Mariachi music as a symbol of Mexican culture in the United States SYLVIA CLARK University of Texas-Pan American, USA

Abstract The purpose of this study was to follow the development of mariachi music from its origin in the rural cultural celebrations of Mexico to its contemporary position in American music education. A dominant factor in traditional ceremonies, mariachi music emerged as the primary musical representation of Mexican nationalism in Mexico, a representation sustained and elaborated when Mexicans migrated to the United States. Incorporating mariachi training in the school curriculum ensures the continuing transmission of music that is vital to the identity of the Hispanic population. Music teachers can encourage children to explore the musical traditions of their own cultural heritage as well as those of other countries. Participation in meaningful musical performances can help students take pride in themselves and add a powerful dimension to their education. Key words chicano, guitarrón, mariachi in schools, mariachi vihuela, Mexican music

Introduction Mariachi music has transitioned from its humble origins in rural Mexico to become an iconic representation of the Mexican people, within both Mexico and the United States. Musicians have discovered performance opportunities available in urban areas, and migrated to large cities and the United States, further expanding the scope of Mexican culture. A variety of performing sites provide mariachis with the opportunity to unite people whose cultural roots are in Mexico. Commercialization by the media has helped transmit this musical form to a greater number of people on both sides of the United States–Mexican border. Mariachis have come to symbolize Mexican nationalism in the United States, especially in the southwest. The tradition of mariachi music, an integral part of cultural celebrations of the Mexican people, originally was taught within families. Public schools and universities of the southwestern United States have become a focal point for mariachi instruction. Mariachi music programs in public schools and universities provide a way of ensuring the teaching of traditional Mexican music within the more diverse culture of the United States. The role

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION Copyright © 2005 International Society for Music Education Vol 23(3) 227–237 [(200512)23:3] 10.1177/0255761405058237 http://ijm.sagepub.com

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of the music educator is to incorporate ethnic musical traditions into the curriculum to encourage students to participate in music that is meaningful in their lives.

The origin of mariachi music in Mexico Early mariachis appeared in rural western Mexico at the end of the 19th century. Peña (1999, p. 10), renowned authority on Mexican music, refers to the ‘organic’ nature of music that is performed in a ‘culture-specific context’ and has ‘use-value’. Mariachi music can be considered ‘organic’ because it emerged within the rural setting in response to the needs of the social context. Music provided by mariachis for cultural celebrations or rites such as weddings and baptisms demonstrates its ‘use-value’. These early groups of mariachis were composed of strings only. Instrumentation consisted of violins, various sizes of guitar, and usually a harp, all played by peasant men. Their repertoire was comprised of happy songs in son form, a tune using triple meter with alternating 3/4 and 6/8 rhythms. The music at that time was not just sung and played, but accompanied dancing (Sheehy, 1997). Because Mexico was occupied by the French in the 1860s, in the past there has been speculation that the origin of the term ‘mariachi’ was the French word for ‘marriage’. The mariachis did perform for weddings and other local festive events during that era. However, this derivation has been disproved, and it has been established that the term ‘mariachi’ actually pre-dates the French occupation. Cora Indians, probably from Jalisco, a state in Mexico, had such a word referring to a type of wood used in making the first mariachi instruments (Martinez-Avila, 1997, p. 28).

Development of mariachi instrumentation Evolution of the mariachi began to occur in response to the change from a rural to an urban environment. Musicians migrated to the city where they could earn money from playing for social functions. As mariachi music evolved, instrumentation changed in response to cultural and economic factors. According to Alonso (2003), harpist for the Mariachi Los Camperos, the harp was well suited to the early mariachi groups. The repertoire consisted of sones, songs or tunes with alternating rhythms of 3/4 and 6/8 that presented only simple harmonies of tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. The harpist played the octaves in the bass. The right hand played melodies or filled in the harmonies. Since the groups were strings only, there was no difficulty hearing the harp. When the performance context of the mariachis changed, the harp was no longer useful in its role of maintaining the bass line and harmonies. The guitarrón, a type of large guitar, displaced the harp because it provided a stronger bass and could be carried more easily when the mariachis moved from place to place in the urban setting of Mexico City. Flexibility of harmonies due to the chromatic capabilities of the guitarrón allowed an expansion of repertoire not possible with the mariachi harp. During the 1980s, the harp once again was included in the instrumentation of many mariachi groups. A vihuela, a smaller type of guitar, is customarily included with the guitars. The trumpet was added to the instrumentation in the 1930s. Commercialism, with mariachis performing for more wealthy audiences, helped bring about the standardization of instrumentation (Alonso, 2003).

