum with its assumed over -academicorientation and lack of contact with the immediacy of students' own experience. Since public examinations were often considered to be the clearest examples of this largely irrelevant curriculum, film teachers for a long time were in the forefront of those who resisted pressures to set up public examinations in film. More recently, however, thinking about this has changed as it has become increasingly clear that public examinations of some sort or other are not going to disappear and that if one wants to argue for film study being taken seriously (which entails the provision of adequate timetabling facilitiesand financial resources to carry out the work) then

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some sort of incorporation of the work into the socially prestigious structure of public examinations is necessary. The argument then becomes: how to ensure that the type of work one wishes to carry out can be sustained and protected within the public examination structure? Traditionally, in most subjects the public examinations' syllabus was determined by a group of academics - often remote from the realities of the secondary teaching situation and of curriculum innovation, but this hegemony along with much else - was challenged in the mid- and late 1960s, and teachers of screen education were able to profit from a changing situation in which, increasingly, teachers were consulted about the content of syllabuses and given a degree of autonomy over assessing and controling the work. The following briefly indicates what this increased freedom has meant for one group of teachers and in terms of actual syllabus content indicates the extent to which notions referred to inthe introductionhave been taken up by practising teachers. N. B. The distinction between "O"Level and other types of public examination follows after this account; what is important to stress here is the fact that, whether teachers have to work together as groups-consortia to devise their own syllabuses as in the case with "O"Level or whether they are able to work alone, constant pressures on aducational policy-makers over the years have yielded fruits in that teachers do now have a greater autonomy than ever before, andthe popularity of these types of course is on the increase. However, whether autonomy of itself automatically produces courses more appropriate to the needs of students is another matter, as the latter part of this section indicates.

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Proposals for a GCE Mode III "O"Level in Film Study The syllabus is the s u m of two kinds of compromise. Firstly, the demands of the Board for a certain standardisationof content, abroad c o m m o n element of work for assessment and an examination structure. Allied to this is the peculiar nature of film availability effectively preventing study of the same film material. In some ways, the two conflict. Secondly, there are different opinions about syllabus content and the various levels of teaching expertise which have to be reconciled. As a group, however, I think it would be fair to say that the syllabus content has a consensus of opinion; no individual is satisfied with the whole but the feeling is that there is sufficient range to satisfy personal tendencies. W e feel that within these compromises, the course offers a systematic discipline for understanding cinema at a level consistent to the ability range demanded for an "O" Level pass.

1. (a) Film as Industry The production system, distribution, exhibition, publicity and promotion. (b) Film as Co-operative Enterprise A n account of contributions made by individuals in the making of a film, e. g. the role of the actor, cameraman, editor, etc.

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Genre Study

A detailed study of the conventions and ideas at work within either (i) the Western, or (ii) the Gangster. A list of no more than 15 feature films will be drawn up under each category, from which individual centres m a y select a number to be agreed upon. 3. Authorship A detailed study of one or two individual artists to be agreed upon from a list of six, i. e. Ford, Hitchcock, Lang, Bergman, Penn, Chabrol. 4. Optional Unit A n additional study revealing another aspect of cinema which can be related by individualteachers to the main body of the course content, e.g. an agreed number from, say, documentary, animation, the history and development of an aspect of a national cinema, political film,the star system, the silent comedy, science-fiction/horror.

It should be explained that "O"Levelis the accepted abbreviationfor the General Certificate of Education(OrdinaryLevel)Examination which is designed as an examination (in no matter what subject) exclusively for the academically most intelligent quarter / third of students to be taken after five years of secondary education, i. e. normally at about the age of 16/17. As well as trying to reform the structure and contents of "O" Level examinations, teachers devoted a lot of time and energy in the 1960s to developing examination courses for the large majority of pupils for w h o m previously no examinations had been designed at all. There were two closely interlocking reasons for this development: firstly with the hegemony of academic "O" Levels now being challenged it became possible to design structured courses of work for the "less able", and secondly with these courses now being taught the arguments against examining them seemed less and less viable for very much the reasons outlined above and in the case ofthe more traditional subjects English, mathematics, etc. - there was the further desire to equip students withthe pieces of paper (examination certificates) increasingly being demanded of them by employers. The number and types of courses taught here are far more extensive than at "O"Level and there is also far less agreement as to what ought to constitute a syllabus for students at this level. It is not possible to go into the details of the various arguments here, but the two following quotations give some indication of the areas of debate: the one arguing the case for certain stylistic notions

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to be taught to students no matter what level they are at; the other confronting one element (perhaps the key e1ement)in this formal approach - namely that of visual literacy. Both the quotations come from a recent issue of the Society for Education in Film and Television's quarterly magazine for teachers, Screen Education, which was devoted to: "C.S.E. Film Study: Problems and Approaches".

N.B. C.S.E. - Certificate of SecondaryEducation the name given to the examinations taken by the "less able pupil". "While writing essays on the moral messages of 'Ashes and Diamonds' or 'Battleship Potemkin' that will gain him a C. S.E. grade, a child can be at the same time totally incapable of expressing in any communicable form the sets of facts about images, genres, narrative structures, of which he is subconsciously aware and which he will in fact continue to use, subconsciously, as an inadequate critical apparatus, throughout his life. The fact that the vast majorityof C.S.E. syllabuses studiously ignore this state of affairs bodes ill for English studies as well as film studies". "The inexperience of pupils in handling visual stimulus in anything but an intuitive or highly conditioned, reflexive manner, is probably the most serious problem with which the teacher of film at C. S.E. level has to contend. Until such times as he inherits pupils who have been offered the same opportunity of achjeving visual literacy as verbal literacy, numeracy, etc., his task will be hard and limited in its scope. There m a y well be a strong case for concentrating teaching resources on the younger pupil, rather than attempting an 'end-on'job at the top of the school. Ironically, that area of teaching m a y be hard to establish widely until more people are teaching examination courses in film,given a system which still tends to locate much of what is taught in terms of what is deemed important by the summit of the educational structure and its patrons, rather than in what appears desirable at its roots, in the infants' or junior school. The way in which the work for C.S.E. in film is shaped could exert an important influence on the way film and visual education as a whole develops". III. MEDIA STUDIES Introduction As Screen Education in the United Kingdom, the general introduction to this surveyindicated, work on media other than film has lagged behind film appreciation/study or whatever, and this is particularly true of work at secondary-schoollevel or with students at colleges of further education, i. e. those institutions which function large'ly as either alternatives to the senior school classes or else as predominantly vocational training centres for 43

people who have left school at the age of sixteen. The survey by Edward Buscombe cited as Note 1 at the end of the following article effectively covers the all too small range of interesting work being carried out in this area at the moment; while the article itself is one of the few pieces writtenwhich attempts to describe the problems endemic to this sort of work and to provide a rationale for it. Media Studies "Media" is a very general term and can be used to includealarge range of aspects of twentieth century life. Certainly one would expect the worlds of advertising, fashion, ''pop" music, photography, film, newspapers, radio, television to be encompassed under that general heading as aspects of what w e would term ''massculture". But the questions that immediately arise are "why", "what" and "howl' to study and teach "media". In a sense all the areas mentioned are likely to be raised in school in English or general studies lessons, etc., but in many schools the whole area is likely to be treated in a very negative fashion ranging from excluding discussion to discussing the media in order to "innoculate" the children against their inherent evils. One of the chief justifications for teaching ''media"positively is that the media are responsible for being: 'l. ..the major source of mostpeople's information about the world, or at least about social and political events as well as the minutiae of personal behaviour and life styles". (1)

It would be useful here to distinguish between the first five areas listed above, which could crudely be seen as constituting the subject matter and/or "language" of the media, and the last three areas which could be termed the media proper as constituting the agencies directly responsible for producing the means by which information, ideas, news, drama, entertainment, music, pictures, advertising, film, etc., canbe relayed and communicated. Traditionally, any educational discussion has concerned itself with the "contentl'ofthe media and the use of words like ''pulp"and ''massconsumption" effectively convey the dominant attitude. Even the search for what is of "va1ue"amongst the more "serious" media productions has always been unsatisfactory and raised problems when the media, by their very nature, are immediate, transient and, to all intents and purposes, non-repeatable. This general position has encouraged the few educationalists who have not ignored the media to find them interesting from a purely sociological perspective. Initially this approach also proved to be not very helpful as it produced mainly "effects" type research, e. g. what effect does TV violence have on the behaviour of adolescent boys?, etc. Apart from the questionable research techniques used, the results of such work cannot be used by the teacher and, in fact, only serve to reinforce the attitude of the teacher engaged in guarding his

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pupils against the dangers of popular culture. If so little positive practical work and so little useful research has been established the questions remain of "what" and "how" does one study and teach "media"? If criteria can't be borrowed from established disciplines like literature and music (as has been the case with film studies) and if there isn't an established body of ''ideas''and ''facts"to be transmitted, the teacher has to start thinking in terms of reorganising the curriculum and reconceptualising his /her whole definition of the term "knowledge". For the moment all that can be done is to point at what seem to be the most interesting ideas and areasto develop. One area that needs developing is the notion of the "processll of the media - of the way in which the media take an event, edit it, "produce" it and timetable it for relaying, The fundamental transformation that must occur in this process of "mediation" the way that messages are "encoded" and meanings generated would appear to be one of the most important and urgent tasks for both researchers and teachers to investigate. What is very clear is that, despite what the mediaorganizations might claim about being ideologically free, unbiased and objective, by its very nature the process that they are engaged in is one which requires a high degree of selectionandorganization of the many elements involved in that process of production. "Media studies" courses have begun to appear recently ina number of schoolsand colleges, many of them validated by C. S.E. examinations,and one of the most interesting that has been so far produced (at City and East London College) has been based on the work of a number of sociologists working in the area of deviancytheory.(2) Aprime concern of writers adopting this approach has been in the "social reactionl'to deviant behaviour its origins, nature and effect upon subsequent behaviour. This approach is based on a relative conception of deviance.

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'l. ..deviance is not a quality inherent in any behaviour or person but rests on society's reaction to certain types of rule-breaking. The same act shall w e say a homosexual encounter - is not defined inthe s a m e way by all societies,nor are all persons breaking the rules (in this case the rules governing sexualencounters) officially defined and classified as deviants. One must understand deviance as the product of some sort oftransaction that takes place between the rule-breaker and the rest of society". (Cohen)(3)

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In that transaction the role of the mass media which devote large quantities of their output to fictional and non-fictionaldepictions of deviance is of crucial importance in defining, pointing out, labelling and "explaining" and publicising certain types of behaviour as deviant. The aims of the course at City College usefully indicate the general focus:

"The aim of the course would be to stimulate an interest in the newspaper, radio and television forms of the m a s s media and how they depict the world they purport to represent. The course will include a study of the structure of the various organizations and will attempt to analyse howthese structures inform and restrict the view of the world they present. The complex of interrelationships that exist between the different institutions will also be studied. Finallythe course will provide the students with a greater understanding of the it operates language of the media and how and in the way it does". (4) IV. FILM STUDY AND HIGHER EDUCATION* Beyond taking up and defending certainpositions at the secondarylevel, neither the B.F.I.nor S.E.F.T. have found it possible or desirable to become formally prescriptive about what should or should not be taught: as noted in the Introduction,the lack of clearly-articulated educational rationales for screen education work at this level anyway would render such "hard lines" difficult to maintain and justify. At the levelof higher education in polytechnics and universities, however, the position is rather different and, as the following indicates, here the B.F.I. has taken up a particular position and, given its limited finances, has decided to assist financially only certain types of work. In line with current thinking as to which approachesseemmost likely to aid the development of a serious body of work and knowledge about film and television, assistance is given only to those programmes of work which emphasise conceptual learning about the specificity of film and television and their ideological determinants, rather than to those which use film and television as unproblematic adjuncts to other disciplines such as history or American studies, or else which seem to have no other concern than to pass on to students sets of unproblematic "facts". The quotation is from the notes for the guidance of applicants to the B.F. I. Committee on Grants to Institutions of Higher Education. The Committee's criteria are generally that courses should be at an intellectual level appropriate to higher education, which should include some degree of theoretical reflexion in areas such as the following: (a) the main concepts and ideas deployed in discourse about film and television (e.g. realism, documentary, authorship, genre, technology, semiotics); (b) the historical development of such concepts and ideas and their use in other disciplines; (c) the major institutions within which the practice of film and television is carried on (e.g.

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(i. e. for students in full-time education over the age of eighteen)

particular production systems or broadcasting organizations) and their relationships to the aesthetics of the objects they produce. V.

THE INNER LONDON EDUCATION AUTHORITY SIXTH FORM FILM STUDY P R O J E C T

In 1971, a group of teachers, who had previously worked largely as individuals designing courses of work for their own students, attempted collectively to devise a course which would be made available not only to themselves as a group but also offered to a far larger number of London teachers as a curriculum project. The extent to which the course tried to make available certain critical notions to both teachers and students, and to present them as problems rather than easy answers should be evident from the quotations below. It is worth mentioning here, however, a practical problem which the mounting of courses of this type gives rise to. Because of the backing of the B. F. I. and the I. L. E. A., the resources made available for the course were quite considerable - sets of slides, attractively printed support documentation, etc. and because so many materials were created for the project it has subsequently gathered around itself rather more of an exemplary statusthanwas ever originally intended. This development indicates a problem of a different order from that of simply trying to teach teachers, and it is one which is far from being solved: namely, since there are so few people and institutions in a position to produce materials of this order, should a group like the Educational Advisory Service of the B.F.I. produce either a smallrange of "finished" material in bulk, or a larger amount of "experimental" packs produced more hastily and in far less numbers?

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Extract from a reuort on the course The I. L. E. A. Sixth F o r m Film Study Course began with several aims. Perhaps its most important aim was to try to provide interested teachers with the means of studying film with their students means so often absent through lack of suitable teachingmaterials, cost of film-hire and problems of adequate projection facilities. W e had the conviction that little progress could be made against such odds by individual teachers although a strong interest existed, but that central organization might combat those difficulties. It is perhaps the firstachievementofthe course that 500 students from 37 London schools have been enabled to take part in an organised course of film study. A second aim was to try to give film teaching a change of emphasis, away from thematic analysis all too often a discussion of the "social content" abstracted from the film towards a concentration on the specifics of film as film. This led us to structure the course very heavily

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around aspects of "visual style" through the use of frame stills in an attempt to direct attention to the way a film presents itself to its audience from moment to moment, rather than the more "literary" aspects of such things as "plot", "character", etc. A third aim was to try to help interested teachers who at the same time lacked training in film as a subject to find a way into what might be crucial issues about the film and areas where they might further study. At the same time the course provided a demand that the film teachers involved try to pool their ideas and assumptions in the creation of a c o m m o n course accessible to others. Extracts from the teachers' introductory notes on the course A n obvious difficulty in devising a course in film study is that film as a subject receives littleor no study in this country in any way analagous to, say, literature, music, art, architecture, economics or physics. There is as yet no developed or systematised theory of film and little of the serious scholarship and writing which might accompany suchtheorising. Consequentlythere is no accepted methodology for studying filmand mapping out its particular areas of concern and its frontiers with other subjects. Instead, where film is studied, it tends to be within the framework and concerns of other disciplines and from partialperspectives: at all levels there seems to exist an artificial opposition and division whereby knowledge of film technology and theories of technique the practice of film-making are set against knowledge of film history and understanding of film conventions the theory of film appreciation - as though these two aspects of film are not interdependent. In devising this course then, since the subject, film itself, is far from defined in any agreed way, it follows that the course must be tentative and experimental, largely the presentation of possible perspectives on the study of film. Unit 1 concentrates upon "Film as Industry" and raises questions about how most films shown in cinemas or on television are the products of commercial and industrial organizations. The unit will encourage consideration of the process of acquiring and developing a script as a "property": of ways in which film projects m a y come to be substantially modified as they develop, and possible reasons for such changes. Areas included for study and discussion are the importance of casting for a film and the expectations an audience m a y have of a particular star, the conception directors and producers m a y have of stories and situations and the way these m a y be sold to the public, the ways in which films m a y imitate other films and in which film publicity reflects apparently established images of types of films. The films shown in relation with this work will be THE KILLERS and POINT B L A N K . In Unit 2 Film: Style and Meaning, films have

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been chosen to reflect differing styles created in different cultures at different periods of time. CITIZEN KANE marks an influential break inthe then existing Hollywood tradition by its use of deep-focus photography, complex sound editing and its elaborate narrative structure. It has been looked on by some critics as an exemplar of a new realismbecause of itsparticular image quality, BATTLESHIP POTEMKINcoming from the context of post-revolutionary Soviet Russia, reflects quite different ideas about film-making,placing particular stress on editing as a means of developing thought, emotion and understanding in the audience. The film is also a reminder that the silent film had inevitably to use means other than those relying on recorded sound. WILD STRAWBERRIES is the product of a smallnationalindustry, directed by a m a n who has nevertheless established a worldwide reputation as a film-maker, and whose films have been favourably contrasted with the products of major film industries as having a highly personal "artistic" vision instead of being "mere entertainment". The course encourages consideration of the possible stylistic characteristics of the film and the extent of its similarities and differences from the films studied earlier in the course. Unit 3 Film: Documentary and Realism, will consider some of the many problems involved in the various theories and differing types of filmmaking claiming to be "real and to document life. The unit raises questions about such issues as the effect of the presence of a film camera on what it records and the use of camera techniques, editing and other filmic conventions as applies to documentary material. It introduces the question of propaganda and its possible boundaries with documentary. Also raised is the way in which documentary and feature films have possibly interacted and produced styles which at particular periods come to be claimed as ''morereal" than others. Although this is a different area of work from Units 1 and 2, the work already done on the nature and organization commonly employed in filmmaking and effect of style on meaning should form a valuable background from which to examine the issues raised in the unit. The "Auteur" Theory, the subject of Unit 4, outlines for considerationa theory that the thematic and stylistic consistency advanced as evidence of "artistry and seriousness" in the so-called "art" films can equally be shown to exist in the films produced by a number of Hollywood directors. Though working within supposedly restrictive commercial forms and under apparent producer pressure, these Hollywood directors, it is argued, m a y well produce as coherent and formally controlled films as their ''free'' European counterparts. This unit will present the "Auteur" Theory through a consideration of several films by the same director, Alfred Hitchcock.

Since this course is in a new subject area for most teachers as well as most students, the teachers' notes, in this introduction and elsewhere, try to relate the units of work to some of the wider critical issues and problems involved in studying film. (1) Edward Buscombe, "Television Studies in Schools and Colleges", Screen Education,

Autumn 1974, No. 12, p. 7. (2) See particularly Stan Cohen and Jock Young (eds.), The Manufacture of News, Constable, 1973. (3) Stan Cohen (ed.), Images of Deviance, Penguin, 1971. (4) Manuel Alvarado and David Barrat, "Draft Proposal for a C. S.E. in 'Media Studies'", Screen Education, Autumn 19?4, No. 12, pp. 51.

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II. Media education in Scandinavia

Not unexpectedly, the following three essays from Scandinavia refer to conditions surrounding, concepts underlying and problems facing media education and possible solutions to such problems already met with, in one form or another, in previous pages of the present work. But there are differences of emphases and approach. Though too m u c h should not perhaps be made of it, a general feature of the three essays from northern European countries is the consistent use of the expression ''mass media education" in the titles and systematicallythroughout to describe this new area of educational thought and practice.

DENMARK by Jens Pedersen There has been education (of a sort) in the media in Denmark since the 1930s but, as elsewhere, it was not based on legislation inthe educationalfield but imparted through groups initiated by individual teachers. A new Education Act, passed in 1958, did not refer directly to mass media studies. But in the official education handbookof 1961,a whole chapter was devoted to screen education, film being described as an art and not as a medium. Older pupils (class 8) could choose it as an optional subject or as part of a new subject "orientations". However, during the 196Os, the need to include "communication" as a subject in the curriculum became increasingly apparent. Various reasons lie behind this development. First, there was the real nationwide expansion in Denmark of television viewing from the 1960s onwards. The desire to understand the visual media of television and film was more and more stimulated. One result was the setting up of a national film institute in 1965. Secondly, teachers were more interested in the media and, throughout the decade, experiments in screen education (the name still used for media education) were to be found here and there at all levels of instruction

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primary, continuation, grammar schools and not least in the folk high schools and in voluntary adult education. There was little in the way of printed literature to support these efforts until the establishment in 1966 of "Dansk Filmlaererforening" (The National Association of Screen Educators) which began to produce such materials and to provide for exchanges of ideas between teachers. A third factor was the increasingly close critical attention being paid to the effects of the media which contributed to the approach to them as communication rather than art. This ambivalence led to the notion of media criticism as a leading principle in education. Since the beginning of the 1970s, the steadily growing interest by people in the media is being catered for by well-founded educational attitudes. Even more so, video equipment, cheap and popular, is within the reach financially of all schools and has become the main ingredient in educational materials supply. Last but not least, the wholedevelopment has come from "the bottom", shaped by teachers and pupils themselves and not by rules and regulations decreed by the educational authorities. Until 1970, there was little interest in media education on the part of political circles and no influence on the developments described above. Political interest in the media (especially television) centred on their use for information and influencing public opinion. Characteristically, interest inmedia education grew indirectly around isolated phenomena within the overall media structure without the realisation that problems of relations between politicians, the media and the public can only be solved ultimatelyby general and compulsory mass media education. In the 1960s, discussion had raged on such topics as the information breakthrough, on the cultural aspect and on alleged left or right wing bias in the media. It became clear that the public did not understand the "language" of so important a programme as the daily television news, though discussion of this and the cultural aspect has had little effect on

the output of the State broadcasting monopoly, Danmarks Radio. This is partly due to its structure. Supreme control is inthe hands of RadiorBdet (Radio Council), politically nominated, which has ultimate power to appoint or dismiss staff, to lay down programme policies and to censure content: it has been called "Denmark's Second Parliament". Debate has continued recently, sometimes of a violent tone, around the question of who shall control the media, whether they "manipulate I' opinion and uncertainty as to the future development of the media. Fortunately, there are other more positive elements. One such, outside the field of educational enactments, is the report on culture ("Kulturbetaenkning") published by the Ministry of Culture in 1967, which comes nearest to political understanding of the media: it attempts to see them within the whole culturalfield in Denmark. Attention is paid at considerable length to films and broadcasting, the improvement oftechnical and economic conditions,covering both production and distribution. But, interspersed are passages, which express, for the first time in a government document, something of the philosophy underlying mass media education. They include the following: "With the technological and social developments the years to come will bring about, it is not too early to begin debating what it is desirable that should be done about the mass media of radio and television in the future. With a certain degree of simplification, two very differed reflexions m a y be made on this matter. It can be held that the task of the mass media is merely to reflect modern life without making any judgements and without any subsidiary educationalmotives. Broadcastsshallbe as extensive as possible, and every increase in the broadcasting periods marks a step forward. Another point of view refers to the fact that people (for instance by purchasing records, tapes and soon perhaps also video tapes) will get the entertainment they need sothat radio and television can now lay the main stress on such tasks as the diffusion of art and social criticism and that moreover they should, on an increasing scale, be able to take over the great tasks of education at all levels. The first point of view involves the idea that the media shallbe totally integrated into 'the sparetime society', while the second point is dominated by the idea that the media just must not be absorbed, but should always have a separate part". Inthe introductionto the chapter on children's film, the report says: "Films suitable for children are produced on a very small scale. So farthis is not very surprising, because this kind of production is so seldom profitable. Strange and shameful is it on the contrary, that until now so little has been done to provide films for children by the authorities.