Commercialization of the mariachis According to Peña (1999, p. 10), the ‘organic,’ or useful, nature of mariachi music remained, although commercialism added a new dimension. For their audience, the music and musicians symbolized the ideal of the peaceful, country life. Staged performances acquired

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‘exchange-value’, a term used by Peña (1999, p. 10) for music that has become entertainment or ‘spectacle’ and removed from a direct social context. The ‘organic’ nature of mariachi music enabled it to maintain the basic social communication with the audience, even in a commercialized setting. Urban audiences of Mexico City identified with the ideal of the pastoral, rural Mexico that was personified in the presentation of mariachi music.

Visual representation of Mexican nationalism The costume of the mariachis also changed in response to the change from a rural to an urban setting. In rural Mexico, the attire was that of the ordinary peasants, with the addition of a black wool blanket over the shoulder and a red sash around the waist. Migration of the mariachis to Mexico City in search of a more prosperous life necessitated an adaptation of clothing that would be more appropriate to the urban environment. The charro outfit of the rancher, a suit with metallic decorations at the wrist and down the sides of the pants, soon became the characteristic costume of the mariachis. Representing the nationalistic spirit of Mexico, the mariachis not only sounded like Mexico, but also presented themselves as a visual symbol of their country (Simonett, 2001, p. 137). This standardization of uniform signaled the mariachi as a group different from all others. From that point on, their appearance placed them in their own distinct genre. Other types of musical groups had no definitive visual aspect, but the mariachis were clearly symbolic of Mexican culture. Appearing in urban, more cosmopolitan settings, the distinctive costume of the mariachis assured them an instantly recognizable identity. Although the mariachi tradition began in the western Mexican states, when musicians later migrated to Mexico City in the 1920s, they became popular entertainment there. The Mexican Revolution of 1910–17 had brought with it the promotion of Mexican nationalism and a demand for music representing national identity. The charro costumes of the mariachi placed them in the advantageous position of providing a visual representation of their country. No other group of musicians fulfilled both visual and musical roles. Mariachis became the symbol of Mexican unity, and Mexico City became a popular site for mariachi performances. Influential people provided opportunities for the mariachis to perform. In 1934, the president of Mexico, Lazaro Cardenas, brought the Mariachi Vargas to Mexico City. In 1940, Cardenas requested that the Mexico City police no longer prohibit mariachis from performing in the plazas and streets. The mariachi had achieved a respectable status, and had become known as the music of Mexico, symbolizing the nationalistic identity (Sheehy, 1997).

Attention from the media As the audience base for their music broadened, the mariachis responded to the context in which they performed. Because they were no longer isolated in rural communities, exposure to other forms of music influenced their instrumentation and repertoire. Moving from a rural agrarian context to an urban capitalist context, they were not limited to social events such as weddings and family celebrations. Economic opportunities within the urban context encouraged the growth and development of the mariachi in new directions. El Cuarteto Coculense made the first mariachi recordings in Mexico City in 1908 and 1909. This group came to be known as the first urban mariachi, establishing a precedent for attracting national attention to the music genre. Information and sound clips of early recordings may be found on the Arhoolie (El Cuarteto Coculense, n.d.) and Alliance for California Traditional Arts (n.d.) websites listed in the reference section at the end of this article. A picture of El Cuarto Coculense from their record jacket appears on the Arhoolie site.