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It seems that here - as in many other domains w e treat children as sort of second-classcitizens whose requirements one need not worry about. It should be obvious that something effective must be done to make up for past negligence in this field. Today, television and film exert an enormous influence on children, and this influence will increase in coming years. To a very high degree, it is throughthese two media that children get their knowledge about the world around them, and it is probably through them that they first meet art in its different forms. What the media today have to offer the children is however both quantitatively and qualitatively too bad". These quotations (and the report as a whole) do not make explicit the meaning or content of media education but implicitly they contribute to the first need to increase understanding of the media through educational effort within the diverse context of present-day politics in Denmark. The new law (and the 1961 handbook), farsighted in their day, soon became out-of-dateand, as more and more teachers took up the subject, the lack of planning to provide specific content, methods and ideas on which to base their lessons became obvious. This vacuum caused by the politics of education did not mean a vacuum in pedagogical development because of the efforts of certain teachers grouped with "Dansk Filmlaererforening" who undertook the task of educating their colleagues and spreading information about their experiences. For this, a good deal of money was made available by the Education Ministry and still is. The Ministry has continued to finance courses and the leading pedagogical institution, "Danmarks Laererhdjskole" introduced a training course in mass media which has always been fully booked. Danmarks Radio school broadcasting service put out programmes on film and mass media. This laid some foundation for planning when the major task of reforming the curricula in all Danish schools began in 1969. Of the greatest importance in the last few years have been two texts: Guide to Education in the G r a m m a r Schools (1971)and Proposal for an Elementary School Act (1972). Others followed by 1974. Both papers have something to say about the new attitude towards mass media education. Both say that the aim of education must be to let the pupil learn to exercise critical choice with regard to what the mass media offer them, and education in communication is more important than art education. In the revised curricula of the g r a m m a r school there was, however, no place for mass media education as a separate subject. But the teachers of several subjects, above all history, social studies and Danish, realised that it would not be possibletoplan a reasonable and up-to-date programme of education without including the mass media.

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The greatest changes were those made in the teaching of Danish literature and the Danish language. In this connexion, the new guide devotes a chapter to "Education in film and television". This recognises these media as an option within one of the main subjects of the grammar school curriculum. The relevant paragraph reads: "The aim of an education in film and TV as a part of Danish education must be to give students an active and analytic (critical)attitude towards these media as mass communication and art, to develop the students' awareness intellectual as well as emotional of these media, to give them a knowledge of the basic theories of film and TVlanguage".

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Acceptance of this statement, covering as it does attitudes in education towards the media, awareness of them and knowledge about them, was no accident. Throughout the parts of the manual related to teaching Danish, the line followed is that a critical attitude towards all the information and influences the surrounding world offers to every human being must be inculcated. There is nothing doctrinaire in what is desired but an attitude built on c o m m o n sense, skill in analysisand a reasonable degree of knowledge. The guide (ormanual) has been obliged to take account of certain special factors. Mass media education is not yet an independent subject but one topic within other subjects. Teachers wantto teach it but have no prior knowledge of, or attitude towards, m a s s media education. So the guide has to perform a double function,giving advice on how the teacher can arrange to do the subject in the classroom while at the s a m e time providing him with some professional grounding. The guide indicates four areas of educational attention: (a) Observation and analysis"; (b)Texts and films; (c)A n example of a work of filmic art; and (d)Teaching about television. It might be assumed from this that a line is drawn between teaching about film and about television. O n the contrary, the courses are based on characteristics c o m m o n to these two pictorial media as a whole, before attentionispaid to aspects exclusively relating to television because of its special nature and its place in society. There is one other reason for the division in the guide between the two media. In Denmark, favourable conditions exist for the production of filmed materials for education while obtaining television materials (video tapes) is much more difficult. O n practical grounds, introducing teaching about media must to a high degree depend on available materials. In (a) above, "Observation and analysis", students are taught to acquire skill and knowledge in relation to the theory of pictures. They must learn to read a picture as a sign, and something of what is meant by composition, structure, plan (concreteand symbolic), and critiques for the media. Finally, they must. learn to apply this in ~

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analysing concrete examples in the form of extracts from films and television programmes. The starting point for (b), "Texts and films", is that mass media education in the grammar school is part of education in Danish as a whole. This works out in two ways. In the first place, examples are shown which enable one to examine in detail how picture and sound influenceeach other and total comprehension by the pupils of the information content of the media. This has, of course, a bearing on a closer formal assessment of the film but, before that, it encourages critical and analytical attitudes in the students. Secondly, a number of different versions of short stories are used. The idea is to give students an insight into how the transfer from one medium to another is effected, and the consequences. With so many examples available, one can begin with the text which the students can analyse and imagine how the screen version can be worked out and then see the filmand compare the interpretation in it with their own versions. But one can also follow the converse procedure, by beginning with analysis of the film and then working on the text. This is especially useful in improving the students' appreciation of how concrete pictures can express abstractions. Moreover, it helps them to "read" (understand)the information implicit in a film or television programme. As regards (c), teaching about a "Work of filmic art" (or,sometimes a work of television art), the guide seeks to demonstrate the approach to a "mini" or single medium process. After all, most of the skill and the knowledge the students need to acquire can be demonstrated in a single work. At the same time, this mini-approach allows the teacher to widen out the perspectives in various directions. Thus, one can bring in the basic elements (the original work possibly, the scenario, the personality of the director and his other works, reactions by the audience and the critics). The fourth, "Teaching about television" (to which a section of the guide is devoted), concerns the area in education relating to the special conditions of television as a mass medium. The section opens with the following observation on why television is dealt with in this way: "Films and television are in many ways analogous media. In some cases, it is impossible, apart from variations in technical quality, to differentiate between the photographic image (film)and the electronic image (television). The chief differences, taking into account the special interest of television for education and that it cannot be treated ipso factoas in film teaching, are as follows: The aim and function of television; the quantity and scope of the subject-matter which characterises it; its emotional effects: television's capacity for dissemination; the speed and limitations of the time especially called for in television; extensions

of motivation and concentration in the viewer through television". O n the content and planning of teaching about television, the guide says: "The intention of the teaching can be 'media-control' so that (based on concrete programme materials) there is discussion of the principles of selection (what sort of information is given prominence what elements are shown on the screen? ), the principles of editing (in which order, with what priority is the subject-mattershownon the screen?), principles of illustration (what kinds of relationships are to be found between information in the picture and on the sound-track?). This should lead to discussion of the importance of these principles reflected in the programmes as understood by the viewers. Analysis and discussion of quantity and quality can be based on a number of ITV evenings', i.e. the whole of the programmes shown on a particular evening and seen by all the students. (To which subjects was most programme time devoted? B y what value standards have the programmes to be judged? ) For shorter or longer periods, coverage of the daily television programmes in the newspapers can be studied. The central point to be brought out in teaching about television is that television is not only something to be received, but to be 'dealt with' on the part of the viewers".

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The guide is in no doubt as to the educational approach to be used in teaching about television. The main emphasis is put on the analysis of information and its manipulation. Conversely, the specific aesthetics or art of television has been removed from the teaching programmes. O n the whole, the guide consistently sees the student as the centre of the education given in the grammar schools. Teaching of facts to be learned has been replaced by attitudes to be inculcated (understandingrelationships). In addition the guide follows a deliberatelychosenpolicy, i. e. one which wants social criticism by citizens to be developed. The most important step towards a reformed school system adapted to society and human attitudes was the introductioninParliament in 1972 of a "Proposal for a N e w SchoolAct for the Primary School". F r o m the beginning, the Proposal was much discussed and criticised, especially because of this passage, among others, in the paragraphs on aims: "832 stk. 3. The primary school must prepare pupils for CO-existenceand the right to be consulted in a democratic society. Education in school as in daily life must therefore be built on democracy, intellectual liberty and tolerance".

The line of thought corresponds here precisely with the concept of education in critical attitudes, and this for the first time as a component of the aim of education as a whole.

The consequences of this new way of thinking m a y be observed in several places inthe Proposal, especially in the faghaefter'! which is a very different one from previously, and worked out in accordance with ideas contained in the Act. The Proposal opens up new perspectives for mass media education in the sense that a subject called "film appreciation" is for the first time referred to in a School Act and given a certain status. This is important because it is more difficult to exclude a subject once it has been referred to in a School Act. More important however in educational development are two other factors: children receive their first experience of teaching about the mass media in relationship with other motivations (from history teaching, in the teaching of Danish, etc. ); and there are now at least guidelines describingthecontent, methods and aims of mass media education. The section on aims in the guide closes the debate on media and media education temporarily for several years with the following passage: "The aim of education is to provide pupils with knowledge about the way expression through film and television operates and the conditions of reception and production governing how their roles as intermediaries of experience and knowledge should be seen. The aim must be to allow pupils to acquire an iinderst.andingand evaluative attitude towards the way in which the media influence not only individ-ualsbut society as a whole. In addition, education must contribute towards developing the pupils' capacity for experience and self-expressionthrough the media. The aim must be to enable them to acquire an aesthetically richer experience of pictures and a better understanding of art". Three noteworthy new elements are involved in this aim. First of all, it underlines that teaching must cover the conditions of production and reception which means that the sociology of the mediain a wider sense has now obtained a footing in education. Pupils in the 1970s are not going to listen to anecdotes about the old masters of film art. But they are going to learn to understand how and why the media are as they are, what the media offer them. Secondly, creative (or more precisely, productive)work now occupiesa central position in education. The guide manages to say quite a lot on this subject, simply by illustrating all the stages of progress in education from the point of view both of perception and production. Pupils must be taught not only by seeing professional productions but also making their own. Here, it is important to stress, the guide is not referring to "creativity" as usually understood but about the principle of "learning by doing"

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faghaefter:description of the different subjects of the school curriculum.

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applied to media. One reason why the guide can in 1974 put so much stress on productive work is the new possibility for production in schools opened up by video. First costs of video are higher than for 8 m m film but running costs are much lower and video yields much more rapid results and feedback. Video equipment is also far more useful in many school situations than 8mm could ever be. It must be conceded that the equipmentfor teaching about television is now at the disposal of the educators. The third element emphasised in the guide relates to developing the capacity for experience which must not be neglected. This is one of the oldest topics for discussion in screen education circles. For many years, some teachers and students have maintained that media education would destroy the capacity for spontaneous expression. These objections cannot be brushed away. The guide provides the sound advice that time should be found for showing films and television programmes to pupils and allowing them to talk about them from their own intuitive standpoint without interpreting them to the pupils in a formalist manner. The main principle followed by the guide is moreover to give first the absolute minimum of advice as to what can reasonably be taught about themedia. It follows this with a panoply of suggestions each one of which can be considered useful. It is then up to the individual teacher and group to discover which of these suggestions they would like to pursue. The guide points out firmly that it is neither practicable nor desirable to cover all aspects. It is better to go more deeply into one or two aspects, given that the prescribed course is limited to two lessons a week for one year. But as each group and teacher begins the course from differing background experience, it is not possible to prescribe the same content or series of steps for the whole country. These two guides indicate both a new status and a new content for mass media education in schools. While it m a y be claimed that content has been brought more up-to-date,this does not apply to its status. In the grammar schools, mass media education has still not yet been recognised as an independent subject. Where regular courses in mass media education are given on a voluntary basis, it is classified as experimental. However, one should add that efforts are at present being made to establish how the subject can be put on a more durable footing. In the primary schools, circumstances seem today to be even more chaotic. The School Act, which was to consolidate the subject, has still not been passed. Given the serious economic situation and the political situationin Denmark, it is difficult to forecast when a new Act will appear. But something will be done in respect of media education in the primary schools. Latterly, a number of different circulars have been issued by the Ministry 52

of Education and it is now up to the teachers themselves to introduce "reforms" by exploiting new ideas as fully as possible within the framework of the existing School Act. Training of Mass Media Teachers As regards teacher training, the situation in Denmark seems to be similar to that in most other countries in Europe. There are various possibilities and for some stages of training established courses exist. But w e are not yet at the point where mass media education occupies its natural place in all forms of training for teaching. Five years ago, mass media education was introduced into the training colleges for kindergartenteachers. There were two underlying reasonsfor this. The trainingperiod was increased from two to three years and this involved increasing the theoretical content of the curriculum of these colleges. Problems of children's films and using films were taken up, so that teachers responsible for the youngest age groups at least had some acquaintance with the relationships between children and the media. The teachertraining colleges as a whole have been given no directives in respect of media education: the subject is not mentioned in their directives. W e know however that mass media education is given in many of the colleges, sometimes as parts of other subjects, sometimes as independent but optional courses. In one of them the Emdrupborg Training College in Copenhagen an experiment has begun based on some years' preparation. Some of the students receive special instruction in the media which should equip them with some professional skill. This experiment, together with pressure from the schools, will, one m a y hope, induce further progress. At a number of universities in Denmark, various courses in mass media studies are available. Mostly they aim, more or less directly at training those taking up journalism as a career. Only at Copenhagen University is training provided for those intending to teach media studies in the grammar schools. These courses in scientific study of film began in 1967 and only now has their final form been worked out. The reason for this, among others, is that the grammar schools have not yet formulated their requirementsfor teachers taking up mass media studies. This gap in teacher training is to some extent being closed by the courses given each year at the Royal Danish School of Educational Studies. About fifty teachers take one-year courses in mass media education and qualify sufficiently to teach the subject in the primary schools. If one year suffices for these teachers, this is related to the fact that they begin these special courses after completing the full teacher training courses and some years' in-service experience behind them. But it cannot be denied that much remains

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to be done in giving the subject proper status, defining it and establishing a connexion between classroom teaching and teacher training in the matter before w e can claim in Denmark that w e are providing children and young people with an adequate education in respect of the mass media.

- T w o Examples Despite all the difficulties - political, arising from school policies, economic and educational - media

Educational Practices

education is widely practised in Denmark today. The pattern ranges from very simple examples in which the teacher and his pupils see a film or television programme together and discuss it, to a completelyplanned series of lessons with defined content, methods and a step-by-step progression, and in which both during the series and at the end results are evaluated. A fair idea of such properly qualified teaching in Denmark m a y be arrived at from the two experiments described below:

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"The Haslev Experiment At the Haslev Continuation Schoolin Sealand in recent years experiments have been undertaken in providing eleventh-year pupils in the c o m m o n schoolwithmedia instruction. In Denmark, compulsory schooling lasts for nine years but most pupils continue into a tenth year. Taking an eleventh year is however very unusual, but most of the pupils wishing to continue their studies do so at the two or three-year courses in the grammar schools. At Haslev, they have tried to meet the problem of how to give this eleventh year a content and a method building harmoniously on the rounding off the c o m m o n school and also fitting the greater maturity and development of the pupils. Mass media education was chosen for a special effort. Progressive training was planned, built methodically on creative work by the students producing programmes with video equipment. The course is based on the aims for film appreciation in the primary schools described above. The teaching itself is developed over sevenphases with provision after each phase for evaluating results and using them to modify the succeeding phases. The phases have been described as follows: 1. Initial Phase: Knowledge and skill of pupils is assessed by the pupils' carrying out a specially arranged media test. Evaluation of the answers made it possible at this early stage to make a selection of subject-matter to be taught, so that aspects of which students had a good grasp could be less covered than aspects which seemed more difficult for them. 2. Playing About Phase: Very brief. Pupils use video equipment in any way they like. This has a double function: to satisfy normal curiosity about this new electronic 'toy' of which the pupils knew nothing beforehand; and to help them to have a relaxed attitude to the equipment before using it in the first video production project.

3. Briefing Phase: The pupils acquire a practical and theoretical knowledge (from professional television materials) of the meaning of the terms media and communication. Among other things the attempt is made to explain to pupils how 'strange'passages in, for example, the television news bulletin are due to rules which the ordinary viewers are unaware of. 4. Recipient (orviewer)Function:The pupils learn about, and are made conscious of, the role the media want to induce in the viewers at the receiving end and what the recipient can do to cope with the steady flow of information and influences coming to them from the mass media. While not overlooking the 'moment of experience', the idea in this phase is to teach the pupils howto approach observation, analysis and involvement. 5. Transmitter Function: The pupils make their own productions using video, which cover a range of typical television genres information programmes (a programme about the local elections), descriptive programmes (about an evening dance at the school)and a problem-centred programme of their choice (each group having its own special theme). Pupils have to observe certain conditions based on professional television practice. 6. Analysis: Detailed analysisof sequences from a number of programmes is carriedout,and the attempt is made to establish a critical attitude towards the media. Various models are subjected to analysis and these are used in identifying the information in them level and density of information and tendency to manipulate. Finally, the effort is made to explainthe relationshipsbetween television news and other mass media news programmes (radio, newspapers). 7. Evaluation Phase:The pupils are required to analyse and criticise the programmes produced by othergroups and (as in the first phase) have to carry out a prescribed media task of whicha final evaluation is made''.

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These seven phases divide up the content of the instructionprovided, with topics and areas planned in advance and presented to the pupils in a reasonable progression. A key point is that they experience and understand the sort of role the massmedia wants to induce the recipient to adopt before work on problems of transmission begins. Similarly, it would not be wise to start pupils on analysis of the media before being sure that they had acquired a sufficient level of awareness of the influence of the media to enable them to keep the necessary distance from any one source of information. The sevenphasesalso incorporate two control phases (at the beginning and the end). These phases aim to check and correct. The whole process must be short and camouflaged possibly so that pupils are not given the impression that they are being examined.

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The aimof the course is to inculcate attitudes, provide practice in skills and concrete data for the pupils. Splitting the course up into phases might leave the impression that the teaching is very theoretical. In fact, the attempt was made to achieve m a x i m u m participation by the pupils and to ensure by inductive methods that they put the questions to which the teachers replied. Preferably, situationswere avoided in which teachers lectured unmotivated groups. It was not always possible to keep to this ideal. Thus, there was failure in the important matter of teaching pupils how, with television news, unconscious manipulation, from the transmitting end, acts and can be exposed. At first, pupils were not in the least prepared to accept the reason why critical attitudes to this type of programme were necessary. The right conclusion did not emerge until they had seen a number of obvious examples of manipulation. It became clear that the reason for this, though they did not like to admit it, was that these programmes, which they andtheirfamilieshad for years accepted as gospel truth, were not so sacrosanct after all. In some of the phases, theory was taught first (e.g. about transmissionconditions)while in others production practices came first and theory was received through analysis and mutual criticism. It was interesting to see how much more readily pupils approached theory once they understood its significance for their work. A procedure c o m m o n to all the assignments to pupils was to provide brief written synopses in the same form for all groups. This obliged them to reflect a little before putting questionsto teachers. Comparative analysis of the productions by the different groups was also facilitated when they had all worked along the same lines. Here are the instructions given to pupils for the four major production tasks set during the whole course:

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"No. 1 You are now going to describe a family situation using only video equipment. Cue-words: In the family home of Gerda and Hans Nielsen It is two a.m. Wednesday Mr. Nielsen must be at his work at sixo'clock. Normal bedtime for the family is 10:30 p.m. M r . Nielsen usually has the last word Husband and wife disagree about bedtime for their son Per Per has not yet returned from a visit to his girl friend Per is 16yearsold and goes to school Per comes homeat2:15a.m. Mr. Nielsen scolds him M r s . Nielsen tries to protect her son Per protects himself Mr. Nielsen wants to beat him Mrs. Nielsen intervenes. The following rules must be followed: Length: 3 to 5 minutes; Angle: You must use high angle, normal angle and low angle; Lenses: You must use both full shot and close-up; Sound: You must use both 100% sync. and commentary. You m a y use those technical alternatives you find suitable".

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about the elementary video techniques, the pupils would get acquainted with one another in their roles as video producers and video actors. The task called for technical application - theory was now being used in practice. Family conflict was chosen as a situation familiar to most teenagers. What was left out in the synopsis was the underlying idea to discuss the three characters and the solution of their problems and to discover how to do so using only images and sounds. The requirement for 100youseof sync. and commentary was to achieve both nearness and distance. Results achieved in this production project were primitive. But the project was successful in so far as it showed the pupils how important are the "actors", camera work and sound in putting across a character to the viewers. Sometimes there was a big gap between the intentions of those transmitting and what recipients experienced. Theproject imparted quite a new interest and understanding of the importance of the transmission element. A number of the resulting analyses of television news paid special attention to the transmitter function (concepts of its role and power). The instruction in this project was applied in Project No. 2:

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"No. 2 Research and find out about the local political situation in Haslev now just after the local elections. Then try to find as a 'victim' for an interview one of the members of the Council. Prepare inadvance a number of relevant and important questions, especially relating to the election programme of his party and to the election of the burgomaster. Through your questions and the handling of the camera and the surroundings in which you take your shots, you must try to express your attitude to the person being interviewed and to his opinions. Length: m a x i m u m 5 minutes. Before the production starts you must write down on a piece of paper the attitudes you want to express. W e shall use this in analysis and discussion afterwards". In this task the pupils had not only to try to use the video equipment out in "reality" (outsidethe classroom), but also to try and use experience and knowledge about roles and manipulation and about expressing their attitudes towards "a living model". The interview with a local politician was chosen because the local elections were just over (so that the whole situation was still fresh in the memory). Furthermore, this group of pupils had demonstrated an intense involvement in the election campaign. For this project, results varied greatly betweengroups. One group stood out as distinctly better than others (and maintained this lead throughout). But all groups displayed a much greater awareness of the possibilities of the media itself for formulating messages. Both through

the interviews and visuals, some of the devices used quite certainly produced precisely those reactions in the audience that those making the video programmes had intended.

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"No. 3 For different kinds of audiences you are now going to produce the following programme: You are going to describe the Continuation School, which means, e. g. its place in the Danish school system, the education it offers, its special character, advantages and disadvantages of this kind of school. But you must present your information and opinions through a specific audience group - such as: Group 1: Small children (1st level in the school); Group 2 : Young adults (14-18years old); Group 3: Adults (parents of future pupils of the Continuation School). Length: 3 to 5 minutes. I' The problem was, as a "transmitter" to find out how certain groups in the population are thinking, and to produce a programme accordingly. The theme was one the pupils would be familiar with (it was their own kind of school), they would have some prior knowledge of the circumstances of the audience groups and reactions to the theme would probably be positive. Results made it clear that the theme was perhaps too close to the pupils. Difficulties arose in presenting the quantity of information they had so as to give an outsider the chance to understand the problems involved. Nor was it entirely easy for pupils to imagine how adults think, nor how young people who do not wish to go to a Continuation School react. But arrangements were eventually more professionally devised. For the audience of small children, the approach was: "A walk round the school"; for young people: "A talk with young Continuation pupils in their digs"; for adults: "The headmaster of the school reports. . .I I . Discussions following Projects 1 to 3 revealed an important transition from concentration on technical problems to problems of themes and attitudes. Technical faults were no longer blamed on faulty equipment but accepted as production shortcomings. This led to discussion of technical perfection in getting the message across. But it was in the last Project 4 that some of the students had the opportunity to demonstrate that a strong programme is one in which the message touches the viewer and technique is controlled so as to support the message:

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"NO.4 You m a y regard yourselves as a TV production team, who are going to plan and produce a programme within a time limitof 10to 20 minutes. Topic: you are free to choose. Use your practical and theoreticalknowledge of the TV media as much as possible". This final assignment was planned as free and allembracing training, so that idea, synopsis, script and production were all produced by the pupils on their own. Results varied greatly. The most successful group took as its theme the "Christiana

Alternative Society" project about a rather large group of people in an abandoned Copenhagen barracks who try to live in alternative conditions of those of society. This theme proved exciting because the whole problem of Christiana is a subject of political debate. Pupils were therefore obliged to reveal their attitudes to it, and did so efficiently, leaving no doubt of their sympathy for Christiana. This emerged from the interviews with the dwellers in the alternative society, through filming the barracks' field from a slowly driven car in sunlight, and a blues' melody on the sound track. Their attitude is best demonstrated in the final sequences, consisting of snap interviews with passers by in the streets of central Copenhagen seeking their views. Withoui comment, these sequences bring out that ordinary people in Denmark do not think that Christiana as a social experiment has any value. So far the first conclusion to be drawn from the Haslev courses is that for mass media education to be reasonably effective, plenty of time is needed. Planned initially to consist of 40 lessons, the courses had increased before the end to 80 lessons. This was first of all because it was maintained that all pupils should produce their own materials (without teachers expressing any opinions). But, secondly, it was because the project called for pupils to learntowork ingroups and this, too, takes time. But students have obviously become better television viewers than before (and better than many trained more traditionally). Their awareness of how expression through media operates and how they manipulate us had been sharpened while their feeling for quality had improved. The evaluation at the end, as compared with the initial assessment, showed that their capacity both for observation and conducting an argument had been developed to a high degree. Unfortunately, it is still not possible everywhere in Denmark to follow training courses of the kind described above. In theory, courses in media education are always supposed to consist of 80 lessons, but in most institutions these are spread over two years. Also training cannot always be planned on the assumption that (as in this case) the institution is a residential one allowing pupils to work in their sparetime. Moreover, classes are usually larger than in this case where twelve pupils in all were taught in each group. Finally, w e have not yet reached the point in Denmark where all schools have their own video equipment. Nevertheless, the fact that courses like these have been organised is a source of gratification and the report on them, which has now been published by the Ministry of Education, will, one m a y hope, initiate other similar educational projects. But one must face the factsthat years must pass before all pupils in Denmark will receive instruction on such radical lines.

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Mass Media Studies at Christianshavn Gymnasium* The courses at this school illustrate the approach more commonly adopted. In this type of school (agelevels 16to 19 years), mass media education is an optional subject lasting two years with one or two lessons weekly. A s the subject is popular with students (the only rivaloptionbeing music), groups are usually big with 24 students. Training begins with two introductory periods, mainly on theory. The first ten lessons are devoted to training in the theory of pictures, going from scrutiny of still photographs to motion pictures. Materials used are drawings, photographs, paintings, cartoons and, of course, films. Teaching is heavily weighted towards analysis, especially breaking down the complete message into its components (picture and sound (text)). The next ten lessons are used to introduce study of television. Halfway through the first year, regular video production is begun. The school has simple studio equipment, with two cameras and editing facilities. Students are given minor assignments for which, as a rule, the synopsis describes content, roles, intended audience and the intention of the students transmitting the message. This means that tasks are deliberately limited to the production phase and discussion of the different solutions arrived at. This is not a satisfactory way to organise training in production, But given the short time available, and the size of classes, it must after all be considered acceptable. The final part of the first year is devoted to two or three major projects. One year these included a project on the problems of the documentary (filmand television). Another chosen by the students was on movie farce. The best so far has been a project in which a group studied the total output of news in Denmark over a two-day period. All news provided on radio and television was taped and news in the press studied. Students acquired a knowledge of how to plan examination of the media, and of the difficulties involved. They also observed important points about the function of the media in society, including the so-called "gate-keeper" one, selection and editing and relationships between the news and the images of it projected by the various media. The second year (one lesson a week) is more difficult to handle. A way must be found to allow students to complete all the lessons without being bound to take a particular lesson on a particular day. Projects are chosen which they can, on the whole, carry out on their own, so that the teacher only needs to function as an adviser. Where you have fifty pupils and only one teacher,this project method is, it is true, the only one to yield results on a reasonable scale while at the same time keeping all the students occupied throughout.

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school.

Projects cover a wide field, andareproposed by the students themselves according to their interests. One m a y be produced on 8mm film, another using video. Other groups study "Expanded Cinema" or workona single director and his films. Inthese conditions,it is difficult to generalise about the degree of professional skill and development students acquire. The main point for the present is, however, the following: Inthe grammar schools whichare, despite the complexity of their operations and methods, under the obligation to prepare students for examinations, here is a subject for the curriculum on a central and relevant theme, which can be organised almost entirely on the premises where the students work and in which individual experienceand satisfactions, and not marks in examinations, are decisive. In concluding this short summary of mass media education in Denmark, it m a y be said that it is a subject not to be encompassed within one single aspect. Even today, teaching guidelines are few, still new and untested, and €or most teachers and groups of students it is a questionof trying out this type of education for the first time. But things are on the move in Denmark and increasingly so from day to day.

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FINLAND by Sirlrka Minkkinen Situation of the Mass Media in Finland Finnish mass media production is partly private (the private sector handles 70% of all mass media funds), partly State-owned through the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation (15%) and partly in the hands of various organizations (such as political parties, religious communities, temperance societies, etc., (15% in all). Half of all funds used in mass media production are collected directly from the consumers in the form of subscription and licence fees. One-third of all revenue comes from advertisingand thus indirectly from the consumers, and the rest comes from the State budget in the form of press subsidies and mailing subsidies. It can be noted here that newspapers get 75% of their total revenue from advertisements. Concentration has taken place lately, particularly in the field of printed communication, the gramophone record industry and in the production and distribution of films. Newspapers For example, the number of newspapers has declined during the last two decades, while the total circulation of newspapers has risen by 66% since 1946. Commercialisation has taken place alongside the growing concentration of newspapers.

The proportion of political party newspapers has diminished, while the proportion of newspapers not bound to political parties has increased. Furthermore, the press has become increasingly one-sided. Both the proportion and share of the total circulation held by the leftist press has decreased, and at the same time the regional variety of press has narrowed (the leftist press has less than 10% of total circulation, while approximately 44% 50% of the population vote for leftist parties at elections).

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Publishing

- Periodicals

Concentration has also been characteristic for magazines and periodicals. The four largest publishers produce approximately three-quarters of the total annual volume of the commercial magazine pres,s. Furthermore, one of these publishers is at the same time the publisher of Finland's biggest newspaper, while the major shareholders in another magazine publishing house are also the biggest book publishers in Finland. The fourth largest publisher of popular periodicals in Finland is Kustannus Williams Oy, a subsidiary of the American Warner Communications Company, which in 1973 published more than 50 different magazines, most of them cartoon and comic magazines. In recent years the company has also been buying Finnish magazine interests. Publishing

- Books

The book publishing industry is very concentrated as well, and almost wholly dominated by commercial enterprises. The two biggest publishers produce approximately one-half of all books. Since Finland is a very small linguistic community (total book sales per year are approximately 15 million), book publishing is economically profitable only when printings are relatively large and a demand for the same book remains high for several years. Therefore book publishing is turning more and more towards the sure best sellers;and children's picture books, for example, are seldom published any more in Finland, and then usually only when internationalmarketscan also be secured for them.

Film Finnish film production underwent a deep depression in the early 1960s. The number of domestic film productions fell sharply and the number of movie theatres dropped by one-half. Approximately onethird of all Finns live in areas which have no movie theatres. Six companies have been engaged in the production of full-lengthfilms since 1963. Approximately half of all foreign films are imported here through foreign companies. The whole field of films is very concentrated and American corporations have a strong position in film distribution.

Radio and Television The State-owned Finnish Broadcasting Company, Yleisradio, is responsible for all radio and TV broadcasting in Finland. The Finnish Broadcasting Company leases about one-fifth of its TV broadcasting time to the Commercial Television Co., a private company owned by advertising agencies, film agencies and other business enterprises. The number of hours broadcast weekly by Finnish television is rather high, about 77 hours. As a result Finland has had to rely on imported programmes to a high degree from the very beginning. Forty per cent of all TVprogrammes are imported (6070of allprogrammes sent out by the Commercial Television Company). Some features characteristicof Finnishmedia are: Concentration, especially evident in the press, publishing, record and film industries; An increasing proportion of imported material, which is evident in both ownership (magazines, record industry, film agencies) and in content (magazines, film programmes, records, television programmes). It is also seen in the growing demand for international servicesfrom the news agencies, film agencies and article services; The prominent role of advertising in almost all media, especially in the press and television; A heightened commercialism, which is reflected in both the growing proportion of advertising in mass communications and in the strengthened position of commercial mass media. C o m m e r cialisation has also influenced the contents of mass communications toward the more entertaining and thus better selling. This is especially evident in the magazine press, film agencies, the record industry and partly also in book publishing. These features in the development of mass media in Finland and other capitalist countries concentration, commercialism, "multinationalisation" and an ever greater emphasis on entertainment have led to a state of mass media production which parents, teachers and other educators cannot regard as desirable from an educational point of view. Many claim that the mass media teaches children the wrong attitude towards violence, sex and other moral questions. Many fear that the heavy entertainment content will have a discouraging effect on the character of children's activity. Stereotyped mass entertainment is believed to dull a child's ability to empathise. And finally the mass media are seen to mould the child's and also the adult's social and political views and opinions. Thus the mass media are seen to be largely working against the values which many countries have accepted and set as educational goals in their schools and which Unesco has endorsed to its m e m b e r nations.

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THE POSITION OF M A S S MEDIA EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM

T h e messages offered by the mass media are received a) consciously b) unconsciously.

T h e pupils should have practice in understanding the possibilities the mass media have of exerting influence.

Mass media education was introduced as a new subject into the curriculum of the comprehensive school in 1970. Before that it had no official position in the curriculum, although individual teachers had applied some aspects of mass media education, for example, when teaching art or social subjects. Mass media education is included inthe curriculum of the comprehensive school as a so-called "pervading subject". This means that mass media education has no lessons of its own but is taught in applicable points with the teaching of Finnish, art, history, social studies and study of the environment. Mass media education can be given all through the school days or, alternatively, concentrated in shorter periods, e.g. in the II-VI or VII-VI11 classes. In the senior secondary school, mass media education is also given according to the principle of "pervading" but it is also possible to arrange special courses of about 38 to 76 lessons. The teaching is concentrated in the first two years. However, the teachers have a relatively wide scope in arranging the teaching of mass media education. Invocational schools, no mass media education is included in the curriculum. It can, however, be taught in applicable points in connexion with subjects of general culture and it is evident that when the educational plan of general culture is reformed, some parts of mass media education will be included in the teaching also in vocational schools.

T h e mass media offer current changing information regarding world events, people and ideas.

T h e pupils should have practice in opening u p their sphere of experience and in understanding change and difference.

THE OBJECTIVES OF MASS MEDIA EDUCATION The objectives of mass media education in the comprehensive schools have been formulated in the materials used in the training of teachers in mass communication in conjunction with the practical problem situations which are taken as a starting point for mass media education. Situation:

Objective:

T h e children get information daily from the radio,television,newspapers, magazines, books, records, movies, advertisements and bill-boards.

T h e pupils should have practice in making use of the information given bv the mass media.

Every medium of mass communication offers for reception messages which are formulated in a w a y peculiar to it.

T h e pupils should have practice in understanding the language of the messages which the different media offer.

Every mass communication m e d i u m offers for reception messages, matters and ideas which are important from the standpoint of the transmitter of the message.

T h e pupils should have practice in analysing and critically evaluating the nature of the information offered bv the mass media.

T h e mass communication media offer controversial information.

T h e pupils should have practice in understanding the part of the transmitter of information in determining the nature of the information offered.

Controversial information is offered T h e pupils should have practice in daily from m a n y different directions formulating their own opinions regarding the matters being handled.

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In the preceding formulation of objectives, emphasis has been placed on the informational objectives of mass media education, both on the formal skills and on the informational features relating to the content of the subject-matter.The previously formulated objectives of aesthetic and ethical education are adapted in the choice of instructional material and examples, as well as in the use of problem assignments.

THE TRAINING OF M A S S MEDIA EDUCATION TEACHERS Teachers at the lower level of the comprehensive school are trained in special training collegesand at the upper level of the comprehensive school, in the senior secondary school and inuniversities. The curricula for teacher training are being reformed. The training of teachers at the lower level of the comprehensive school does not, at the moment, include obligatory studies in mass media education. The Ministry of Education has, however, suggested that the training colleges should arrange a course of about 20 lessons in mass media education. The structure of this course follows the curriculum plan of mass media education in the comprehensive school. Most training colleges have arranged such courses. The students can also take university grades in mass media. The subjectteachers, at the upper level of the comprehensive school and at the senior secondary school, if they so wish, can include university studies in mass media in their group of subjects, but it is not obligatory for the certification of subject teachers. The only exception is the School of IndustrialArt, which trains art teachers. They have an obligatory course of about 30 lessons in mass media as part of the art teacher examination. Last year, courses inthe pedagogical applications of mass media education were also arranged as part of the examination in communication theory, with teachers especially in mind. A great deal of further and complementary training has been arranged for teachers already working in their profession, mainly in consequence ofthe school reform. The most extensive continued training will be that given during the period of transition to the comprehensive school system. It consists of a five-day education unit for each teacher during three consecutive years and includes a few lessons in mass media education. Also other forms of compulsory further training will be arranged a few days a year for teachers working in the field, when it will also be possible to deal with mass media education.

In addition to this, there are possibilities of optional further studies for teachers, for example in s u m m e r universities and in training courses organized by the teachers' own organizations. Private enterprises and organizations also arrange courses for teachers. The s u m m e r universities have arranged courses inmass media education for teachers ever since 1971. There have been two kinds of courses. Some were arranged as separate pedagogical courses with the emphasis on applications of mass media in teaching. There were four or five such courses in all. Courses in mass media education have also been arranged in connexion with the lowest ("approbatur") examination in mass communication so that teachers have taken a university examination in mass communication together with the pedagogical applications. There have been four or five such courses. Several teacher organizations have included in their own educational programmes one or twoday courses in mass media education. There have probably been about five to ten such courses. Some private enterprises, e. g. publishing firms and the Finnish Newspaper Association, have also arranged courses touching on the problems of mass media education for teachers. Such courses have been arranged ever since the 1960s. In addition, various associationshave arranged short courses in mass media education. The programme of these courses has, to a great extent, followed the content structure of the curriculum plan of mass media education in schools. The total number of participants in the voluntary courses was approximately 500 to 600teachers, as many teachers who were interested in mass media education took part in several courses. Voluntary courses and additional studiesmust almost be regarded as necessary conditions for the teaching of mass media education, as most teachers working in the field have not received in their basic training any information or instruction in teaching mass media education. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL IN M A S S MEDIA

EDUCATION The instructional material in mass media education is crucially important at this stage, when the subject is new and teacher training has not been adequately organized. The situation in Finland concerning instructional material is, however, rather poor, especially as regards material for students. Through the activity of school authorities, a curriculum plan for mass media education came out in 1970. It tries to illustrate with several examples how mass media education could be applied in teaching in schools. The curriculum plan was, however, drawn up in a very short time and has, therefore, been made more precise in later documents. It has also been translated into

English. In addition to the curriculum plan, the National Board of Educationhas published a guide to mass media education for teachers, which describes the content of mass media education more in detail and more systematically than the curriculum plan. It also gives advice for integrating mass media education with the teaching of other subjects, presents examples of the applications of mass media education in teaching and of instructional material, and gives instructions for planning the teaching of mass media education. Teaching material on all subjects, including mass media education, has been prepared for further training of the comprehensive schoolteachers. The subject-matter of this booklet and the above-mentioned guide partly overlaps. The booklet gives a more thorough analysis of the goals of mass media education and also includes a plan for arranging periodic studies of it. The school authorities have also prepared a separate memorandum on mass media education in the senior secondary school, presenting its content structure for the three upper grades and suggestions of content structures for special courses. In addition to these, a textbookonmass media education for teachers and adult students came out in 1971. It is called Mass Communication in Society and follows a content structure that is in conformity with that of the curriculum of the comprehensive school. In addition to this book, there are quite a number of books on different sub-divisions of mass media education available in Finnish. There are in Finland so far no textbooks on mass media education for pupils. A textbook of the workbook type for the upper level of the comprehensive school is, however, in preparation, it is awaiting the approval of the NationalBoard of Education. Some material concerning mass communication has, during the past few years, been included in the textbooks of different subjects (the mother tongue, history, social studies). The instruction materialtouchingmass communication is, however, so random and so scattered that it is difficult for the pupils to form any coherent conception of the total problem field of mass media education. The mass media messages themselves naturally form an essential part of instructional material. According to the recommendations of the National Board of Education, schools can order for teaching purposes for a period of two months annually the papers of all parties in the Parliament plus one politically uncommitted paper and one local paper. In addition, about 70-9070of schools have a radio, a television set is somewhat rarer. Concerning other mass media material records, films, magazines and posters the situation in the country as a whole is not so good and varies greatly from one school to another.

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There is very little other audio-visual instructional material. The production and distribution of audio-visual instructional material in Finland is very inadequately organised and there are relatively few films, series of transparencies and recording tapes and cassettes for national distribution. Individual teachers prepare series of transparencies, exercises and tapes for their own lessons but it is very difficult to get them into national usage within the present system of distribution. The educational programmes of the general radio service transmit annually series of programmes concerning mass media education. In 1973, a programme series consisting of seven television programmes, three radio programmes and a study booklet was prepared. It was meant chiefly for teachers and adult students. The television programmes treated the contents of mass media education following the order of the educational plan and the radio programmes gave teachers instructions on how to apply mass media education in school education. The school television broadcast at the same time a programme in several parts concerning mass media education meant for pupils. The programme was repeated a year later. The other programme series on generalradio that have dealt with mass media have been for pupils and have treated various subdivisions of mass media education. Teaching methods used by various teachersin mass communication education vary to some extent. Student-centred working methods: discussions, team-work and individual activities, have generally been preferred. Particularly as regards the contents and means of mass communication as well as its reception and effects, it has been possible to base the teaching to a great extent on the students' own activities. But in the teaching of the history of mass communication and its structures in Finland, teacher-centred teaching methods have been applied because the teaching material that could be used by students in these two fields is scarce. There are two different trends in the practical application of mass communication education which, however, aim at similar objectives through different approaches. One "school" emphasizes analytical, evaluating and productive methods: mass communication messages are analyzed, evaluated,remodelled, criticized and supplemented, efforts are also made to produce positive alternatives. The aim is to train perceptive and critical receivers. The other "school" makes students "produce mass communication", i. e. edit school papers, newspapers, etc. In the latter approach, less attention is given to the transmission of content structures of mass communication education, and the production of "mass communication'' serves primarily the purposes of other subjects taught. A teaching method applied in history and social sciences is to use up-to-datemass media 60

material, which also trains students to avail themselves of mass media. The borderlines between the two "schools" are not clearly drawn, and the varying practices indicate that the teachers' concept of mass communication education is still vague. It also indicates that the teaching methods of mass communication education are continuously being developed. A.

Examples connected with the history of mass communication

Teaching applications connected with the history of mass communication are scarce and their description difficult because the history of mass communicationistaught as part of general history. The teaching methods are for the most part presentative, and discussions are used as an alternative. These two methods are more difficult to explain than student-centred team-work or students' individual activities. Example I: Tribal society and mass communication The means of earning a living, the ways of living, the forms of social life and the civilization of a tribe are studied in connexionwith history. Against this background,the needs for mass communication in a tribal society are studied, as well as the prevalent mass media: smoke signals,messengers, war smokes, sound signals drums, horns, etc.

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Assignments: Think that you are a guard in a tribal society. You are standing on a hill two miles outside a village. The enemy is approaching. H o w do you inform the villagers of the situation? Make observations on the effects of the measures you have undertaken. (An assignmentfrom teachers'course, upper level of the comprehensive school. ) The assignment could be continued by adding to it a presentation of the signal language utilized in modern society: traffic signs, other picture symbols, etc. In this connexion, attention might be drawn to the fact that these primitive forms of mass media are still in use in many civilizations. Example 2: The Fuggers reporters

- Renaissance

news

The Fuggers were the richest financial magnates in Europe during the Renaissance. They financed particularly the business transactions of the Habsburg royal family. They also acted as the Pope's bankers for a long time. The Fuggers' business and banking activities covered an extensive area: Venice, Rome, Lisbon, Antwerp, London andViennawere trade centres and excellent places for those who made observations. The Fuggers had agents who sent them letters from all these cities. They had also hired special news mediators in some towns. The Fuggers also

bought news from the news mediators of those times to supplement their own news services. Plenty of newspapers handling financial news have been found in the Fuggers' archives. One piece of news is included in this report as an example; more examples are used in mass media education in the schools. "Lisbon, July 30, 1582 A n Indian ship arrived in Lisbon, named Buen Jesus (Good Jesus). It brought 550,000kilograms of pepper, 200,000 kilograms of cloves, plenty of cinnamon and other spices. It departed on January 23 and sailed in 13 days to the island of St. Helena. It continued its voyage from St. Helena on the 11th. T w o other ships were loading in India. It is said that they will carry aboard about 1, 600 tons of pepper, 600,000 kilograms of cloves and 100,000 kilograms of cinnamon and other spices. God bless their voyage". Assignments: What kind of news was of interest to the Fuggers' news service on the basis of the above description? Why? What kind of population groups were interested in the news? What was their status? The merchant was also a news agent. What was the reason for the merchants' taking care of news transmission, too? What kind of news do you think the merchants liked to transmit, and why? What kind of news do you think they kept secret, and why? Example 3: History and means of advertising Basic information is provided on the history of advertising and on its connexion with the progress of economy, technology and mass communication technology during the period between the industrial revolution and our time. Assignment: Compare newspaper advertisements from these two periods. What changes have taken place in the means of advertising? Which of the changes have taken place because of technical innovations, and which derive from changes in the means of expression and civilization? What value attitudes are implicit in the old advertisements and how do they differ from those implicit in the modern advertisements? (Study booklet for a television series. ) H o w has the illustration changed? What is the proportion of advertisements in our visual environment, and what was the proportion before?

B. The structures of mass communication in Finland Example 1: Control The various means of controlling mass media are presented by means of illustrativetables, sketches and examples. More examples can be found in discussions which will make the topics familiar and more concrete to the students.

Assignment: The teacher supplies examples of the editing principles of mass media that belong to different control categories. A team-work study is undertaken in order to,find out the differences in the editing principles of mass media belonging to different control categories. Which aspects are emphasized: general importance of the transmitted news, the interesting nature of the news, recreational aspects of the contents and aspects pertaining to entertainment, the importance of the transmitted news to certain priority groups, interpretation of the news in favour o € certain priority groups, etc. (The assignment is intended for the upper level of the comprehensive school and upper secondary school; study book. ) Example 2: The channels of mass communication

A study is undertaken on the classification of the

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Finnish mass media newspapers, periodicals, books, records, films, radio and TV into the various control categories.

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Assignments: Which control categories do the newspapers coming to your home belong to? And the periodicals? Which publishing companies have published your schoolbooks? Which control categories do these publishers belong to? (The assignments are intended for the upper level of the comprehensive school and upper secondary school a schoolbook.)