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Mariachi performances in Mexico City in the 1920s commanded media attention within Mexico. Movies, radio, and recording companies promoted the popular nationalistic music in the 1930s. Pride in Mexican culture was personified in the mariachi groups and their music, and they became known as the musical symbol of Mexico. The traditional music transferred to the United States when many Mexicans crossed the border to find work in the United States.

Mariachi in the United States Following World War II, immigration became a factor in the demand for mariachi music. Mariachi musicians provided the immigrants with a focus for their Mexican culture and with appropriate music for social events. The growth of the Hispanic population, particularly in the southwest, encouraged the development of nationalistic music to perpetuate the culture of Mexico within the United States (Sheehy, 1997). Attention from the media in both Mexico and the United States promoted the standardization of instrumentation and musical style of the mariachis. Instrumentation was broadened to include a wider variety of instruments. Addition of a trumpet in the 1930s had made the mariachi sound even more colorful, and the trumpet had become standard by the 1940s. By the 1950s, two trumpets were included (San Miguel, 2002, p. 27). The entertainment media in Mexico City during the 1930s had endorsed the mariachi as the central figure of national music. Movies, recordings and public appearances in the 1930s had elevated the status of mariachi music. Spanish-language films crossed the border and entertained Hispanics in the United States. In the 1930s, the mass media in the United States ensured the position of the mariachis as the symbol of Mexican pride and culture. Movies from the 1930s showed the mariachis in their elegant charro costumes, providing a visual representation of Mexico to the American public. Mariachis became important commercially because of their appearances in the entertainment media.

Women in mariachi Inclusion of women in the rural Mexican mariachi groups was not socially acceptable. The cantina, a kind of lower-class tavern, was a performance context for the mariachi, and women were not allowed in the cantinas. The migration of mariachis to the city allowed changes in the performance sites, and women were no longer excluded from this genre of music. Sobrino (1998) has found documentation of an all-female mariachi group, the Mariachi Las Coronelas, that performed in the mid-1940s in Mexico City. Two more all-female groups, the Mariachi Las Adelitas and the Mariachi Michoacano, performed in Mexico City in the 1950s. All-female mariachi groups have become more common in the United States. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Chicano (Mexican-American) Movement and the Women’s Movement encouraged the participation of women in mariachi performance. Teaching mariachi in the schools not only has aided the incorporation of Hispanic women in mariachi, but inclusion of non-Hispanic women as well (Sobrino, 1998). In the United States, the mariachis were not relegated to the cantinas and found acceptance in many venues, thus helping to open the way for women to participate in the music. The increasing demands of women for equal treatment made the gender barrier in music groups less tolerable. Women vocalists became common owing to the wide range of performance sites, and also because their presence was commercially promoted by other forms of Mexican music such as the orquesta, an instrumental group resembling a small

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orchestra. Acceptance of women as instrumentalists was more difficult to achieve within the male-dominated mariachi groups (Jáquez, 2002, pp. 175–176).

Affirmation of Mexican culture Because of Spanish being the second most common language in the United States, an audience for the mariachis already existed, and the transition across the border was readily accepted. Mexican immigrants in the southwest were eager to enjoy music that brought the sounds and sights of their home country. Aptly suited to perform in traditional celebrations, the mariachis provided the emotional music that was desired by immigrants to make them feel at home in the United States. The Chicano Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, a cultural affirmation by Mexican Americans, brought further reinforcement of the status of the mariachi as the symbol of Mexican nationalism. Mexican Americans born in the United States could easily recognize their roots through the mariachi musicians. The folkloric dancing revived during the 1960s also sometimes featured mariachis. Although assimilating into the American culture and becoming more Americanized, the Chicanos found that one way of retaining their ethnic unity was through maintaining traditional music for their celebrations with family and friends.