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Example 3: Control categories and contents Teaching is provided on the models of controlling mass media and the division of the press into the various control categories, political distribution of the press and the press' attitude to a controversial communication policy issue, i. e. that of the proposed cable act, was studied during two school hours. Teaching started with the concepts ''mass media'' and "newspaper". Then the concepts "circulation" and ''control''were illustrated in a discussion where the teacher gradually gave further information, The main characteristics of the economy and the political distribution of the press were also described. Then the studentswere suppliedwith editorials on the proposed cable bill published by five different dailies. The essential issues touched upon by each of the newspapers as regards the bill were discussed. Thereafter the students were given an opportunity to explain how the various newspapers in their respective editorials handled the process of preparing the bill (which was politically very controversial) and the proposals included in the bill. After each of the students had studied this issue individually, the attitudes of the five newspapers were written down on the blackboard on a

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positive-negativebasis. The motives of different approaches were thendiscussed: i. e. whythe same issue was differentlyhandled in the five newspapers. The school hour ended in a discussion on the eventualimpressionsofthose who had been reading of the bill in one or two newspapers only. The newspaper articles on the proposed cable bill were also compared with the text of the bill in order to find out in which respect mass communicationwas most distorted. In connexion with this exercise, it would also have been possible to study in whose interests the newspaper had been writing of the issue, and on what grounds. (The assignment is intended primarily for the upper secondary school, a teacher interviewed. )

C. The contents and means of mass communication Most applications have been made and assignments prepared in the field of the contents and means of mass communication. It is relatively easy to teach the educational contents of this field by means of illustrative examples. There is a danger, however, that the study of the message contents and means of expression is not associated with the other sectors of mass communication education. Example 1: Classification of messages into message categories The messages are classified into two types: factual and fiction messages in illustrative instruction, and the classification can be demonstrated by adding examples of prevailingusage. The following assignment illustrates various pictures. The teacher introduces the classification into news pictures, other documentary pictures, advertising pictures and fiction pictures, of which commercial entertainment pictures are separated into a further group.

Assignment: Pieces of news chosen on the basis of differing criteriaare picked up in team-work from a chosen news collection. The principles according to which each news item was chosen are discussed, as well as for w h o m the news item was intended and for w h o m it is of importance. The news items of the same questiontransmitted by different newspapers are also studied, and the importance of news criteria in emphasizing different aspects of the news item are discussed. (Upper level of the comprehensive school; a teacher interviewed.) CONCLUSIONS The development of a curriculum plan for mass media education is naturallylinked to the development of the objectives, content and instructional procedures of education as a whole. The social objectives which determine the direction of education generally are also binding in choosing the direction of development in mass media education. The Education Committee Report of 1971 outlined the sort of society which it was desired to attain in Finland and to endeavour to attain through education. The binding commitments are to assuring the spiritual and material well-being of the people, economic development, the assuring of proper work conditions for the workers and the protection of the natural environment, the distributionof spiritual and material benefits in a more equal way than at present, the development of the possibilitiesfor members of the society to function democratically and influenceothers democratically, the development of national cultural and the fostering of mutual understanding, peace and equality among the peoples of the world in sum, the building of a more just society, an objective which is also emphasized inthe Unesco documents dealing with education.

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Assignment: T w o students pick up typical samples of the presented picture groups from newspapers. The names of the above picture groups are written on the blackboard together with their characteristics. Each student couple is provided with one newspaper and one periodical. The pictures are cut off and each group is attached to a separate sheet. The pictures are provided with text and a brief explanation why the picture was chosen. The assignment turned out to be a relatively easy one, and it made the otherwise difficult theoretical classification concrete. (Upper level of the comprehensive school; a teacher's report of an experiment.) Example 2: News criteria The teacherintroducesthe concept ''newscriterium" and makes a list of various news criteria, which are made more concrete in a discussion by means of illustrative examples.

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SWEDEN by Ingrid Stenbeck B R O A D C A S T I N G AND MEDIA STUDIES The ordinary TV programme is playing an important rBle in screeneducation in school: programmes are watched by the pupils at home and discussed at school. Schools' radio and schools' TV have been of great importance for screen education as they have been able to provide material for study at school. TV programmes and printed supporting material have been used to a great extent. For a long time there was a lack of printed material on film and TV. N o w there is supporting material for radio and TV productions, teachers' guides and other material for some Swedish and foreign feature films on both 35" and 1 6 " . There

are factual textbooks and manuals, mainly with a technical approach, and parts of schoolbooks for mother language and social sciences for the higher level of the compulsory school and the gymnasium (upper secondary school level) are also devoted to the subject. The teachers also find material in daily papers and magazines. Apart from material for laboratory work with film and TV, the schools are now fairly wellequipped. Almost every school has the possibility of showing films: 16" projectors are most common, but 8 m m projectors are also frequent; 35" projectors are rare. TV equipment is less widespread. But several schools have good experience in using video machines and TV cameras for the pupils' own work. Many gymnasiums and higher level compulsory schools have access to video machines. TV cassettes are also coming in and in mid-1974, 1,000 schools were said to be equipped with Philips VCR machines. When video machines are introduced on a wide scale in school, the problems of the right to tape and showbroadcastTVprogrammes will have to be solved. The programmes made by the Educational Department of the Swedish Radio for screen education, for example, contain extracts from long films owned by commercial distributors and one is therefore not allowed to tape them in the audio-visual centres for use in schoolsbecause of the copyright laws. Sveriges Radio's Media Study Programme The Education Department of the SverigesRadio (SR) has, since the beginning of the 1960s, produced material for screen education and media education in the compulsory schools and the gymnasiums. In 1966, a new curriculum was issued for the old gymnasium, which previously only consisted of the three and four-year theoretical courses. A period of film study was required for motherlanguage teaching. It was known that very little material was available and that most teachers had very little knowledge of film. So a series of programmes combined with printed booklets giving commentaries and questions was produced. The producers declared their intention in making the series to be as follows: ''Wewant particularly to show how the means of expression of film govern our experience of it to a certain extent. But w e also know that people's experiences of the same matter can be very different. Above all, w e don't think that there is any 'right'experiencewhich can be the same for everyone. And w e don't think that all the questions you meet in the booklet have only one answer or one 'right'answer. But w e think that if you 'put a question' to a film, a book or a painting, it will answer, and w e think there is value in trying to ask. Perhaps a work of art answers more clearly the better or more trained you are at asking and w e rather hope you will end

up as good inquirers rather than as film experts". This declaration has been the basis also for many of the series produced afterwards. Various sorts of project have been produced: series on news evaluation for the gymnasium, series dealing with pure screen education for the higher level of the compulsory school. The main motives for the production have been: (1) the schools have needed more good material for screen education, especiallymaterial that is consciously designed to progress fromone grade to the next; (2) many teachers stillhave very little knowledge of film and TV, which means that they are afraid to teach about it and the children receive no screen education at all in school, despite what the curriculum says. This also means that the materials have to be easy to use, and the instructions and questions must be clear to m a k e it possible for pupils to use them without too much further explanation from the teacher; (3) the Department has felt that this is a subject particularly suited for the type of media it has at its disposal: T V , radio and printed material in combination. The objectives that have been particularly stressed in all the material produced by the Educational Department are the ability to watch critically and make an independent jugement of the messages received from the different media and the ability to talk about how one has experienced films and TV programmes. The aesthetic aspect has been secondary and only slight importance has been accorded to knowledge of the production processes of film and T V . The series for the compulsory schools has consisted of TV programmes with extracts from different films and TV programmes which the pupils and the teacher are intendedto discuss after the programme. Bookletshave suggested questions to discuss. In addition, the booklets have contained simple material for practical work: for instance, pictures to be combined with sound from radio programmes. There have also been pages in the booklets to help those who wish, and are in a position to, make their own films. This has provided an opening for co-operationbetween the mother-language teacher and the teacher of drawing, as the traditional division of screen education has been that in the mother-language lessons you look at film and discuss it and in the drawing lessons you do the practicalwork. There has even been conflict between interested teachers of both subjects about which aspect is the most important and gives the best results: to look, talk and analyse or make films yourself. This conflict is now less stressed, both sides feel that a combination of these methods must be the best way to make the pupils aware of how mass media work and give them tools with which to be critical.

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INFORMERA FLERA,a unit for studying the mass media. intended for the firstvear of the svmnasium two and three-year courses The screen education series for the gymnasium from 1966 onwards dealt mainly with film and the method was usually to show extracts from films, look at them critically, make the students discuss them and help them to find out all the devices used by the film-maker to convey his message. It was later felt that this method ought to be completed by a series trying to look at all sorts of mass media at the same time and trying to make the students aware of other aspects of mass media such as sociological and psychological research about the way film, TV, radio and the press work. Students should also be made aware of the social context of the mass media, of their financial, social and political conditions,etc. These general thoughts were behind the seriescalled INFORMERA FLERA (Inform More) Om Massmedier. The framework of the project For some years an experimental project had been going on, the purpose of which was to produce complete units combining printed material, TV and radio for the teaching of different subjects in the gymnasium curriculum. One of the subjects was the mother language and in the working party for this subject there were representatives of the Educational Department of SR. As a result, the mother-language group at the department produced some of the material for the project. In planning the first year of the theoretical courses in the gymnasium there was a period of study called ''mass media". When the project was first tried out in schools this period consisted of parts of series already produced by the Education Department of SR. But research showed that this combination of material did not work very well and when a revised version of the project was planned for use in a new experimental situation at two schools, it was decided to produce completely new material for mass media study. This new material was to be used in schools at the end of Spring 1974. The decision to produce the material was made in the Autumn of 1972. In November 1972, a meeting was held with the planning group of the mother-language project to plan the revision of the material for the new round of experimentation which was to start in Autumn 1973. The revision of the mass media period was then discussed and the following principles were stated: (1) w e should plan to produce material for every grade of the two and three-year courses; (2) the first step should be to produce material for the first year; (3) w e should try to maintain the distinction between mass media study in the mother language and in social science. Our purpose should be to 64

deal in mother-language study with material that suited this when regarded as the central communication subject; (4) the material should be structurally divided into one descriptive part treating the information problem of the mass media, e. g. conditionsand problems of reception, the different ways used by those transmitting programmes to appeal to the recipients, etc. ; and one practical creativepart which should encourage the students to try and find adequate and workable ways of making known information that they find important. A production group was formed to carry on with making suitable material. It consisted of: a lecturer in teaching methodology at a teachers' training college, Nils Gustaf Ormus, who had worked in mass media education and (in cooperationwith others)produced a further education study unit for teachers about film and TV; a journalist, Wiwi Samuelsson; a programme advisor from TV Channel 1, Mannee Stenbeck, who was a trained teacher and had earlier worked at the Educational Department and initiated many of the film and TV series produced at the Department; a schools' TV producer, Ingrid Stenbeck. These four formed the production group that worked on the project throughout. At the start a radio producer took part in the meetings and later on one of the editors of the printed material was attached to the project. Finally, additional people were associated with the production of the T V programmes, but by then the main structure of the material was clear. In January 1973, the production group met for the first time, It was decided that the study could not be allowed to take up more than twelve lessons. It was confirmed that w e should concentrate on the problem of information through mass media and that w e should try to give some insight into the complex pattern within which the mass media work. A model showing this complexity was designed by Manne Stenbeck. The model turned out to be too complicated to include in the material, but it served as a basis for its planning. It was also decided that the material should include four TV programmes, but no radio, and a booklet of 32 pages, which, after all the material was collected, was increased to 44 pages. During the Spring w e had several meetings at which w e formulated the pedagogical structure of the study, collected material from newspapers and books, devised questions and projects for group work and roughly planned the content of the programmes. There was a pause during the S u m m e r and then the project went into an intensive phase in the autumn when the material for the booklet had to be completed. The production of the TV programmes occupied the TV-producer completely from January to the end of April 1974. One of the other members of the productiongroup, Manne Stenbeck, was the presenter of the programmes. The first programmes were broadcast

at the end of April, by which time the booklet had already been distributed to the schools taking part in the experiment and other schools which had ordered the material. The material was available to all schools interested as a part of the regular supply from the Educational Department of SR. Problems -~ In this series w e wanted to talk about a complicated subject: the central problems of the mass media. W e wanted to make use of debate, literature and articles and to present some of the researchabout mass media and information. Not only was the subject complicated in itself, but w e doubted that the majority of the pupils would be spontaneously interested in the problems of the mass media. Also the series was intended for both the two and three-year courses of the gymnasium, which meant that it had to be usable for pupils of very different skills and interests. So there were problems of motivation and of comprehension. W e also felt that this was an area in whichthe objects of the study changed very quickly. If w e gave examples of programmes or papers in the material, they would probably be old when the pupils started to work with the series. And w e wanted them to use their knowledge or training on material available in the mass media when they studied the series. The material was also intended to be used for more than one year. So there was a problem of up-to-dateness. Description of the unit The unit consisted of: a booklet of 44 pages; a teacher's guide of 11 pages; and four TV programmes, each 20 minutes long. The booklet contained: instructions for work; questions to answer; special tasks for groups of pupils to solve; and an anthology of mass media articles and extracts from books, arranged under headings indicating particular sets of problems. The Teachers' Guide contained: alternative ways of planning the study commentaries on the suggested way of working; answers to certain questions; suggestions for additional literature; and descriptions of the TV programmes. The TV programmes were of two different kinds. The first two programmes were to be seen at the start of the study period and were made in the form of entertaining quiz-programmes, in which the pupils answer questions about mass media. The other two programmes showed extracts from news reportage programmes and interviews with people working in the mass media, commented on by two people in the studio. Classroom work The first lesson started with the pupils watching the first two TV programmes. The model for the

programme was taken from the various quiz and entertainment programmes: funny sketches and songs and pieces of animated film,all illustrating the questions about mass media put in the course of the programme. There were three alternative answers to each question and the pupils had to fill in a sort of pools coupon in their booklets. Most of the questions and alternative answers were constructed in such a way that the pupils were made to answer what is usually thought to be right, while in many cases research has shown that reality does not correspond to what people usually think. Our reason for starting the work in this way was to try to interest pupils in the problems of the mass media by tricking them into it. W e had noticed ourselves that quiz programmes could make you listen to, and answer questions in areas you were actually not very interested in. And w e thought that when they had found that the right answers to the questions were not what they thought, they might become angry or suspicious and want to read more about this to see if it really was right after all. The questions dealt very much with television, partly because w e thought that would interest the pupils most, partly because in this field w e had access to interesting research results from the Research Department of the Swedish Radio. The questions and alternatives could, for example, be on the following:lines (they were put by the presenter in the programme, but they were also printed in the booklet to make it possible to go back to them): The "complaintsdepartment". The programme information division of SR "the complaints department" receives reactionsfrom viewers and listenersto differentprogrammes. People who make them: (a) write lettersto the press more often than people in general; (b) have read about the programme beforehand more often than people in general; (c) are better educatedthan people in general.

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(Most frequent answer is (a) while (c)is the right one. ) H o w much do you remember? After having looked at a new programme with about 12 different news items, those who have seen the whole programme immediatelyafterwards remember about: (a) 10 items; (b) 5 items; (c) 2 items.

(Mostfrequent answer is (b), right answer (c), ) Monopoly: Inthe world of mass media there is much talk about increasing monopolisation. Small papers die, fewer and bigger live on. They have a monopoly of news supply so to speak, just as the Swedish Radio has a 65

monopoly of broadcasting. You could say that monopoly: (a) guarantees an all-round information; (b) leads to one-sided and biased information; (c) guarantees more space to serious information. (Most frequent answer is (b). There is no right answer as this is entirely a matter of valuation. ) After the programmes the teacher or agroupof pupils were asked to synthesis the results. Then the students divided into small groups in order to find the right answers to the questions by looking through the material in the booklet. Each group of two or three looked for the answers to two questions. And two groups worked on the same twoquestions. When each group thought they had found the answers they compared their results with the results of the other group working on the same questions. When all the groups had finished, the right line on the pools coupon was compared with previous results. In planning, w e thought that looking for the right answers in articles spread out in a 44-page booklet might be rather difficult and reserved three to four lessons for this part of the work. It turned out that the students managed very well to find the right answers in about 20 to 39 minutes. O n the other hand, the discussion which it was suggested should take place after the comparison of the right line with the class result took a long time. Some students were very upset about the results and refused to believe them and the discussion was very lively. Interest in the problems of the mass media was awakened, and the students were motivated to go on doing further work with the material. The next step was as follows: students were told, "When working with the pools coupon, you got a fairly superficial acquaintance with some of the problems connected with the mass media. N o w go on and make a closer study of some other mass media problems. Divide into four big groups, each working with one of the following subjects: (a) straight information; (b)a spoonful of sugar; (c)to get a word into the mass media; or (c)the public at large". Every group now started to read the material collected under its heading. Straight information included extracts from the Press Law, the treaty between Swedish Radio and the State; articles about the mission of the press and the broadcasting media; an articleabout television time; research results about the public's opinion of where they got the best information on differentsubjects; how much people remember after having seen news programmes; how many people understand certain frequently used but different words; an article about what would happen if you could report news in more news programmes or papers; an article on a debated 66

news case; for and against two separate news programmes in Swedish TV; views on the local press. A spoonful of sugar dealt with the parts of the mass media where entertainment and information are linked together, with or without a conscious choice. The materialthere dealt particularly with a type of programme which has become frequent and which claims that it wants to inform by using the entertainment form as people otherwise would not look at the programme. T o get a word into the mass media included other extracts from the Press L a w and from the Radio Law; articles discussing monopoly and free theatre groups and other 'lalternativell distribution channels; material on controversial TV programmes. The public at large mainly consisted of research results about the mass media habits of the public. For some idea of the sort of work done by each group w e can look more closely at the way one group was supposed to work. The instructions were similar for all groups, but adjusted to each particular them e. The group working on the theme "straight information" was given the following suggestions as to how to work: "Before starting the groupwork. read the text material individually; Divide the group into pairs. Each pair chooses which area it will investigate (see below); Start with the first part of the worksheet, i. e. look for quotations and list problems which: (a) say something about the information task of the mass media; (b) say something about the difficulties of informing through the mass media; Recall the whole group and finish the first part of the worksheet together draw up a list of quotations and problems; Do your investigations in pairs; The complete group gathers and prepares the final account of its work in front of the class".

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The areas for investigation were four. The first one was called "Same news different news?" and was a study of the news programmes on TV and radio on the same evening. The students had to look and listen and make notes of what news items were brought in, how much time was spent on different news stories, etc. They were also asked to compare their results with some of the articles provided for discussion in the written material. Finally they were asked to s u m up in a few sentences the main result of their work and write this down on the worksheet c o m m o n to the whole group. The second task was called "Control by the authorities". The students were asked to study one national morning paper and one national evening paper and find out how these fulfil the

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mission to control "their activities in the public interest", as suggested in the Press Law. They were to gather examples from the papers and compare the two papers from this point of view. Their result should also be s u m m e d up in a few sentences on the worksheet. The third task was to study a local paper and locate what is called "return information", i. e. information about, for example, a meeting, which only the participants of the meeting are interested in reading. They were to gather examples and discuss the value of this type of information summing up as above. The fourth task was to investigate difficult words and concepts frequentlyused in news reports and find out how well people understood these words summing up as above. This was suggested because w e wanted the students to work with news that was up-to-date when they studied the material. Another way would have been to give them material in radio and TV programmes and the booklet, but then the material would have been old by the time it reached the students. The exercise was reportedly very successful except for the worksheet which was intended to force the students not to write long essays and to show them that this was not necessary. It waq aslo thought that the summing up would be helpful in giving students in the other groups an impression of the special problems each group had been working on and thus make a joint discussion possible. But of course a freer way of reporting on the work done could have been just as good or, according to the experimentalclasses, even better. This group work with the text material and the investigation tasks was supposed to take about five lessons. The account of the work was planned to take only one lesson but it was felt at school that more time had to be spent on it to give the four groups a fair chance to talk about their results and give an opportunity for discussing them. So the time saved in finding the right answers to the pools questions was used here. The third TV programme was supposed to be watched before the students started to work on their investigations. It was called "Autumn 1973" and dealt with the news flow in Swedish mass media from the end of August until the end of September 1973. During that period many things happened that were given a great deal of space in the mass media: the parliamentary elections, the illness and death of King Gustav Adolf, the bank robbery with hostages at Normalmstory, the military coup in Chile. The programme tried to give a picture of how the mass media reported these events and there were interviews with different journalists in which they were asked if this was a normal news period, which of these events they considered more important and which they gave most information about, etc. The interviews and extracts from news programmes were commented on by two people in the

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studio: the presenter, Manne Stenbeck, and a radio and TV journalist who had specialised in programmes about mass media, Peter Werner. Theirtask was to make the connexion between different features and to help the students to be critically aware of what they see and hear. Afterwards, the students were asked to discuss the criteria for news in the mass media, what considerations enter into the decision to give a lot or a little information about different events. Some of the articles in the booklet were also found suitable for discussion in connexion with this programme. The fourth TV programme was called "Mass media and power". It was intended to throw light on points which it might be difficult for the pupils to understand in an article, and which some of them might not be predisposed to find interesting. Still,w e thought it important to introduce them to these questions: what power do the mass media have and what or who has power over the mass media? That is, w e wanted to raise questions about the role the mass media play in society, what possibilities they have of influencing their audience; what notions people have about the potential influence of the mass media, what framework the mass media operate in, i. e. what are the laws, rules and agreements governing different mass media, what economic:conditionsdo different mass media work under, what sorts of influence from persons or groups of persons are there, etc. The programme was only 20 minutes long, and consisted of short pieces of interviews with different types of mass media people such as chief editors, the director of the Swedish Radio, mass media research workers and theorists, etc. Their answers were grouped around special questions and these groups of answers were also commented on by the same two people as in their programme. The programme was supposed to be watched in connexion with the account of the work done in the groups. Facts and questions for the two programmes were to be used in the final debate following the account. One final point about joint work with this material. It is suggested that the class arrange a "r61e game'' in which a group of students are asked to take the parts of experts with experience in different fields, or representative of the public at large. They are meant to employ the type of argument that would be suitable for their roles, on the basis of what they have discovered during the course. These experts are supposed to make a plan for informing the public in the best possible way about some important issue. W e suggested as a subject: measures to be taken because of a serious oil crisis, but the students are asked to talk over any other issue that they find more engaging. The experts work as a panel in front of the rest of the class, who are also allowed to make suggestions.

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This role game was not tried out in the experimental schools because of lack of time, but the teachers were very interested in trying it out and obviously did not find this sort of work impossible or uninteresting. After the work in the class is over, the students are asked to write a personal commentary on all the activities connected with the series. This is to be given to the teacher for examination. This last task does not have very much to do with the mass media study; it is more of an exercise in writing and a help to the teacher in giving marks to the students, You could say that this is an expression of the conflicts within the Swedish school system you cannot go only on group work; you have to judge every student's individual achievements in relation to the other students. Another problem m a y be seen from the teacher's guide, where the objectives of the series are given. The series is intended to come within the subject of mother language,which is crammed with very different things to study, or at least that is how most teachers feel. They are supposed to teach reading and writing, literature, analysis of argument, picture analysis, mass media, etc. And they have about three lessons a week to do all this. This means that they feel that they cannot spend

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very much time on film, TVand other massmedia. Most teachers think 12 lessons a year is too much. So you have to give more reasons than just the benefit of mass media study to make them work to this extent with the material. Which means that you have to give the students a possibilityof learning various skills that they are supposed to develop during the mother-languagelessons. So the objectives of the series are formulated as follows: "The intentions behind 'Informera flera' are to give the students an orientation on some central mass media problems; to offer a training that sums up the communication skills that are learned during the first year of the gymnasium. The series is thus to be used at the end of the first year. This of course does not mean that the material cannot be used later, but it should not be used earlier. The following skills are learned in an applied context: reading for overall meaning; reading for specific information; analytic reading; writing of summaries; oral account; critical reading/listening/viewing".

111. Screen education in the USSR*

Literature on the problem The problem of teaching the fundamentals of cine m a art in school was brought forth by life itself, by the need to give the young generation a harmonious education. The first experiments were discussed in journals, books of articles and special studies published in different countries. I should like to point out as an example the valuable research carried out by Miroslav Vrabec, a Yugoslavian teacher and theoretician. In his article "Cinema art in school" (Filmske Kultura, No. 97, 1974) he analyses both the theoretical and the practical problems of teaching fundamental cinema art, of cinematographic education. The article gives the author's view of recent achievements and also a detailed review of the latest pedagogical tendencies. Approving of a synthesis of sciences, the author is right in his criticism of one-sided approaches. Discussing the positive and the negative aspects of the structural analysis ofworks of art (which is held by certain scholars to be the only one that is truly scientific and up to date). Mr. Vrabec proves that this approach is obsolete and old-fashioned when applied to the solution of a pedagogical, scientific and artistic problem. H e quotes such an outstanding representative of structuralism in linguistics as Levi-Strauss who wrote that "time has sapped the self-confidenceof structuralistsbelieving that nothing is scientific unless it is based on structuralism". A s a result, Mr. Vrabec comes to a well-substantiated conclusion that a formal structural method, rejecting interpretation of the work of art and of the artist's position cannot be a methodological basis of teaching. There are. of course, dubitable points in Mr. Vrabec's judgements but to discuss them would be to go outside the subject of this meeting . I should also like to mention Feature film in school by Janina Koblewska-Vroblovafrom Poland. Published in 1964, the book is by no means out of date. Its merit is that it considers the problem

of basic film art teaching in its various aspects: the cinema as an art, its kinds and means of expression, the role of the cinema in the aesthetic and moral education of youth, violence in films, etc. A review of publications in the Soviet Union could make a report in itself. One should begin this review with the major principles of Soviet pedagogics based on Marxist-Leninist methodology, the principles reflected, in the first place, in the works of the classics of cinematic theory and practice, Kuleshov, Eisenstein, Pudovkin, as well as in the programrr,esand methods of the first film-makers' school in the world the Moscow Institute of Cinematography. Problems of teaching film art in secondary and high-schools are dealt with in various studies. Of the most recent could be mentioned Fundamentals of cinema art for schoolchildren,,collected articles edited by A. Stroyeva and V. Maksimova. The book was prepared at the Institute of Artistic Education of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ("Pedagogika" Publishers, Moscow, 1974). The authors tell the reader of their experiences in teaching the fundamentals of cinema art and conducting the activities of film-lovers' clubs in Tallin, Voronezh, Kalinin, Krasnoyarsk, Oryol and in the Kurgan region in Siberia. As a conclusion of the first part of m y report I want to stress the paramount importance bothof summarizing practical experience and of theoretical forecasting - together they will help to promote the harmonious and purposeful aesthetic education of the young generation. Our century is often labelled an age of cars and supersonic jet-liners, an age of atomic energy and space exploration. But it can as justly be called an age of cinema and television.

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Text of a lecture given by Professor I. Weissfeld (Soviet Union) at an international conference on Problems of Teaching Cinema Art Fundamentals in Secondary and Higher Schools, held in Moscow, 19-26 March 1975.

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The screen has permeated every pore of our life. The dynamic images on a screen play as important a role in our perception and cognition of life as the book. Under the conditions of commercialism, widespread screen information and spectacle, film art itself has been used as an instrument for manipulating public opinion and the individual psychology of the spectator and as an instrument for enforcing certain patterns of thought, moral judgement and norms and artistic taste. Consequently, defending the screen against this evil, against anti-art and anti-truthhas become a major task of all progressive forces in the world. A n element of this noble struggle for the moral and aesthetic purity of the screen is the defence of the book against its abolitionists, those who believe that writing is dying, that the screen has come to replace the book. One cannot positively maintain that such a well-known representative of the mass media as the Canadian researcher McLuhan unreservedly writes off the book. Still, he evidently supposes that the cinema will eventually force the book out. One-sided tendencies of this kind could be neglected if they did not, unfortunately, find reflection in real life, sometimes in rather disturbing forms. I mean here the overwhelming preference for the cinema and television among children, more noticeable at an early age, sometimes waning as the child grows up. W e all know that many children are daily glued to the television set for hours on end, that they would rather go to the pictures than read a book. The negative consequences are well known. A basic course in film art must not only help children to learn what is what in the world of films but teach them to love the book as a source of knowledge and artistic pleasure. O u r aim is not to nurture "cinemania" or "TV mania''in our children but to bring up harmoniously-educated people, perceiving the world in all its colour, studying life with the help of both the book and the screen. It is difficult to define the place the screen and the book hold in one's life, to calculate the correlation between the two. One thing is clear, however, nowadays there can be no harmonious education and upbringing if, alongside literature, children are not taught the cinema. For historical reasons, literature, its history and theory still occupy an important place in school curricula (which is understandable and only fair), while everything pertaining to the cinema, everything connected with visual perception, with the screen, until quite recently remained outside the scope of school pedagogy: children were not getting any tuition in the field of the cinema. N o w there is an effort to fill the gap, but it must be done without diminishing the importance of literature and other existing forms of artistic education.

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The cinema in school curricula Practice has produced the following forms of teaching cinema art in schools: (1) A basic course in cinema art as part of the school curriculum (usuallywithin the course of literature). This is the practice in Poland, the USSR and some other countries. In our country especially in the Russian Federation, Estonia, Latvia, vocational schools have accumulated valuable experience. In time this form will probably become widespread. (2) Optional courses with experimental programmes. (3) Film-lovers'clubs, their activities consisting mainly of discussing pictures, meeting film-makers, etc. (4)School cinemas, which not only show films but are centres for educational activity in the field of cinema art. In October 1974 there were 3,465 such school cinemas in the country, 1, 576 of them in towns. T o give one example, there are over a hundred school cinemas in the Oryol region alone. A senior instructor in educational methods in the Oryol cinema network administration,A. Mischenko, reports that the work of school cinemas varies from one age group to another. The youngest pupils (first to third forms) are shown mostly cartoons, fairytales, simple educational films, screen versions of children's books and short feature films. F r o m the fourth to the seventh form children see films of adventure, screen adaptations of books they study at their literature lessons and other more complicated films. For senior pupils (eighth to tenth forms) the film repertoire is still more complex. (5) Lecture courses for children in cinemas combine the screening of films with introductions and lectures on the art of the cinema, prominent film-makers and the techniques of film-making. (6)Amateur film-making in schools lies far outside education as such but it provides ample opportunities for schoolchildren to learn a lot about the process of film-making and about the various ki-ndsof cinema. School film-making has developed in many countries but the opportunities it gives for teaching the fundamentals of cinema art and for artistic education are still inadequately used. (7) The television and the radio are employed for teaching the fundamentals of the cinema. The contents, form and organization of such television and radio programmes are yet to become subjects of serious study although for several years work in this direction has been done in many countries, a m o n g them Hungary, USA, USSR (Moscow, Leningrad, Riga).

Some methodological principles of teaching cinema art in schools A basic course in film art must take into account age characteristics of schoolchildren (as with other school subjects). In this country the principal division into three age groups is used, according to the three stages of school education (first to third, fourth to eighth, and ninth to tenth forms). With the development of pedagogical thought and practice the process of differentiation will undoubtedly continue. In time separate methods and programmes will be worked out not only for the three basic age groups but for every form of the secondary school. However, there exist certain general methodological ideas that are applicable to all age groups. I shall dwell on some of them. (1) Teaching cinema art is part and parcel of school artistic education. It must not be opposed to the other elements. It must become an integral part of the whole. This is the principle guiding us in our pedagogical quest. In other words, a course of cinema art in schools must be connected with the courses on literature, theatrical art, plastic arts, music and choreography. (2) Pupils should not see in cinema lessons a diversion from "the press of life", from their studies; these lessons must be for children a way to a new sphere of culture, to art. O n the other hand it would be a mistake to use films as mere illustrations to the school course of literature and to bring a course on cine m a art fundamentals down to commentaries on the films shown. One cannot but agree with S. Ivanova from Taganrog who writes "It is of primary importance from an early age to help the child see in a film a work of art ... A film is not an illustration in a literature class, nor a teaching aid to develop the child's speech habits ... Thus the first stage of a teacher's work with a film is to use it for developing his pupils' imagination, their emotional m e m o r y and imagery". (3) Another negation: w e must not seek to train specialists in the history and theory of the cinema. Cinema lessons should not be overloaded with theoretical and historical information, important as it m a y be for professionals it is unnecessary for the layman. This does not mean that the teacher will not give his students a certain amount of knowledge, in and out of class. But it should be a minimum that will not overload the child's memory, will not repel him with dullness and excessive detail. O n the basis of this minimum knowledge of the present-day cinema and its history the child's imagination and emotional world should be developed. A course in fundamentals of filmart, as part of the overall system of artistic education, is supposed to contribute to the formation of a harmonious personality.

(4)Cinema lessons must stimulate original creative work by the student. Such work m a y be of various forms, from discussing a film to writing a script and participating in amateur filmmaking. (5) The form of such lessons must always take into account the inseparable unity of the aesthetic and ethical elements. A film,as a work of art developing the spectator's creative imagination, forms and develops his artistic taste. At the same time every film carries a definite moral ideal. The cinema must be a means, a very effective means, of ethical education of the young generation. A course of cinema art, film education, guiding and perfecting schoolchildrenI s artistic taste, must inspire them with respect for the high moral values and teach them to reject any form of propagation of violence man's helplessness, pessimism and immorality.

Junior schoolchildren Unfortunately, it is in this most important sphere that our experience is the least significant. Still, there are some interesting and promising perspectives. A number of cinema and pedagogics theoreticians, putting together the best experience, forecast specific possibilities of work with this age group (sevento nine years). I. Levshin writes in her paper on methods "The main task, when teaching junior schoolchildren,is the formation, alongside the child's emotional response (interest, pleasure, happiness, elemental moral conclusion drawn from the film)of an understanding of the diverse possibilities of the cinema, of its ability to record on film events and people's actions as well as their emotions and thoughts. The films to be used for this kind of teaching are films specially made for children, of the genre and on the subjects preferred at this age". This observation has been proved by interesting examples from practical teaching. Teachers often introduce into their lessons elements of play that help the children to grasp information, develop the child's personality, show his response to the film. G. Sologub from Krasnodar Region says that in his school everything began with the club "Krugozor" (Outlook)where problems of the cinema were discussed as well as those of literature and the theatre. W h e n the television prog r a m m e "One-Take Play" started, there emerged a new kind of school activity, play-parties that were called "Filmquiz". Pupils of different forms, including the youngest, took part in this quizzing game. A n important methodological principle in teaching a basic course of the cinema in junior forms (one to seven) is the gradual transition from relatively simple questions (What kinds of items are there? W h o makes them?, etc. )to more complex notions.

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Senior schoolchildren For this age group, unlike the junior group, special experimental teaching programmes with regard to various aspects of the teaching process are available (among them the programme edited by G. Roschal and I. Lyubinsky). Taking account of this experience, the Council on Cinema Education in Secondary and Higher School of the Soviet Film-Makers'Association and the Institute of Artistic Education of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences have worked out a new experimental programme "Fundamentalsof the cinema" for senior schoolchildren. The prog r a m m e has been adopted by the Ministry of Education and recommended for use in schools. One of its authors, Y. Usov, will speakonthemethods of this programme and its introduction so I shall confine myself to mentioning a few of its characteristic features. The subject of our course "Fundamentals of the cinema" is not the history of cinematography but a system of notions. However, these notions are presented in their evolution, in comparisons of the classics of the past and present-day cinema with its quest for new forms and discoveries. A n introduction is followed by a lesson on types of films (feature films, documentaries, popularscience films, cartoons). The question of the relativity of subdivision in today's cinema is touched upon. Then the students have a class on the making of a feature film. The following lessons acquaint them with such notions as the theme and the idea of a film,the plot and the composition. The subject of the final lesson is m a n in the cinema. The programme provides for various forms of students' independent work, including kinds of games (e.g. students should finish the story of a new film of which they only see the beginning). The primary aim of all forms of work is to teach the student to grasp the profound ideas of a film,to acquaint him with the specific expression of those ideas through cinematic imagery, to develop his creative imagination. Each section of the programme is supplied with lists of books and films. To make the teacher's task easier notions are not merely formulated but their essence is explained in many cases. The programme has been tested in many town and country schools. However w e consider this work as being in its very initial phase. Valuable experience has been collected in a country school of Kurgan Region (teachers G. Polichko, F. Rabinovich, N. Starikova). Teaching fundamentals of cinema art in higher school In 1966, Unesco convened in R o m e a conference on teaching cinema and television in higher schools. 72

The Film-Makers'Association of the USSR took part in the conference. Since then basic courses of film art in higher schools have become widely practised in many countries. Today we are witnessingnew initiatives in this sphere. The French magazine CinCma (No.183, 1974) describes the experiment of Jean Louis Lautre, an assistant professor at Lyon University, who specialized in teaching the art of the cinema. Poland and Hungary have had interesting experiences. Professor Langlois teaches film art in Canada. A course in the Soviet cinema has been introduced at the University of N e w York. These are but a few examples. In our country cinema art is taught in higher schools in several forms. (1) At departments of journalism in universities: specialized courses are included in the curricula in Moscow (Professors L. Pogozheva and S. Drobashenko), Voronezh (B. Krivenko and S. Penkin), Minsk (E.Bondarova) and some other universities. Each university has its own programme adapted to its specific needs. The stress is made on studying the history of the Soviet cine m a and outstanding foreign films. (2)At pedagogical institutes cinema courses are usually optional. The programmes are to a great extent correlated with the programmes for senior secondary school pupils mentioned above but, naturally, their range is wider. Would-be teachers study methods of analysing a film, significant points in the history of the cinema, etc. E. Gorbulina in her rdsumB for this meeting gives the contents of the specialized course "Fundamentals of cinema art" at the Armavir Pedagogical Institute. She says, among other things, that the students' work as teachers is used to test their knowledge in the subject,"third-year students conduct cinema lessons, class meetings, talks, film festivals". The Krasnoyarsk Pedagogical Institute has similar experience (Z,.Malobitskaya). At the Maxim Gorky Pedagogical Institute in Kiev sociological tests are carried out to study the understanding of films by students of different years. A number ofarticles on the problem of further developing the cinematic education of future teachers were published in various periodicals. I would point out as interesting and fruitful the discussion of Polikarpova'sarticle in the Ukrainian newspaper "Culture and Life". (3) Teachers' refresher courses, seminars and lectures for teachers. The Film-Makers' Association of the USSR has arranged a lecture course in Moscow (I. Grashchenkova). At the Leningrad Teachers' Institute (refresher course) a seminar "Literature and the cinema" has been organized. The supervisors are conducting an interesting pedagogical experiment. Teachers participating in the seminar discuss Soviet and foreign films based on the same literary source "The overcoat'lbyKozintsev

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and Trauberg, by Batalov and by Luttuada, "The idiot" by Pyzyev and by Kurosawa, "War and peace" by Bondarchuk and by Vidor. "Comparing films based on the same book", writes Gornitskaya, "gives the teachers an ample opportunity to study the various aspects of cinematic interpretation, an extensive basis for understanding the specific language of the cinema as well as for a deeper understanding of the work of literature itself". In technical higher schools the cinema is studied mainly through film-lovers'clubs. Tkie contents and direction of all the work, methodology and programmes concerning teaching

the fundamentals of the cinema in secondary and higher schools are based on the State system of education and upbringing that exists in the USSR and other socialist countries, on the achievements of Soviet science, on the classic traditions of the Soviet cinema, its theory and pedagogics. Further development of the aesthetic education (including cinema teaching) of the young generation is envisaged in the programming decisions of the C o m munist Party and the Soviet Government on the completion of transition to compulsory secondary education, on vocational training and on higher education.

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IV. Mass media education in the U.S.A. by John Cameron Sim

In a series of resolutions approved at the White House Conference on Youth, the delegates asserted that one of man's most basic needs is to communicate and that, "Youth and adult alike wish to be heard, to communicate from their hearts and minds to others. .. w e hold that the mass media must become increasingly responsive to this process.. .Increasingly they must provide us with the basic facts upon which rational decisions can be made; and when they elect to express judgements of their own, these must be overtly labelled so that the reader, the listener,or the viewer can identify opinion, as opposed to fact". (1) Satisfaction of such a deeply felt need cannot be left to chance. The schools have an important r81e to play in acquainting students with how these media operate, why they do what they do, the forces at work on them and how the media in turn exert their influences on society. It is important, then, that schools make a deliberate effort to provide opportunity, capable instruction, and adequate facilities for teaching about the mass media. This report is an effort to examine the extent to which this mission currently is being accomplished in schools of the United States, especially the secondary schools and, to some extent, evaluate its success. The nation has approximately 30,000public and private secondary schools. (2) It is a nation marked by tremendous diversity in its educational methods and processes despite a surface uniformity, and therefore the observations and conclusions of the report cannot apply generally to all states, all school districts, all schools. T o some extent the information summarised in the report m a y provide a stimulus for further expansionofinterest inand teaching about the mass media, and thus about national and world affairs generally. Since it is modish now to refer to ourselves as all passengers on Spaceship Earth, such a development cannot help but be welcomed, to the extent that world understanding is based upon more complete, more timely, more accurate information, better absorbed and better understood.

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It is not only the fact that the mass media are important to the citizen all through his or her life; they are important from the earliest years of the child's school experience. Dr. David R. Olson, a psychologist with the Ontario, Canada, Institute for Studies in Education, explains, "The mass media, then, have an important part to play in the education of children. It is already undoubtedly the case that children acquire the bulk of their knowledge about the world in a symbolically coded form largely delivered through the news media. M y hypothesis is that the acquisition of knowledge is related primarily to the 'content'of the message, while the development of skill is related to the means or medium through which that content is coded and delivered". (3) H e would further contend that the school setting is not necessarily required for effective education, and that much remains to be done in reaching (through the media) those who drop out of the system early, or adults who ought to continue to learn after leaving school. "Informed exponents of the new educational technology such as Henri Dieuzeide of Unesco accuse the educationalbureaucracies of blocking progressive educational changes that would permit the maxim u m utilization of both technological and human resources in the achievement of educational goals. 'I (4) W e can infer that teaching about the mass media, which almost inevitably involves some learning of skills in handling the new technology, is of significant importance in the post-school period, no matter when the individual ended formal school attendance. This report makes a distinction among the areas of scholastic publications, the teaching of high school journalism courses, and the teaching about the mass media at junior and senior high school levels. Some argue that journalism should be accepted as a broader term than it is ordinarily seen to be, and would use it interchangeably with ''mass media". That, too, they would define broadly as II. ..far more than newspapers, radio, television and magazines. It is books, motion

pictures, and phonograph records. It is audio tapes, newsletters, display graphics, filmstrips and multi-media productions. It is any medium that can extend a journalist's message". (5) Others would add even grafitti, clothing and music. Where better, then, can such pervasive influences be taught about and discussed than in the schools? Preferably, the teaching should be on a formalized, organized basis rather than in fragments. T o an extent the instruction becomes mixed with a concept of "popular (or pop) culture". And what is that? Browne and Madden assert it is "anything produced by and disseminated by the mass media or mass production or transportation, either directly or indirectly, and that reaches the majority of the people". (6) The pervasiveness of the media is emphasized by statistics showing Americans read more than 63 million daily newspapers a day, plus 33 million copies of weekly newspapers, have nearly 300 million radios in their homes and cars, and that the television sets which are in 98 per cent of all homes are switched on about six hours a day on the average. Including books, film and stereos, total media consumption per person averages some 50 hours a week, exceeding every other activity but sleeping.(7) If for many decades it has been agreed that a major function of our educational system is to develop critical faculties in regard to literature, music and art, with which perhaps most students will retain only a passing relationship after their in-schoolyears, how much more significant it is to develop critical attitudes (in the sense of understanding)toward the mass media which inevitably will involve them closely all the rest of their lives. B y all means, then, some knowledge about the mass media must be provided in the schools. A majority of the teachers consulted about these courses for the report agreed that more and more new units and courses are being introduced, and established courses are being expanded and improved. While the record will show great progress has been made in improving the quantity and quality of instruction on the topic, much remains to be done. The Newspaper in the Classroom Programme B y any measure, the most successful programme undertaken by any medium to familiarize the elementary and secondary school students with how the media operate and the relevance of the news to virtually all phases of the curriculum is the Newspaper in the Classroom programme, sponsored by individual newspapers through the American Newspaper Publishers Association

(ANPA). As Marvin Maskovsh wrote in American Education: "The newspaper has from the very beginning played a fundamental role in shaping and stimulating the development of our nation's special character. Curiously, however, it ha.s not been

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regarded as animportantf ixture in the classroom for students to read, analyse, be stimulated by, and disagree with, as an essential part of learning to become effective citizens in a democratic society". (8) Dr. Edgar Dale of Ohio State University was advocating greater use of the newspaper in the schools in the late 1930s. H e prepared an experimental volume for teachers and students in 1937 and it wastestedby 19 teachers in 16 high schools. Then in 1940 he published H o w to Read a Newspaper, a book that has had a dramatic effect on opening up teaching methods to the use of current, inherently interesting materials. Yet no formalised efforts to encourage use of any major news medium as a teaching tool took place until 1956. Then a number of leading members of ANPA met with representatives of the National Education Association (NEA),the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). the National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP), the American Association of School Administrators (AASA), and the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. B y this time, of course, television was a well-entrenched medium and radio had already proved it could hold its own against the new TV threat, so the educators were somewhat wary of any curriculum development limited so decidedly to one medium. The newspaper publishers emphasized that they did not intend the programme to be a device for promoting the special interests (circulation)of newspapers. The first tangible result of studies launched by committees formed at this meeting was a s u m m e r workshop for teachers, sponsored by the NCSS, an offering which was so successful that it was continued, and greatly expanded and extended, over the years since. The first Newspaper in the Classroom programmes were started in 1958, and newspaper members of ANPA joined in with such enthusiasm that by 1972 ANPA figures showed more than 350 newspapers, 95,000 teachers in 34,000 schools and more than five million students were involved in NIC programmes. It should be emphasized that there is no single programme; each newspaper and school is free to adapt the formatto whateverneeds are perceived, Dr. Dale's original thesis: "The newspaper is democracy's textbook...Obviously an extensive unit, if not a separate course, on how to read a newspaper should be apart of every high school's programme. The social studies course, the English course and the journalism course are among the most obvious points for such work", (9) is still the rationale. And teachers are still repeating to students his original purposes: (a)to develop an awareness of the influence of the newspaper (andother media); (b)to help build standards of judgement; (c) to help select and read efficiently and intelligently; and (d)to help you discover your individual and socialresponsibility for improving the press here in America. 75

This is not to say that there had not been an appreciation, prior to Dr. Dale's pioneering work, of the need for pupils to be aware of and concerned about the news. As early as 1902 a little paper, Current Events, was designed for school use and sold in block subscriptions for class use. For many years it was published at Columbus, Ohio. Later the publisher, American Educat.iona1Publications, moved to Middletown, Conn. Over the years, too, the concept was broadened into specialised publications Current Science, Issues Today and M y Weekly Reader. Editions were published in Braille and in the Spanish and French languages. These little papers did not deal directly with the mass media but they certainly increased the awareness of students about news of the day, and sharpened interest in how all the media get and process this news. Just how diversified this attention would be would depend, of course, on the skill, motivation and dedication of the teacher. Although, as noted, each newspaper is free to develop an NIC operation pretty much in its own way, there is a strong uniformity resulting from the training the teachers receive at the s u m m e r workshops held over the years at a number of colleges and universities in all parts ofthe country. Much of the guidance has beenprovided by Dr.John Haefner of the University of Iowa, who has served as ANPA consultant and who has provided assistance and advice for dozens of the workshops. Therefore most programmes tend to have these objectives in common: to develop student competence in reading; to develop student understanding of the role of newspapers in a free society; to develop student interest in current events; to encourage student opinion on contemporary issues; These are, or should be, aims of any course about the mass media. Dr. Haefner warns publishers, and their assistants in charge of Newspaper in the Classroom programmes, that the value systems and objectives of schools and newspapers m a y differ markedly. "If teachers are going to try new materials or new teaching approaches, they want moral support from other teachers, and they must have, at the very least, the tacit approval of their principals.'I H e further warned that "many teachers have some built-in prejudices about newspapers and the mass media". H e urges newspapers to handle their NIC programmes as a public service that can contribute to making better citizens who are interested in improving our system of selfgovernment. If the NIC programme is properly devised and operated, Dr. Haefner seesboth short-run and longrun benefits accruing to the schoolsand society:(lO)

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Short-run classrooms that are more interesting, less boring, more student-orientedthan they were before NIC;

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teacherswho aretrying out newteaching strategies and approaches and making curricular decisions more relevant to the lives of their students; new curricular materials for teachers and students - either locally produced or purchased from other NIC programmes that help teachers teach better; a public service offered by newspapers that is just a whole lot more meaningful and educationally sound than spelling contests or essay competitions.

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Long-run Young adults who not only read more effectively but also read habitually as a major means of self-education. And while reading of newspapers will be part of that reading, it will not be all of it; voters and potentialvoters who are better informed about our public issues and are motivated to want to perpetuate and improve our system of self-governmentin an open society; newspapers which will get better than they are for two reasons: (a)they'll have the support of educated subscribers who insist on good reporting, and an equitable mix of hard news, editorial and other features and advertising; (b)there will be a much broader-based understanding among Americans that a free press is a sine qua non of representative self-government. In Elementary Schools

If it were not for Newspaper in the Classroom efforts, there would be very little teaching about the mass media in the grade schools in any context. However, in a comprehensive NIC programme, stress is often laid in the grades (4to 6) on how newspapers and other media are structured and how they operate; in junior or mid-high school (grades 7 through 9) the newspapers are often used as a special resource, especially in English, language arts and social studies(although other subjects make use of the media, too); but the most extensive use of newspapers comes at the senior high school level (grades 10through 12). For all levels extensive guides have been prepared and often materials prepared under sponsorship of one paper are adopted or adapted by others. For instance, the Curriculum Division of the Minneapolis, Minn. Public Schools prepared an attractively printed 8 3 x Il-inch booklet, The Newspaper in the Elementary Classroom, described as an interdisciplinary approach for grades 5 and 6. Lesson suggestions and assignments are headed with listings of the subjects to which the lessons m a y apply, such as "Sociology, Geography, Reading, Writing, Math, Art" and others. The Newspaper in the American History Classroom was prepared under auspices of the ANPA Foundation by Dr. Richard F. Newton of Temple

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University and Peter F. Sprague, director of the Educational Service Bureau of Dow, Jones & Co., Inc. (publishers of the Wall Street Journal). The authors say their purpose was not to create special sets of objectives for newspapers, but rather to see if these objectives could be attained more readily by using newspapers as the instructional resource rather than any of the usual resources available to the teacher. "Unfortunately, most of the programmes for the development of knowledge and skills about media utilization are designed as units to be taught over a limited period of time in a specific course, I' the authors point out. "There are two glaring drawbacks in this type of approach. First, most teachers are reluctant to take more than a few days (if that) out of a course of study for fear they will not be able to cover all of the required material. Even if teachers do not have this fear, administrators do. The second drawbackto teaching entire units on the newspaper, or and other media, is that when media utilization skills are taught as a separateunit, studentstendto view them as simply one more topic in a long list of things to be memorized and quickly forgotten. Students should view the newspaper, and all other media, as something with which they constantlyinteract. The best way to get students to conceive of newspapers in this manner is to employ the newspaper as a continual resource.'I (11) Newton and Sprague declare frankly that the guide itself will not be much concerned with teaching % the newspaper or other media, but unless the students are made familiar with the structure of newspapers and with news gathering and editorial procedures they will not receive the m a x i m u m benefit from instruction based on newspaper material. Therefore they urge teachers to teach a short unit on the newspaper itself, and suggest sources where help m a y be obtained for that segment. They also suggest attendance at one of the NIC workshops mentioned earlier. A third approach is The Living Textbook, a teachers'guide preparedby William T. Lunsford,Jr., community service director of the Harrisburg (Penna.)Patriot-News. This little book contains chapters dealing with using the newspaper as a "daily adventure in learning''for language arts, social studies, reading and economics courses. Other newspapers have also prepared study guides in these fields and have added remedial reading, writing and science. But, as one educational director warns teachers, "The use of a newspaper in a classroom is no miracle drug for the ills of American education". Dr. Gail Lewis, co-ordinator of Laboratory Kindergartens at the University of Mississippi, contends that even kindergarten pupils are not too young to start learning about the mass media. Then, when the children are introduced to media activities in the classroom, they are encouraged to go home and talk about it. "When a child is that

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interested in it in school, then goes home, mother and daddy have to sit down and talk with the child in a communicative type of way that they (the parents) might not do unless we had organized this type of programme. 'I (I2) Alfred J. Wilson, principal of Emerson Elementary School at Granite City, Ill., sees the newspaper as an "up-to-datereinforcement for a textbook. . .The newspaper is the closest thing w e have to an educational panacea in the hands of the proper teacher". (13) Sue Ross, a teacher at Jefferson Junior High School in Minneapolis, Minn. , concurs: "The newspaper narrows the gap between the classroom and the world.. .it fits in with practically every unit in some way". A n elementary grade teacher in Bloomington, Milm., said, "The newspaper is THE most immediate and L O G I C A L way to extend and enrich basic reading, math and language skills". At least one voice has been raised, however, to caution that teachers must take into account the level of reading difficulty offered by newspapers. Carolyn Clark Reiley, remedial reading specialist at Hilltop Junior High School, Chula Vista, Calif., found in studies done for her master's thesis at San Diego State University that the two major wire services in the United States are writing over the heads of junior high students. Since wire service material composes about 40 per cent of the material in the average dailynewspaper, these findings have djsturbing implications for the Newspaper in the Classroom programme. Her investigation evolved out of an experiment performed by James H. Couey, thensunday editor of the Birmingham, Ala. News in which third-year college English majors were tested for comprehension of a set of typical wire stories. Where the stories contained long sentences, readership comprehension was not above 30 per cent; if the stories were rewritten to shorten and simplify the sentences, comprehension rose to 83 per cent. Naturally, the test on junior high students showed much greater comprehension difficulties. The author's conclusion: "Although the newspaper's appearance, timeliness and content have wide appeal for secondary reading students, the readability levels of much of its news appear to be detrimental to its use as effective instructional material at that level...unless newspapers lower their reading levels, time and money spent on the Newspaper in the Classroom programmes m a y be wasted". (14) This poses a real dilemma, because publication of a summary of the thesis immediately drew comments from newspapermen and journalism educatorsprotestingthat a newspaper's contents could not and should not be pitched at eighth-grade reading level. At the same time, the difficulty experienced by third-year college students ought to raise some kind of warning flag for newspaper editors, and a strong, continued emphasis on the importance of good clear writing

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for both the wire services and their client newspapers would not be misplaced. While all the guides and suggestions for teachers using newspapers in the classroom are directed at making use of the information thus made available, they also put some emphasis on material about how the mass media work. In addition to the attention given to the newspaper, some information is inevitably given about all the other media if for no other purpose than comparison and contrast. The teacher is certain to incorporate use of radio, television and film in the assignments and exercises. Indeed, films and filmstrips are among the most often suggested and employed teaching devices explaining how the media operate, WHY they do what they do.

OTHER PUBLICATION AIDS In addition, a range of materials is available to supplement the daily newspaper. Perhaps the broadest selection of these aids is offered through Scholastic Magazines, Inc., of New York City. It provides both students' and teachers' editions of news publications such as Scholastic News Pilot, News Ranger, News Trails, News Explorer, News Citizen and Newstime for various subject-matter fields and age levels. These are published weekly duringthe schoolyear and offered on a subscription basis. Frequently emphasis is placed on one topic which is explored in depth, e. g. Scholastic News Citizen concentrated on "Environment", the issue of January 17, 1974; on "Science", the issue of February 28, 1974; on "Careers", March 28, 1974; and on "Dramatics", the issue of April 25, 1974. The firm publishes a number of magazines for the educational field including Senior Scholastic, Scholastic Scope and Scholastic Science World, all of which can be used by the teacher and students for further development of special topics and for information about the mass media. The N e w York Times has long maintained an extensive programme for its primary circulation area covering most of the northeastern seaboard of the United States, and also in co-operationwith other NIC programmes sponsored by newspapers throughout the country. Its School Weekly is now in its 27th year. This tabloid-size newspaper provides some in-depthstories by Times reporters along with summaries of a week's news and some features, including a current events quiz. A few NIC programmes, as for instance that of the Minneapolis Star &Tribune, make use of the Times publication by printing one or two pages of their own local material in it. A number of national magazines have, over the years, sought to provide service to the educational establishment, and in so doing have helped mass media courses. Time magazine offers a variety of printed teaching aids contingent on purchase by the students of half-price subscriptions to Time because, as its promotional programme says,

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"The heart of the Time Education Programme is Time magazine itself". For 1974-75, the aids included a teaching guide with background information, discussion topics and ideas for assignments, transparencies for use on an overhead projector and sometimes spirit masters ready to run on a duplicating machine. These cover a different topic each month, and the 1974-75 schedule listed topics such as Inflation, PhotoInvolvement and Thanatology (on the way society deals with death). The Time service became best known, perhaps, through its Current Events Ouiz, which has been used at both high school and college levels for many years, and has interestedmany adult readers as a form of self-challenge. For giving students some background in the mass media, it has prepared guides on topics such as "Advertising", "Public Persuaders" and "The Underground Press". The broadcast media have lagged well behind the print media in providing services of this kind, althoughthey respond readily to individualrequests for information, and networks and individual stationshave used their own promotional materials to provide some knowledgeof how the broadcasters cover news and public affairs. It had become quite obvious to the first ANPA committees setting up the Newspaper in the Classroom format in the late 1950s that while teachers were quite willing to accept the idea (that the media could be of great use in adding content and sparkle to avariety of courses)only a comparative handful had any idea of how to go about making use of the plan. Several ways were used to overcome this difficulty but most successful has been the s u m m e r workshop, usually for college credit, carried on with support and sometimes financial assistance from newspapers, but physically located on a college campus. Dr. John Haefner of the University of Iowa served as the consultant setting up a number of the workshops which served as models for others. Glen E. Hanna, manager of educational services for the Minneapolis Star & Tribune, who spent four years with the N e w York Times programme, also makes great use of mini-workshops which m a y occupy several hours on one day. These can quite conveniently be spotted at various locations throughout the circulation area. Since the Star & Tribune programme now involves 800 teachers in 600 schools, a considerable need is felt for even minimal instructionand motivation for the teachers. Another variant the Star & Tribune uses is a ten-week evening courseoffering college credit, conducted through the University of Minnesota Extension Division.(15) The workshop plan is used for the newspaper staffers, too, those who co-ordinate NIC programmes. One spanning two and a half days was held in Toronto, Ont., Canada, April 28-30, 1975, through co-operation of the ANPA and the Canadian Daily Newspaper Publishers Association.

A number of educators were invited to discuss how teacher attitudes toward the press affect the use of newspapers in education, and to explore differing uses of the newspaper in the elementary and secondary school classroom. Only incidentally, of course, is any of this instructionin workshops directed toward or intended for the teacher of journalismor even the publication adviser. It is assumed that all other teachers do NOT have much, if any, background in the mass media. Hanna, for instance, has prepared a variety of tabloid newspaper-like publications to provide a lot of this information: "The News Story F r o m Planning to Print", and "Letters from the Editor", (a series of columns written by Robert King, former editor of the Minneapolis Star, about how various departments of a newspaper operate) along with a pictorial description of the step-by-step operations involved in gathering, editing, setting and printing the news and advertisements. A glossary of newspaper terms is added. F r o m the foregoing, it is clear that the intent of the Newspaper in the Classroom programme is not to teach about the massmediaas such - indeed, only the newspaper medium is emphasized. H o w ever it is equally clear that use of the newspaper as a teaching resource inevitably leads to exploration of the ways radio, television, film, direct mail, billboards and other media contribute to the 11. information explosion" experienced by peoples of the world today. Any discussion of WHAT is in the news leads to inquiry about HOW it got in the news and W H Y , about who handled it and the kind of impression they left on it. Thesenews handlers must have some motivation for this work, and that gets the students into discussions of advertising and the role it plays in support of the media, the fact that it subsidises part of the reader's or viewer's or listener's cost of receiving the news. One who looks through NIC study guides will be struck by the emphasis placed on freedom of expression, on the rights of the individual. Both national and international events can be placed in this context, and it provides a c o m m o n thread to run through almost all of the subject-mattertaught in the schools, at all levels from the lower grades through senior high school, from history and geography through literature through foreign languages and all the others. The key to improvement of all the media lies only inthe determination of an enlightened citizenry to demand better performance, and the citizen is in a poor position to demand unless and until he understands. The courses in the mass media, to which the Newspaper in the Classroom project contributes so effectively, are one vitally important effort to create and extend that all-important understanding of the role of the media and a free press.

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TEACHING AIDS Teachers of mass media courses who come out of backgrounds involving the production of publications (newspapers, magazines, yearbooks)or broadcast programmes (radioscripts, video-tapes) tend to be critical of the extensive use of films, particularlythose primarily intended as entertainment, because of the basically passive roles they tend to enforce on the students. The films are almost effortless in reception, not likely to engage the viewers except through their emotions. For this reason, leaders in this educational medium urge, as does a curriculum committee in Michigan, that "Radio, television and film can best be taught through participation in related activities. Appreciation can be derived through the involvement of students, in simulated production groups, including writers, talent, and production staff, with a creative, imaginative teacher". (16) These three media have a c o m m o n link in the writing and production of documentariesor drama, which are the kinds of activities that provide training in skills or self-expressionand an appreciation for the needs and preferences of mass audiences. Meaningful experiences of this type place great demands upon the teacher, yet one English teacher glowingly described a radio show project as the most satisfying achievement of her professional career. Sparked by an interest one student had expressed in phonograph recordings of popular radio programmes of the 1930s and early 1940s, she found it easy to stimulate her class into writing, producing, rehearsing and tape-recording a programme of that type, one which attracted the interest of the entire student body and faculty.(17) One view of difficulties involved in introducing practical work in courses about the mass media is cited by a psychologist specialising in educational methods: "Here, then, is the paradox. Skills, because of their generalisability, must stand at the heart of the educational enterprise. Yet they are largely inappropriate for expression in the conventional symbol systems conveyed by the mass media. The mass media - radio, television, the press - are by their nature restricted to the communication of knowledge and not the development of mental skills.. .Knowledge is defined in terms of statements and propositions and is therefore communicable. Skills are not; hence, they are poorly represented in conventional schools.. .That is not to say that no skills are developed from watching the mass media or in conventional schools. Rather, it is to claim that the skills that are developed are primarily those called upon in extracting the message conveyed by the medium.. . H o w and to what extent the observation of a skilled performance or the reading or hearing of a description can influence the

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acquisition of a skill is an important subject for research". (18) Administrators and teachers are thereby warned they cannot expect too much of the new devices now so commonly available in the schools. Indeed, James Koerner, programme officer for the Sloan Foundation, says, "Lately this enthusiasm (for equipment) has given way to embarrassment and disenchantment...Educational technology to date cannot be said even 'to run'". (19) However, he is speaking of a rather general unwillingness of many teachers to learn the skills of the camera, the tape'recorder,the video-tape, and he complains that the new hardware generally has a low reliability, the software lags, and most important, w e do not know enough about how learning occurs. Four books in particular have been cited as especially useful to mass media teachers covering film as an important medium. Screen Experience: an Approach to Film, edited by Sharon Feyen Murphy for the National Curriculum Commission of the Journalism EducationAssociation and Donald Wigal for Geo. A. Pflaum, publisher, says the intent of the book is to encourage discovery. T o that end it gives a considerable amount of background and practical information through a series of articles by well-qualifiedteachers of journalism, drama, film making and literature, then devotes more than half the book to suggestions for film programming through a listing of suggested film programmes matched with readings, and an annotated list of available movies, an annotated bibliography and a glossary. The teacheris provided with many discussiontopics and suggested projects. A similar effort was undertaken by the curriculum commission ofthe Michigan SpeechAssociation, assisted by a grant from the Michigan Education Association. Deldee M. Herman and Sharon A. Ratliffe served as editors for the guide. Radio Television and Film in the Secondary School, which is also highly practical, usable either by the beginning teacher in the field or an experienced educator the teacher in radio-television speech or one who has a unit in an English or social studies course. This, like the next book to be discussed, believes the so-called electromedia can best be taught by active student participation, involvement in simulated production groups including writers, talent and production staff. It attempts to offer suggestions usable equally by the schoolwith aminimum of equipment and the schools with new buildings which have built in modern studios ranking with the better commercial operations. The mass media teacher can find adequate emphasis on news programmes and documentaries, sports reporting and advertising commercials. Televising Your Message, by Wanda Mitchell, is very much a ''how-to''book sub-titled "An introduction to television as communication". It says its aim is "to inform the sender how to use television effectively to get his message across to the viewer; it is not simply a communication or media

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handbook...imparts valuable information about the tools, techniques and terminology". Here and there are spotted "economy notes" of a kind which are bound to strike sparks from eager, innovative, handy students, as in this example: "With the aid of your industrialor technical arts department or stage crew you can build some visual devices that will add variety to your television presentations. For example, an endless roll-up can be made from an old washing-machine wringer. And a crawl or title drum (for displaying cast names or show credits) can be made from a 25-pound round carton of the type in which laundry detergent often is packed". The book is copiously illustrated to show just how special effects work. The author indicates her belief that the book can be useful for the mass media course wherever it m a y be lodged journalism, language arts, speech, social studios as well as in television courses as such, that it is offered "to those who believe that the most skillful and responsible use of this medium of communication is essential to guarantee free speech in America". The fourth is another of the C o m E d series previously mentioned, it is Exploring Television, by William Kuhns, although for the course which focuses mainly on film many teachers prefer an older (1968)book written by Kuhns in collaboration with Robert Stanley, Exploring the Film. A teaching manual and a set of five 16" commercials available for co-ordination with the text does make this a boon to the teacher, while the text is in the newer mode that tries not to resemble the traditional textbook in the student's eyes. Since television has come to rely so heavily on the film,much of the content of the newer (1971) book, Exploring Television, serves the teacher just as well in discussing the art and communication effectiveness of film. All of these keep reminding the teachers to remind themselves that they must not fall into the trap of making dramatic pronouncements as though from the authority on high, must no cast themselves as the all-knowing critic. Rather, the studentsmust be encouraged to form and voice their own judgements, the teachers must engage the students. This is especially pertinent for courses about the mass media where there really can be no dogmatic rules to impart, no one way to see or interpret, no way to establish the truth of an opinion. Teaching about film or television m a y not be as simple as teaching from textbooks; where for the one teachers m a y say "for the next class read chapters thus-and-so", but for the other they cannot say "all will watch thus-and-so television programme tonight", be Cause parental and family rights in such programme selection are paramount. This calls for more foresight and planning by the teacher, more accommodation to individual preparation in the discussions. It is demanding of current time; notes from the college course of several years before or even from last

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year's popular book will not suffice for such discussions. And that is one cogent reason why some of the multi-media enthusiasts can complain about the lack of film content or the thinness of content about radio-TV in the mass media courses of the secondary schools. It gives rise to comments such as Neil Postman's: "At present the schools approach the teaching of communication skills as if the electric plug did not exist". T w o publishing fields provide a lot of assistance for the mass media teacher who wants to add more content about film to the unit or course. One covers a broad spectrum of what has been called visual communication or is included under "the lively arts''- photography, art criticism and the like. The other is the field of audio-visual education, which provides the teacher with a wealth of information and practical advice on using the technology. Severalof the books already mentioned (e.g. Mitchell, Murphy, the Wisemans) either include much of the instruction about equipment or offer references to enable the teacher to find the necessary help. Another book which has had some popularity because of its "how-to-do-it"nature is 1,001 Ideas for the Classroom Teacher, by Cecil Garrison (McCutcheon, 1968). ANPA is distributing a booklet, "Films about Newspapers", which also lists s o m e appropriate filmstrips and slide presentations, and gives information about cost of rental or purchase. Some print-oriented teachers remain largely indifferent to film content in their courses, chiefly because they feel this emphasis is at the expense of reading, and it is already too difficult to get students to read for either pleasure or profit. Yet Frederick Whitney(20) offers a concept they might utilize to win pupils to reading: "A student once described film as a kind of electric book.. .it is essentially self-selectiveinnature. . .does not foist itself upon a specific audience, but rather must await an audience visit as individuals. Principally, both are long-term undertakings, both are nonadvertising supported; both are relatively expensive and hard to acquire; both embrace a certain unit and specificity of subject-matter... Truly film is an electric book". Slides and filmstrips avoid another objection made about television and film that they provide an atmosphere of passive receptivity because they require (or should) both teacher and student to consider and talk about each frame. A s a teaching device they resemble the chalkboard or the flip chart more than the film. There is not much available in these forms, however, about the media; what is available is largely topical, elaborating on material given by the media. A n example is the service provided by Current Affairs at Wilton, Conn. filmstrips in 1975 on topics such as the economy, revolutionary movements, the plight of the aged, ecology, juvenile justive, and so on. Slide sets and filmstrips which are directly related to the media almost always are

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technical expositions of the graphic arts and technology. There are, however, a number of good offerings on the general subject of "freedom of the press", mostly historical in nature. The glowing promises made in the 1960s for video cassettes have not quite materialised in the mid-1970s except as they expand the variety of music offerings. Cable television and video cassettes were seen as a kind oftwintechnological revolution which might offer a threat to network TV but the latter is still doing quite well. The economic recession of the mid-1970s m a y have been the most important limiting factor for this promised development, because the service offered by cassettes is quite obviously one for which more economical substitutes can easily be found. Of course, some observers see music as one of the forms of mass communication, and it surely communicates something to mass audiences. Teachers using a multi-media approach certainly incorporate it. Plainly, it is a way of focusing student interest and getting the students involved, as for instance in selection and recording of theme or background music for programmes they m a y produce. Or they m a y use music in a television commercial-writing exercise, or analyse the effect of theme music in a movie they criticize. Thus tapes, records and cassettes become artifacts for the mass media course - and this imposes added demands on :he imagination and inventiveness of the teacher to use these effectively rather than indiscriminately. B y implication, at least, much of the foregoing has indicated that the more progressive teachers of these courses believe firmly in the value of "doing" the mass media, as one book title puts it. That is not at all new, of course; this kind of actual experience has always been a strong rationale for the school newspaper and magazine, and to some extent the yearbook. It is also a reason that most mass media courses are given by the journalism teacher. Even where formally organized, journalism courses were not included in the curriculum, publication advisers often taught quite effectively about the mass media by holding before their publication staffs examples ofwhat the commercialprofessional newspapers and magazines were doing. As part of this exposition (usually intended to be inspirational) the adviser had to explain how and why these media performed as they did, and sometimes had to respond to criticisms of the performance. Since this would involve aspects of reporting, writing, photography andthe expression of opinion, the discussions Might range into the effect of these activities on the events and problems of the day. These truly became at least mini-courses about the mass media. Since the tradition of production was so firmly established by the presence in the schools of these forms of the print media, it was a most

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natural step to extend the principle to radio (or an imitation of it by use of the school'spublicaddress system) and then to television when closed-circuit TV became a well-recognized educational tool. Television involved film, and then video-tape, so that the circle of opportunities for "hands-on" experiences was completed. N o w it is commonplace for a course plan to incorporate all of these types of practical experience. "It is the desire of all instructors (in the programme) to have students completely involved in all areas with equipment," says the course proposal for a 3-class Communications Media offering at East High School in Des Moines, Iowa. " W e want a hands-on situation by students.'I George Christian, publications adviser at the school, says that currently this means largely print media but the course will eventually encompass cable TV. The plan is to offer three six-week segments. (a) journalism-advertising; (b)photography-sales;and (c)printing-commercial art. The students will be divided into groups of 15, and after a group completes one six-week segment under a different instructor until all students have been exposed to all three segments and all three instructors. Each group is to be limited to 15 to permit each student to work on and with each piece of equipment and "the cost, precision and importance of equipment (cameras, press, enlarger, compuwriter) necessitate close supervision by instructors". (21) The course description for the Cinema Arts at Edina, Minn. East High School, taught by the teacher who also gives a mass media course and considers the two courses a sort of tandem, says, "The student is also given an opportunity to express himself or herself visually in a photographic essay or short film" thus providing a definite hands-on experience. Marilyn Selwold, who teaches the mass media course at Edina West High School, describes an important component of the course as "hands-on experience in using the media". Mary Carol Day, in her mass media course at Hillsboro Mid-High School of Hillsboro, Ore., requires the production of a storyboard while her class is studyingtelevision commercials. The course at Linn-Mar High School at Marion, Iowa, requires the students to produce a film with soundtrack, and to help produce an advertising campaign (with its various media components)and a 20-minutetelevision programme, according to instructor Suanne Huffman. However, the expense connected with these projects threatens continuation of the course in 1976. The course at Washington High School in Sioux Falls, So. Dakota, requires students to create a "visual essay" and a picture series. Several textbooks, particularly those by the Wisemans, Sharon Murphy, Wanda Mitchell, Sister Ann Christine Heintz and others cite examples of successful "hands-on'' instruction, even given the desirable situationwhere the teacher has the enthusiasm for the great amount of extra

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effort and supervision these projects entail, and the practical training to carry them through.

CABLE TV AND PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE Enthusiasts who envision sweeping changes to be brought about in many aspects of our educational establishment through cable television invariably stress the availability of channels, and the provisions now being written into most franchises to set aside one or more channels exclusively for use by the schools. Somehow the impression is left that this is enough; not much attention is given to the insistent subsequent question, "What will the channel(s) show? I I and its corollary, "Who will pay for production? 'I A publication of the Aspen Institute(22)examining cable TV and its possible effect on Pay-TV looked incidentally at the impact on schools and the hands-on practices of mass media courses: "The same consciousness which produced artistic and political activity in the video movement has generated a video movement within education. A new generation of educators, many raised on television, has begun to recognize the existence of a media environment in which today's child lives. T o these educators, the advent of half-inch video equipment. simple enough for a seven-year-old to operate and inexpensive enough for most school systems to afford offers a new tool to teach children how to communicate in the electronic language and how to become intelligent television viewers". It describes "a literal explosion of college courses designed to make future teachers aware of the importance and basic potentials of video tools.. .to make children more sensitive to the TV they watch and.. .heighten their understanding of themselves and their environment". Surely an objective for a mass media course! A n institution which has, so to speak, spread the gospel of media study in the elementary and secondary schools has been the Center for Understanding Media, founded by John Culkin in 1969 in New York City. It has been dealing with age groups from pre-school to post-graduate. The Center also holds training workshops in the use of media (meaningessentially the electronic hardware) for teachers, and from this activity developed the Media Educators Association (again, essentially those most concerned with teaching film and television). When the problem of effective use of a cable channel by the schools is considered, w e usually find ourselves, by prior conditioning, thinking in traditional terms of audience appeal, and that means largely entertainment. Thus the first impulse is to occupy the time with football or basketball games or other sports, with concerts by school music groups or recitals by soloists, class plays and speech presentations. But why should the audience, in those traditional terms, be considered at all? Audiences have never been

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invited into the classrooms and laboratories. (But now, through this facility, shouldn't they be? The channel opens up whole new vistas for adult education. ) This tremendous new resource demands non-traditionalways. B y all means, use the fare suggested above. But that will use only a fraction of the time available. Of course, many of the daytime hours might be devoted to the transmission of materials into the classroom for teaching purposes in a whole variety of ways for which the outlines are now but dimly seen. The mass media teacher,perhaps more than other colleagues, m a y realize the potential therein. But for the students the exciting hands-on opportunities afforded by actualpresentation, for at least a potential audience, of their documentaries, news analyses, interviews, panel discussions and other productions of the mass media course will provide education at its best. However, 1975 saw an undeniable slowing down and re-evaluation of the whole cable prospect. The economic recession undoubtedly had the most significantimpact, but local governing bodies have largely ceased the headlong rush to award franchises. They have tended to become involved in long, drawn-out controversies over the conditions to be required of franchise holders, given the rapid way the technology has been advancing. Furthermore, a vocal segment of opinion heatedly criticizes the whole theory of local government franchising. It demands state, or at least regional, authorities to assure system interconnexions, some uniformity on number of channels provided, and to diminish the likelihood of trade-offsbecause of community rivalries. As the editor of Cable Report writes: "Cable television could be the communications super-highwayof 1985, not only replacing concrete super-highwaysbut also performing functions now assigned to telephones, television sets, store catalogues and even newspaper carriers. Before any of these developments can come about, however, at least three huge obstacles must be surmounted: the Federal Communications C o m mission (FCC);municipalities that purport to regulate cable systems when they merely grant permission to use the streets; and the cable television industry itself". (23) H e criticizes the FCC for doing little before it issued a set of regulations in 1972, and finds those regulations quite inadequate. Robert E. Smith, who works in public affairs programming for Carbondale (Ill. ) Cablevision, describes the obstacles that must be faced by schools who hope to be active inpreparingmaterials for presentation on a cable channel: "Initially, a lot of cable programming was done using half-inch video-tape equipment. The Sony Porta-pack, a lightweight portable black-and white video-tape camera and recorder, became a standard. Unfortunately, half-inch equipment has proved highly unstable when fed through cable systems. Its poor quality signal throws many

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television receivers completely out of control. Video cassettes are proving more stable and less expensive, but they are less than ideal for production use. Their major value to date is in replaying a complete non-stopprogramme, where the tape never need be stopped and re-cued. Super-8 movie film is becoming popular, but it cannot be used in the volume that is possible withvideo-tape. Video-tape canbe shot in volume and only the valuable parts used. Once done with the tape, it can be reused. But to shoot such large volumes of Super-8 movie film and use only brief parts would be extremely expensive. With film, editing can be done by physically cutting and connecting segments of a programme together. With video-tape, such editing is mechanically quite complex because of the way signals are put on the tape. Also expensive tapes would quickly be ruined by cutting and splicing". (24) Nevertheless, for the teaching of mass media courses in the secondaryschools, cable television still holds out a considerable promise. The halfinch video-tape system (often referred to as the portapak) is, as was pointed out, relatively inexpensive, and with the availability of a channel to use in actual broadcasting, students will have an unparalleled stimulus and challenge to study mass media by doing in effec:tand in fact whatthe commercial-professionalmedia are doing.

THE OUTLOOK FOR INSTRUCTION ABOUT THE MEDIA Several of the studies mentioned in this report have cited "lack of credibility" as a handicap against which all of the media must struggle to a greater or lesser degree. Some critics have deplored the manner of some of the teaching about the media, charging that it unfairly contributes to these doubts. In a resolution expressing deepseated concern "among youth about the credibility of the media", the delegates to the White House Conference on Youth set forth, as a most worthy objective for all forms of communication, restoration of this lost faith, and said: " W e charge broadcasters, journalists, publishers and film producers to accept fully a responsibility that is commensurate with their power in the nation. This responsibility is to conduct an unrelenting search for quality and excellence in all of their output. The effectiveness of their products is to be measured by the degree t:, which they communicate atrue understanding of the total human experience. Resolved: W e are concerned about the incredible strength of the media in all phases of our lives. W e recognize the potential for danger that lies in this widespread penetration". (25) The delegates suggested formation of local press councils which would include youth of various

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ethnic and social backgrounds; urged greater participation by youth in programming for public broadcasting and educational television; and recommended "development of courses in audiovisual communication at the high school and undergraduate level to educate young people in effective, creative and responsible use of the media". In view of the limited definition ordinarily used for the term in education, the choice of "audio-visual" here was unfortunate; it seems to connote training in how to run film projectors and tape recorders. The delegates undoubtedly intended to urge mass media courses which would not slight or underrate the areas of radio, television and film. It is clear from this resolution that at least the responsive, involved student (of the type, to be sure, who would be most likely to attend an event such as the White House Conference) is not only interested in a chance to learn about the mass media, but demands it. And educators, at both the college and secondary education levels, unques tionably are moving to meet this demand. College bulletins and class schedules reveal more and more courses designed expressly by the schools and departments of journalism for the nonspecialist, the non-major. These courses are organized for ''consumersof the media" rather than prospective professional practitioners. Some of the courses constitute an introductory "survey" and others provide upper-classmen an opportunity for deep penetration in questions of principles and ethics. These differ, again, from the kind of courses previously mentioned for prospective secondary school journalism teachers or publication advisers, although the latter m a y find the survey courses offer useful background. This is one segment of a pattern of greater sophistication about the media at all ages and at all levels of society. It is doubtful if there is a single educational discipline at either high school or college level in which the teachers do not in some way call upon or make use of the mass media to buttress the instruction - for illustrations and examples, if nothing else. But usually it is much more. And that being the case, the teachers frequently stimulate, or become involved in, discussions about the credibility and accuracy of the press that, in turn, leads to informal examinations by a class of the way the media work and it all adds up to teaching about the mass media. The political and social upheavals of the past two decades have markedly affected this process. Big news story followed big news story with dizzying rapidity; w e really became sensation-jaded to the extent that we were rather self-conscious about appraising such a momentous event as man's landing on the moon, deciding where w e should place it in the rank order of great news events of all time. As w e made our own news evaluations of this kind, w e tended to become more keenly aware of the news editor's or news director's problems daily or weekly in the sorting, evaluating

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and displaying of the "glut of occurrences1 1 .(26) As never before, too, the media have become self-conscious about the news-judging tasks they perform and how well in the readers' eyes they do them. So w e have much more explaining of the processes, much more showing of behind-thescenes, no small share of it on television with its incomparable facilities for bringing the viewer into the very heart of complex and intricate operations. These explanations and self-appraisals, whether in print or broadcast, then become available for the teacher, either directly in films, tapes or article reprints, or indirectly through incorporation of the material in anthologies and textbooks. In explaining how an event was covered, the media further clarify the event and its significance in an increasingly complex society, a point which George Gerbner makes: "The basic features of American schools, as of our society, have been fixed for more than a century.. . A m o n g the most dramatic of the changes has been the rise of institutions of cultural massproduction the mass media exempt from the laws of public but not of private corporate development and authority. These institutions have taken over many functions performed in the past by the parent, the church and the school. The media's chiefimDact stems from their universality as the c o m m o nbond among l& groups in our culture". (27)

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The rapidly changing technology of all the media has been a strong factor in this urge to demonstrate and explain. The futurists sketch for us a picture of an electronic home media centre which cannot be other than fascinating for the grade-school child or teenager. But the teacher in that future time is likely to be less concerned with actually presenting information than with instructing and guiding pupils in how to take advantage of the Niagara-like torrent of information available to them once they know how to use the system. As Ben Bagdikian suggests, editors and news directors "will have two new pressures to face. They will have an audience more knowledgeable and, because of added channels of information, more varied in its specialized interests'l. (28) The courses in schools today properly stress the how and the why of the way the media work. The courses of the future will have to deal more with what is known as information retrieval (through manipulation of electronic equipment) to take advantage of what is available. Historically, and up to now, much of the time spent in education has been an effort to impress upon pupils how and what to choose out of literature, art, music, science, social sciences and other fields. H o w immensely greater does that problem loom for the future! Computers make possible, for instance, storage of video-tapes of Congressional hearings, legislative and city council or school

board meetings, overt news events such as fires, storms, transportationaccidents and staged events, to be called up on demand by the home subscriber at leisure in the home media centre. Yet the day will remain standard at 24 hours; the news consumer will have no more disposable time, and probably will feel he or she has less. The problems of selection, judgement, efficient use of time will be magnified. Educationhas always been expected to bear a major share of the task of inculcating standards for any society, and so it is that the mass media course of the future will have these same obligations magnified. "The educated person must develop a critical attitude towardmass media", it is suggested in one of the newer books on mass communication.(29) "He must be able to make judgements beyond his likes and dislikes. H e must know why something is of high quality and when it is not. H e must develop a critical awareness about mass media. Universities have offered courses on art appreciation and literary appreciation in which students are taught to be critical of these forms. W e need courses in mass media appreciation that will allow the student and all consumers of mass communication to be critically aware of the problems and processes of mass media. Today an understanding of mass media seems as important for full community participation as a knowledge of civics and government.I' Acceptance of that view requires acceptance also of a theme which has recurred throughout this report that the great need is for teachers qualified to guide and illuminate these efforts at "appreciation". Yet while there has been general agreement on the need, there have been marked differences of opinion about where and how to attack the problem. One way has been to seek to improve state department of education certification requirementsfor teachers of high schooljournalism. This, however, does not really reach the problem of teachers of English, language arts, social studies or history who m a y teach about the mass media in the context of other courses. If the university schools and departments of journalism provide the courses and opportunities that will lead to certification in journalism, will this reach teachers in non-journalism disciplines? Most probably not. What ofthe problem of the specialist, who can teach a good course in film,or lead a class in the production of a video-taped T V p r o gramme, but has little background or awareness of the print media, of questions of press freedom, of aspects of news judgements? In asking why w e do not set our priorities right, Dr. Robert P. Knight of the University of Missouri journalism faculty, director of the Missouri Inter-Scholastic Press Association, criticizes what he calls the Band-aid solution to these problems. Using his own state as a target, he suggests scholastic journalism can: (1) take a comprehensivelook at the journalism

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teacher's job. Develop a systematic programme to professionalize it; (2) enlist the aid of the College of Education and of the various professional organizations. Let's show them they have a stake in a strong journalism position; (3) be unflagging in relations with the State Department of Education. Let them know w e insist on a professional approach to journalismteaching and that w e have the administrators and other influential groups behind us; (4) develop a comprehensive plan for the training of journalism teachers while they are still undergraduates. Put more effort here than in the "Instant Advisor" workshops. "When w e get high school journalism recognized as a valid teaching subject which requires a competent, well-trained teacher, w e will have solved a great many of the problems of censorship imposed by frustrated administrators. I' (30) Professor Arthur Levin, chairman of the Department of Journalism at Butler University, Indianapolis, Ind., agrees: "I a m firmly convinced that the problems of skills preparation still prevail in the high schools. Both the students and the colleges have neglected this area.. .I have found teachers inadequately prepared to discuss the ethical considerations of the press, the relationship of the press to the government and the rights and responsibilities of the press in a free society. Their students ask the questions and the teachers try to find s u m m e r courses which will give them some answers. O r they read Woodward and Bernstein". (31) T w o recent books have aroused lively discussion in the scholastic journalism field, and have sharpened the awareness of principals and other administratorsofthe need for better instruction about media problems. They are Captive Voices: High School Journalism in America, the report of a commission of inquiry funded by the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial, and Student Press Rights by Robert Trager, a journalism teacher at Southern Illinois University, sponsored by the Journalism Education Association. Captive Voices takes a militant stance on behalf of student rights generally and the scholastic press in particular, and it drew some criticism from a couple of university journalism educators writing in the February, 1975 issue of the National Association of Secondary School Principals' Bulletin. That issue was almost entirely devoted to scholastic publications and the teaching of journalism, with articles contributed by members of J E A and others. The two books, with contents reflecting a sharply growing tendency to take student and teacher freedom cases to court, are blamed by s o m e for a tendency they profess to see among school boards, superintendents and principals of abolishing publications, or if not that, cutting off sources of support and reassigning advisers. The economic recession of 1974-75 provides a timely 85

rationale for such fund cutbacks. Whatever the merits of this controversy, it undeniably has been focusing attention on the larger issue of adequate instruction about the role of the media in society. The Kennedy Commission led off its series of recommendations for action by saying that a full discussion of the First Amendment clauses relating to freedom of expression should be made part of (every)school curriculum. The logical place to do that in proper context, of course, would be in classes devoted to study of the mass media. Furthermore, the Commission urged that ways be developed to assure fuller participation by minorities racial, ethnic, cultural, economic and while that would certainly be desirable on school publications, true participation m a y really be feasible only in courses giving academic credit. The report said, "Schools recognise the unique opportunities offered by media experience. Consistent with their importance, media programmes should be given full consideration in budget and curriculum planning, with academic credit given for participants of in-school media programmes". (32) The Commission suggested the possibility, too, of credit for out-of-schoolmedia programmes. A recommended effort to involve community and professional organizations, e. g. bar associations, editors' and publishers' groups, ACLU and others, to encourage libraries to establish media centres, and to try to interest foundations in giving financial support all these point to a conclusion that schools m a y expect pressure to introduce media courses, or to expand those already there. Teachers ought to be able to count on much more assistance and co-operationfrom the commercial media, not just for speakers and field trips, but in ways which will actually involve students in some aspects of media operations. Educators are understandably wary of proposals to grant academic credit for all kinds of participation in publications or electronic mediaprojects, because the time a student has to pick up the traditional subjects and skills required by society is already severely limited. Molly J. Wiseman, elected president of the Journalism Education Association in 1975, urges new perspectives be brought to the teaching about mass media, and suggests that one of the most effective m a y be the personalised curriculum organization. She describes this as one which stresses inquiry, which regards the student as a person with natural curiosity which should be stimulated, one who learns by doing. "Traditional cultural-heritage mass media class could mean students sitting in rows, following the teacher's objectives, following a text chapter by chapter, supported by teacher lectures, exercises, films, etc. A personal curriculum class could mean students setting their own objectives, deciding how and when they should be met and through what resources. The classroom might have many resources and options available at one

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time. For instance, books, games, audio tapes, slides, a film or two and some magazines might be in the room for use. The teacher could also serve as a resource. Students might choose their own materials viewing or reading them whenever they wish, working on projects, making presentations to each other, or forming small discussion groups of their own.. .Students would be working at their own pace to fulfil their own objectives". (33) Evaluation would be a personal matter, and presumably success in this form of instruction would depend on how carefully the objectives were set in the first place. That a supportive interest for this kind of subject-matter and teaching has already been sparked in the community at large is evidenced by a national project to investigate the extent of instruction about the mass media undertaken by the American Association of University W o m e n (AAUW). Local chapters have been (1975)inviting schoolauthoritiesto panels and forums to discuss the topic, have studies course outlines and curricula, have interviewed teachersand students. This kind of interest on the part of an organization recognised for its affiliationwith higher education is certain to stimulate some self-examinationby the schools about the number and quality of mass media courses offered.

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CONCLUSIONS F r o m the evidence presented, the following conclusions can be drawn concerning the teaching of and about the mass media in schools of the United States; (1) About 35 to 40 per cent of the totalnumber of secondary schools,ranging in some States from "almost all of the larger schools''to very few schools in other States,now offer units or courses specifically designated as mass media or mass commuhication. (2) Another 35 to 40 per cent of the schools say they incorporate some instruction about the mass media as part of the content in courses not specifically using a mass media title, e.g. in language arts and socialstudies classes especially. (3) The trend toward incorporating such instruction in the curriculum has been and is steadily growing, but has been hampered by the lack of qualified teachers. (4)Furthermore, a major criticism now directed at many of the ''massmedia" courses now being offered is that teachers of them are not really qualified, though there is an almost universal lack of standards and criteria to define what qualification is or should be; that while State departments of education set certification standards, these are so loosely drawn for journalism and the mass media as to be in many cases meaningless. (5)A secondary criticism is that teachersm a y tend to make their media courses too specialized

and thereby too limited - for instance,those whose background and experience is in print tend to minimize attention given to the electronic media,while disciples of McLuhan m a y openly scorn print. (6)Administrators ordinarily assume that if a mass media course is to be added to a curriculum, a journalism teacher must be assigned to teach it, but then they are too often careless about insisting that the journalism teacher be properly qualified, and not just "certified" under weak and often misleading requirements. (7)There is a growing body of opinion that the best place to start teaching "consumers of the media" is in the elementary grades. However, at present it is only through the efforts of the Newspaper in the Classroom project that elementary teachers are aided and encouraged to do such teaching; the teachers have little or no exposure to the content and methods in their college preparation for their profession. (8) For both elementary and secondary teachers, upgrading of quality in this teaching speciality will depend upon leadership from college schools and departments of journalism, which to date have provided this assistance very much in a left-handed, as-time-permits manner. Any improvement in this situation will require long and extensive collaboration between journalism educators and their colleagues in Colleges and Schools of Education, and specifically more appointments of college faculty members qualified to teach this specialty. (9)Encouraging attention is now being paid to the production of textbooks and other aids especially suited for teaching about the mass media, books which will help the high school teacher select from and evaluate the vast outpouring of the past several years of comment and criticism about the media, and the self-examinations by many of the practitioners. (1O) Other media than newspapers need to make a contribution to the efforts by elementary and secondary schools in this field which willbe comparable to that made by newspapers in the Newspaper in the Classroom project. Magazines and broadcasters have had programmes, to be sure, but they have involved mostly assistance on topical information, i. e. in-depth and background information on current news topics such as pollution, juvenile crime, South East Asia policy, food production, and the like. (11 ) Interest among students has ballooned because of a series of dramatic world news developments where the media became part of theaction, and helped make the news as well as report it. AS never before, this present television generation could be immersed in this kind of action. Youth accepts the concept of "the global village 'I. (12) The community, meaning primarily but not exclusively the parents, has begun to insist that a roundededucation means awareness of State, national, and world events, and an ability to com-

municate,in addition to the traditional 3 RIS. The community has frequently expressed its concern over the studies which show a disturbingly high percentage of students reaching college without being able to read at that level. The community also expresses concern over the influence of television on children, and hopes the schools canmake pupils wiser, more selective and perceptive viewers. The NIC programme has had such widespread support because it is viewed as a way of encouraging more reading, and because so many remedial reading teachers have reported success inusingnewspapers and magazines in their classes. This report reflects, accurately it is to be hoped, that the patterns of teaching about the mass media in United States schools are as vast and diverse, and often unconventional, as the nation itself. The debates on how the taskis to be accomplished, and by whom, are just as vigorous and just as unlikely to reach a quick consensus. Just as it is quite fascinating to speculate on the ways the newer technology will affect the media, so it is interesting to try to predict the future for the acceptance of instructionabout mass communication and the forms it m a y take. The one safe forecast is that society's stake in communication will continue to increase in importance,and that schools therefore must continue to try to prepare their students accordingly for that society. 1.

2.

Report on the White House Conference on Youth, 18-22April, Estes Park, Colo., Washington, D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971. U.S. Office of Education Statistical Report for 1973. A report printed in Saturday Review, in September, 1970, covering the school year 1969-1970, said there were 31,023 high schools. David R. Olsen "Mass media versus schoolmen: The role of the means of instruction in the attainment of educational goals". change. Vol.5, No. 2, Summer, 1974, pp. 11-17. See also his introduction to 73rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974. Ibid. Walter M. Brasch, in book review for "Mass media: an introduction to modern communication" by Hiebert, Ungurait and Bohn, in Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 51, No. 4, 1974, p. 744. Brown, Ray E. and David Madden, The popular culture explosion: experiencing the mass media. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company, 1972. Glessing, Robert J. and William P. White, Mass media: the invisible environment. Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1973, p. v.

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4. 5.

6.

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7.

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8.

9. 10.

11.

Marvin Maskovskg, "Newspapers w o w class- room", American Education, Vol. 8, No. 1, January-February 1972, pp. 2-6. Edgar Dale, H o w to reada newspaper, N e w York: Scott. Foresman and Company, 1941, pp. iv-v. John H. Haefner, "What you always wanted to know about a successful NIC program but were afraid to ask", speech before ANPA Foundation NIC Conference at Reston, Va., 14 M a y 1974. Richard F. Newton and Peter F. Sprague, The newspaper in the American history classroom, published by A N P A Foundation, Reston, Va., 1974. F r o m presentation Dr. Lewis gave at NIC Seminar at the University of Mississippi, Summer, 1974. News story, "Illinois educator cites need for newspapers in learning", Harrisburg (Pa.) Patriot-News, 17 August 1974. Carolyn Clark Reilly, "Can they read what we write? I' in September 1974, pp. 5-8. Based on interview with Glen Hanna, 27 February 1975. Deldee M. Herman and Sharon A. Ratcliffe (eds.) Radio, television and film in the secondary school, Michigan Speech Association Curriculum Guide No.8, 1973. Janet Cushman, "'Old radio' in the English class: it can't miss! ,'I English Journal, Vol.62, No. 2, February 1973, pp. 141-9.

12.

13.

14.

15. 16.

17.

SEMINAR,

18. David R. Olson, "Mass media versus schoolmen: the r81e of the means of instruction in the attainment of educational goals", change, Vol. 5, No. 2, Summer, 1974, pp. 11-17. 19. James Koerner, "Educational technology: does it have a future in the classroom? 'I, Saturday Review of Education, Vol. 1, No. 4, M a y 1973. 20. Frederick C. Whitney, Mass media and mass communications in society, Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company, 1975.

Inter-

21. F r o m "The proposed communications media course at East High School", accompanying letter from George Christian to author, 22 March 1975. 22. Kas Kalba, "The video imDlosion: models for reinventing television", in The Electronic Box Office, Richard Adler and Walter S. Baer, eds., New York, Praeger, 1974. 23. Jerrold N. Oppenheim,-"Cable T V and the public interest", Progressive, March 1974, pp. 46-50. 24. Robert E. Smith, "Cablevision programming: a path of problems lies ahead", Grassroots Editor, Vol.15, No. 2, March-April 1974, pp. 24-28. 25. Report of the White House Conference on Youth, 18-22 April 1971, at Estes Park, Colo., Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971. 26. A frequently quoted phrase from the first American newspaper, printed by Benjamin Harris at Boston in 1690. 27. George Gerbner in Chapter XVIII, 73rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974. 28. Ben Bagdikian, The Information Machines: Their ImDact on M e n and the Media. ----, New - .. York: Harper Colophon Books, 1971, p. 265. 29. R.ayEldon Hiebert, Donald F. Ungurait, and Thomas W. Bohn, Mass media: an introduction to modern communication, N e w York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1974, introduction, p. xv. 30. Dr. Robert P,Knight, "The urge to selfcensorship: thoughts on genesis, blame, solution", Communication: Journalism Education Today, Vol. 8, Spring, 1975, pp. 4-5. 31. Letter to the author, 27 March 1975. 32. Captive voices: high school journalism in America, the report of the Commission of Inquiry into High School Journalism convened by the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial. N e w York: Schocken Books, 1974, pp. 141-149. 33. Molly J. Wiseman, "Media in the future tense", item in the Journalism Education Association Publications Program, Spring 1975. ~~

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V. International organizations

The following organizations are concerned, in varying ways, with the promotion of media studies, education and training. They have national centres and branches in many countries throughout the world. Up-to-date particulars on their national organizations and activities can be obtained from the addresses given below.

education and training in films and television. The Centre undertakes all forms of co-operation with developing countries and seeks to improve standards in the fields of culture, teaching, research, creation of techniques and languages, communication and use of sound and image. Secretariat: 8 rue Th6rdsienne. 1000 Brussels, Belgium.

International Centre of Films for Children and Young People G E N E R A L LIAISON FOR INTERNATIONAL MEDIA ORGANIZATIONS

(ICFCYP /CIFEJ) The Centre was set up in 1955 under the auspices of Unesco to encourage in every possible way the provision of suitable film entertainment for children of all ages and in all countries either films specially made for them or suitable for them. The ICFCYP also concerns itself with television films and programmes. The Centre was associated with the IFTC in the preparation of the present publication. The Headquarters of the ICFCYP are in Paris. Administrative Services: 111 rue Notre D a m e des Champs, 75006, Paris, France.

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International Council for Educational Media (ICEM/CINLF:) This Council, set up in 1950, groups representatives of national organizations for the production, distribution and/or information on modern media of education. Its objectives include promoting world-wide contacts, providing an international channel for the exchange of views and experience in the field of educational technology and promoting the better integration and use of all the modern media of education. Secretariat: 29 rue d'Ulm, 75005, Paris, France. International Liaison Centre for Cinema and Television Schools (CILECT)

CILECT was founded in 1954 and groups national higher teaching institutions for professional

The aforementioned bodies are members of the primipal international organization for overall liaison in the audio-visual field - the IFTC described below. The Council was responsible for preparing the present publication.

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International Film and Television Council (InternationalCouncil for Film and her Audio-visual

LCICT)) Created under the auspices of Unesco, the Council is an international non-governmental organization, independent, non-profit-makingand open to representative international federations or associations whose work lies in the field of the audio-visual media. Besides the three organizations referred to above, the following international bodies are full members: Asian Broadcasting Union; Comite international des Films de l'Homme; European Broadcasting Union; International Animated Film Association; International Association for Art and the Audio-visual Media; International Association of Documentary Film Makers; International Broadcast Institute; International Catholic Association for Radio and Television; International Catholic Film Office; International Confederation of Technical Films Sectors of the Film Industry; International Council of Graphic Design Association; International Experimental and Art 89

Film Theatres Confederation; International Federation of Actors; International Federation of Film Archives; International Federation of Film Critics; International Federation of Film Distributors; InternationalFederationof Film Producers Associations; International Federation of Film Societies; International Federation of Musicians; International Federation of the Phonographic Industry; International Inter-Church Film Centre; International Music Centre; International Newsreel Association; International Radio and Television Organization;International Scientific Film

90

Association; InternationalUnion of Amateur Films; International Union of Cinematograph Technical Associations; International Union for Film and Television Research; International Union of Film Exhibitors; International University of Radiophonics; InternationalWriters' Guild; Pan African Federation of Film Producers; World Association for Christian Communication. IFTC Headquarters: via Santa Susanna 17, Rome, Italy. Secretariat: Unesco, 1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris CEDEX 15.

Bibliography

This bibliography is mainly devoted to books and pamphlets referred to in previous pages. Entries are arranged alphabetically under authors' names. Bagdikian, B. The Information Machines: Their Impact on M e n and the Media, New York, Harper Colophon, 1971. Baldelli, P. Sociologia del Cinema, Rome, Editori Riuniti, 1963.

. Communicazione Audiovisivi e Educazione, Florence, La Nuova, Italia, 1967.

. Politica Culturale e Communicazione di Massa, Pisa, Nistri-Lichi, 1968. Beveridge, J. A. Script Writing for Short Films, Paris, Unesco, 1969. Cohen S. (ed.) Images of Deviance, London, Penguin, 1971.

Decaigny, T. Technologie Educative et Audiovisuel, Brussels, Labor, 1970. Dieuzeide, H. Technology and Development in Education, Paris, Unesco, 1972. Ferguson, R. Group Film-making, London, Studio Vista, 1969. Hall, S. and Whannel, P. _The Popular Arts, London, Hutchinson, 1!164. Hancock, A. Communicati'E,London, Heineman, 1971. . Mass Communication, London, Heineman, 1968.

Herman, D.M. and Ratcliffe, S.A. (eds.) Radio, Television and Film in the Secondary School, Michigan Speech Association (Curriculum Guide No.8). 1973.

Cohen S., and Young, J. (eds.) The Manufacture of News, London, Constable, 1973.

Hiebert, R.E.,Ungurait, D.F., and Bohn, T.W. Mass Media: A n Introduction to Modern C o m munication, N e w York, David MacKay, 1974.

Commission of Inquiry into High School Journalism, Captive Voices: High School Journalism in America, N e w York, Schoken, 1974.

Hodgkinson, A. W. Screen Education: Teaching a CriticalApproach to Cinema and Television, Paris, Unesco, 1967.

C.R.D.P. Audiovisuel et PCdaEogie pratique, Bordeaux, C.R.D. P., 1971.

Holzer, H. Gescheiterte Aufklarung, Munich, Piper, 1971.

. L'Etablissement c o m m e lieu de communication, Bordeaux, C.R.D. P.,1975.

I. F.T.C. Cinematographic Institutions, Paris, Unesco, 1973.

Dale, E. H o w to Read a Newspaper, N e w York, Scott Foreman, 1941.

Institut du Langage Total. Initiation: Cinema, Presse, Television. Paris, Ligel, 1966.

Decaigny, T. Communication Audiovisuelle et Pedagogic, Brussels, Labor, Paris, Nathan, 1971.

Jeannel, A. Approche Analytique des Processus de Verbalisation, Bordeaux, C.R:D.P., 1971.

91

Katzen, M. Mass Communication: Teaching and Studies at Universities. A World-wide Survey on the R61e of Universities in the Study of Mass Media and Mass Communication, Paris, Unesco, 1975. Kennedy, K. Film in Teaching, London, Batsford, 1972. Kitses, J,, and Mercer, A. Talking about the ,

Schilliaci, A., and Culkin, J. M . Films Deliver, New York, Citation, 1970. S. O.A. P. Cine e Pedagogia, Madrid, S.O.A. P., 1973.

&

London, B.F.I., 1966. Knight, R. (ed.) Film in English Teaching, London, Hutchinson, 1972, Lehmann, W.E. and Wolf, S. Lernsystem Medier Kunde, reprinted from A - V Praxis, Munich, F. W.U., 1974.

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Lowndes, D. Film-making in Schools, London, Batsford, 1968. Metz, C. Essais sur la Signification du CinBma, Paris, Klincksieck, 1968. Newton, R.F., and Sprague, P.F. The Newspaper in the American History Classroom,Reston Va., A. N. P.A. Foundation, 1974. Peters, J. M.L. Teaching about the Film, Paris, Unesco, 1961. Piccardo, M. I1 cinema fatto dei Bambini, Rome, Editori reuniti, 1974. Prokop, D. (ed.) Masser Kommunikations forschunq, Frankfurt, Fischer, 1973.

Sommerlad, E. Lloyd, National Communication Systems: Some Policy Issues and Options, Paris, Unesco, 1975. Tardy, M. Le Professeur et les Images, Paris, P.U. F.,1970. Thibault-Laulan, A. M. L'Image dans la sociBtB contemporaine, Paris, Denoel, 1971.

U.S. Government Printing Office, Report of the White House Conference on Youth,Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971. Unesco. Training for Mass Communication, Paris, Unesco, 1975. Watkins, R. C. S. E. Examinations in Film, London, B.F.I. /S.E.F.T.,1967. Whannel, P. and Harcourt, P. (eds.) 9 Teaching: Studies in the Teaching of Film, London, B.F.I., 1964, Webster, B.R. Access: Technology and Access to Communication Media, Paris,Unesco, 1975. Whitney, F.C. Mass Media and Mass Communication in Society, Dubuque, Iowa, Wm. C. Brown, 1975.

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E D I L Y R , Belprano 2786-88 BUENOS-AIRES. Publicalions: Educational Supplies Pty. Ltd.. Box 33. Post Office, BROOKVALE 2100, N.S.W. Peiiodicals: Dominie Pty. Ltd., Box 33, Post Office,BROOKVALE 2Ino. N.S.W. Sub-Agent: United Nations Association of 3000. Australia (Victorian Division). 5th Floor, 134-136 Flinders St., MELBOURNE D‘ Franz Hain, Verlags- und Kommissionsbuchhandlung, Industriehof Stadlau, D‘ Otto-Neurath-Gasse 5, 1220 WIEN. Jena D e Lannoy, 112, rue d u Trane, 1050 BRUXELLES. CCP 000-0070823-13. Los Amigos del Libro: casilla postal 4415. LA PAZ; Peru 3712 (Esq. Espana), casilla postal 450, COCHABAMBA. Fundaçäo Getúlio Vargas, Serviço de Publicaçaes,caixa postal 21IZO Praia de Botafogo 183,RIODE JANEIRO G.R. Hemus, Kantora Literatura, hd. Rousky 6, SOFIJA. Trade Corporation n.O (g), 550-552 Merchant Street, RANGOON. Renouf Publishing C o m p a n y Ltd., 2182 St. Catherine Street West, MONTREAL, Que. H 3 H iM7. Bibliocentro Ltda., casilla 13731. HuérCanos I 160 of. 213, SANTIAGO (21). Editorial Losada Ltda., calle IBA. n.aa 7-37. apartado aéreo 5829, apartado nacional 931. BocorÁ. J. Ger(Cundinamarca). Librería Buccholz Galería, m á n Rodriguez N.. Calle 17.6-59, apartado nacional 83. GIRARDOT avenida Jiménez de Quesada 8-40, apartado aereo 53750, BOGOTÁ. Subdepols: Edificio L a Ceiba, Oficina 804. MEDELL~N;Calle 37, n.OH 14-73. Oficina 305. BUCARAMANGA; Edificio Zaccour, Oficina 736, CALI. Librairie populaire, B.P. 577, BRAZZAVILLE. Librería Trejos S.A., apartado 1313.SAN Josh. Teléfonos: 2285 y 3200. Instituto Cubano del Libro, Centro de Importaci6n, Obispo 461, LA HABANA. ‘ M A M ’ , Archbishop Makarios 3rd Avenue, P.O. Box 1722, NICOSIA. S N T L , Spalena 51, PRAHAI ( P e r m a n m f display); Zahranicni literatura, I I Soukenicka, PRAHAI. For Slouakia only: Alfa Verlag, Publishers, Hurbanovo nam. 6. 803 31 BRATISLAVA. Librairie nationale, B.P. 294, PORTONovo. Ejnar Munksgaard Ltd., 6 Nsrregade, I165 K 0 B E N H A V N K . National Centre for Unesco Publications. I Talaat Harb Street, Tahrir Square, CAIRO. Librería Cultural Salvadoreña. S.A., calle Delgado, n.O I 17, SAN SALVADOR. Ethiopian National Agency for Unesco, P.O. Box 2996, ADDISABABA. Akateeminen Kirjakauppa, 2 Keskuskatu, SF-oo~ooHELSINKI IO. Librairie de l’Unesco, place de Fontenoy, 75700 PARIS.CCP Paris 12598-48. (Martinique). Librairie ‘Au Boul’ Mich’, I R u e Perrinon and 66 Avenue d u Parquet, 97200 FORT-DE-FRANCE International bookshops or Buchhaus Leipzig, Postfach 140, 701 LEIPZIG. 71 (Prinz Ludwigshöhe). ‘ T h e Courier’ (German Verlag Dokumentation, Pössenbacherstrasse P. 8nno MUNCHEN edition only): Colmantstrasse 22, 5300 BONN. For scientific maps only: G E 0 Center, Postfach 800830, 7000 ST~TTGART 80. Presbyterian Bookshop Depot Ltd., P.O. BOX 195, ACCRA; G h a n a Book Suppliers Ltd., P.O. Box 7869, ACCRA; T h e University Bookshop of Ghana, ACCRA; T h e University Bookshop of Cape Coast; T h e Universitv Bookshop of Legon, P.O. Box I, LEGON. M a i n bookshops in Athens (Eleftheroudakis. Kauffman. etc.). Federal Publications Division, Far East Publication Ltd.. 5 A Evergreen Industrial Mansion. W o n g C h u k H a n g Road, ABERDEEN; Swindon Book Co., 13-15 Lock Road, KOWLOON. Akadémiai Könyvesbolt Váci y 22, BUDAPESTV. A.K.V. Könyvtárosok Boltja, NCpköztársaság utja 16.

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Snaehjörn Jonson & Co. H. F., Hafnarstracti g. REYKJAVIK. Orient L o n g m a n Ltd.: Kamani Marg, Ballard Estate, BOMBAY400038; 1 7 Chittaranjan Avenue, CALCUTTA 13; 3 6 A A n n a Salai, Mount Road, M A D R A S 2; B-3/7 Asaf Ali Road, NEW DELHI I; 8011 M a h a t m a Gandhi 560001; 3-5-820 Hyderguda, HYDERABAD gwoo1. Sub-depots: Oxford Book and Stationew Co., Road, BANGALORE 17 Park Street, CALCUTTA 700016 and Scindia House, NEW DELHI 110001; Publication Section. Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, 511 C-Wing, Sbastri Bhavan, NEW DELHI 110001. Bhratara Publishers and Booksellers, 29 JI. Oto Inkandardinata III, JAKARTA. Gramedia Bookshop, JI. Gadjah M a d a log, JAKARTA. Indira P.T., JI. Dr. S a m Ratulangie, 37 JAKARTA PUSAT. Commission nationale iranienne pour l’Unesco, avenue Iranchahr Chomali no 300. B.P. 1533. TÉHÉRAN. Kbarazmie Publishing and Distribution Co. 120 Daneshgahe Street, Shah Avenue, P.O. Box 1411486,T É H ~ R A N . McKenzie’s Bookshop, Al-Rashid Street, BAGHDAD. T h e Educational C o m p a n y of Ireland Ltd., Dallymount Road, Walkinstown, DUBLIN II. Emanuel Brown, formerly Blumstein’s Bookstores: 35 Allenby Road and 48 Nachlat Benjamin Street, TELAVIV; g Shlomzion Hamalka Street, JERUSALEM. L I C O S A (Liberia Commissionaria Sansoni S.p.A.), via Lamarmora 45, casella postale 552. 5012 I FIRENZE. Sangster’s Book States Ltd., P.O. Box 366, I O I Water Lane, KINGSTON. Eastern Book Service Inc., C.P.O. Box 1728, TOKYO 100 92. East African Publishing House, P.O. Box 30571, NAIROBI. Korean National Commission for Unesco, P.O. Box Central 64, SEOUL. T h e Kuwait Bookshop Co. Ltd., P.O. Box 2942, KUWAIT. Mazenod Book Centre, P.O. MAZENOD. Cole & Yancy Bookshops Ltd., P.O. BOX 286. MONROVIA. Agency for Development of Publication and Distribution, P.O. Box 34-35. TRIPOLI. Librairie Paul Bruck, 22 Grande-Rue, LUXEMBOURG. Commission Nationale de la Republique démocratique de Madagascar pour l’Unesco, B.P. 331, TANANARIVE. LUMPUR. Federal Publications Sdn. Bhd., Balai Berita, 31 Jalan Riong, KUALA Sapienzas, 26 Republic Street, VALLETTA. Nalanda Co. Ltd., 30 Bourbon Street, PORT-LOUIS. For pubIicatiom onIy: C I L A (Centro Interamericano de Libros Académicos). Sullivan 31 bis. Mhxlco 4 D.F. For publicationr ondpsriodicals: S A B S A , Servicios a Bibliotecas,S.A.,InsurgentesSur n.O 1032-401, M É x ~ c o1 2D.F. British Library, 30. boulevard des Moulins, MONTE-CARLO. Instituto Nacional do Livro e do Disco (INLD), avenida 24 de Julho 1921,r/c e I O andar, MAPUTO. N.V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout g. ’s-GRAVENHAGE; Systemen Keesing. Ruysdaelstraat 71-75. A m T e R D A m 1007. G. C. T. V a n Dorp & Co. (Ned. Ant.) N.V., WILLEMSTAD (Curaçao, N.A.). Reprex S.A.R.L., B.P. 1572, NOUMBA. Government Printing Office, Government Bookshops: Rutland Street P.O. Box 5344. AUCKLAND; I 30 Oxford Terrace, P.O. Box 1721, CHRISTCHURCH; A l m a Street, P.O. Box 857, HAMILTON; Princes Street, P.O. Box I 104, DUNEDIN; Mulgrave Street, Private Bag, WELLINQTON. Librairie Manclert, B.P. 868, NIAMEY. T h e University Bookshop of Ife; T h e University Bookshop of Ibadan, P.O. Box 286, IBADAN; T h e University Bookshop, Nsukka; T h e University Bookshop of Lagos; T h e A b m a d u Bello University Bookshop of Zaria. All publicationr: Johan Grundt Tanum. Karl Johans gate 41/43. OSLOI. ‘The Courier’ only: A / S Narvesens 6. Litteraturjeneste, Box 6125. OSLO Mirza Book Agency, 65 Shahrah Quaid-e-azam, P.O. Box 729, LAHORE3. Editorial Losada Peruana, Jir6n Coiitumaza 1050, apartado 472, LIMA. D-404. T h e M o d e m Book Co., 926 Rizal Avenue, P.O. Box 632, MANILA Ars Polona-Ruch, Krakowskie Pnedmiescie n.O 7. 00-901 WARSZAWA. ORPAN-Import, Palac Kultury, 00-gol WARSZAWA. Dias & Andrale Ltda.. Libraria Portugal. rua o C a r m o 70, LISBOA. Textbook Sales (PVT)Ltd., 67 Union Avenue, SALISBURY. I.C.E. LIBRI, Calea Victoriei nr. 126, P.O. Box 134-135 BUCURE~TI. Subscriptions lo psriodicals: Romprenfilatelia,Calea Victoriei nr. 29, BUCURE$TI. L a Maison d u Livre, 13, avenue Roume, B.P. 20-60, DAKAR; Librairie Clairafrique. B.P. 2005. DAKAR; Librairie ‘Le SénCgal’, B.P. 1594, DAKAR. Federal Publications (S) Pte Ltd., No. I N e w Industrial Road, off Upper Paya Lebar Road, SINGAPORE 19. Modern Book Shop and General, P.O. Box 951. MOGADISCIO. V a n Schaik’s Bookstore (Pty.) Lid., Libri Building, Church Street, P.O. Box 7.24, PRETORIA. EISA-Ediciones Iberoamericanas, S.A., calle de Oñate 15. MAnFuD 20; Libreria Al-Andalus, Roldana 143. SEVILLA4; Mundi-Prensa Libros S.A., Castel16 37, MADRID I. ‘The Courier’ only: Ediciones Liber, apartado 17. ONDÁRROA (Viscava).

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Unipub, Box 433, Murray H ill Station, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10016. For ‘Thc Courier’ in Spmish: Santillana Publishing Company, Inc., 575 Lexington Avenue, NEW YORK, N.Y.IOOZX. Librairie Attie, B.P. 64, Ouagadougou, Librairie catholique ‘Jeunessed’Afrique’, OUACAOOUOOU. Editorial Losada Uruguaya. S.A.; Librería Losada, Maldonado rogz, MONTEVIDEO. Librería del Este, avenida Francisco de Miranda 52. Edif. Galipan, apartado 60337, CARACAS. Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27, P.O.B. 36, I I-mt BEOOUO. Drzavna Zalozba Slovenije. Titova C.25. P.O.B. 50-1, 61400 LJUBLJANA. L a Librairie, Institut national d’6tuder politiques, B.P. 1307, K S N S N ~ ,Commission nationale zaïroise pour 1’Unesco. Commissariat d’ktat chargé de 1’8ducation nationale. B.P. 32, KINSHASA.

ISBN 92-3-101446-3