Museums preserve Mexican musical traditions Several museums have been established for the purpose of preserving Mexican cultural traditions in music. In Los Angeles, the Chicano Studies Research Center has its own mariachi museum. Other museums in the southwest feature Mexican music, such as the Tejano Museum in Alice, Texas, and the Narciso Martinez Cultural Arts Center in San Benito, Texas. Exhibits depicting the career of the Mariachi Vargas are housed in a museum in Tecalitian, Mexico (Burr, 2002).

Educating the new generation of mariachis Mariachi conferences are held annually in Arizona, New Mexico, California and Texas. Workshops are presented, and young musicians receive instruction from older, experienced musicians. The purpose of conferences is to transmit the mariachi tradition to the next generation. Well-known singers such as Linda Ronstadt and Vikki Carr have participated in conferences to share their expertise. Conferences include not just workshops, but activities such as fiestas, mariachi masses and concerts. Keeping children interested in the Mexican culture is a goal of the conferences (Mackey, 1996). Well-known mariachi groups influence the younger generation of Mexican Americans. Jose Hernandez, founder of Mariachi Sol de Mexico in Los Angeles, raises money for the Mariachi Heritage Society, a group that teaches mariachi music to young people (MartinezAvila, 1997, p. 28). The Mariachi Vargas, based in Mexico, is celebrating its 100-year anniversary and performs some of its concerts to raise funds for educational programs.

Mariachi music in the schools Younger Mexican Americans are learning mariachi music in their schools. Traditionally handed down and learned by apprentices in Mexico, mariachi music in the United States is being included in the curriculum of both secondary schools and universities. Since the Hispanic population has assimilated into the diverse United States culture, the schools, particularly in the southwest, transmit mariachi music to the next generation.

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According to Ballard and Benevidez (2002), ‘a school mariachi program is likely to bring many students into the school music program who might not have been drawn to more traditional music ensembles’. Ballard, in San Diego, California, believes that participation in music helps lower the drop-out rate. Usually, the mariachis are students not involved in traditional music programs such as orchestra, band and choir. Ballard gives detailed information on starting a mariachi group. He discusses instruments, repertoire and charro uniforms, and lists sources for them. He recommends strategies for teaching members of the group. He also lists upcoming conferences that deal with mariachi music. Ballard is one of many teachers working to include the mariachi tradition in schools and in the lives of young people.

Benefits of participation in mariachi Some teachers view mariachi music as a vocational skill, enabling students to earn money when they leave school. Their students become mariachi teachers. In Austin, Texas, Ezekiel Castro teaches mariachi music in high school. One of his graduates teaches a mariachi program in Roma, Texas (Bryce, 1996). Zehr (2003, pp. 14–17) describes the work of some mariachi programs. She discusses a mariachi band in the state of Washington, primarily for migrants, started by Mark Fogelquist. Parents were enthusiastic about the band and very proud of their children’s performances. Fogelquist then went to San Diego County, California, because he was recruited to teach mariachi there. This program involves about 600 students in the district and is viewed as a deterrent to student drop-out. It was modeled after the San Antonio mariachi program begun by Belle A. Ortiz in 1970. Zehr (2003, pp. 14–17), referring to Ballard, states that rather than drawing students away from other music programs, the mariachi programs tend to involve students who otherwise would not participate in music. The cost of the programs is relatively high, since the number of students is small. Sometimes there can be resentment from other departments because of the cost, and because many of the mariachi teachers are not certified teachers. It is notable that teaching mariachi and playing in mariachi groups is not limited to Hispanic males, the original composition of mariachi groups in Mexico. The introduction of mariachi music into the diverse culture of the United States has brought down not just the gender barrier, by encouraging the participation of women, but the ethnic barrier as well. Although the tradition of the mariachis in the United States is intended to keep Mexican cultural roots intact, the diversity of the country has made it possible to incorporate people into the mariachi who probably would not be included in Mexico. Because the schools in the United States are teaching the mariachi tradition, the door has opened for anyone interested in participating.

Elementary students experience mariachi Music teachers have even incorporated mariachi son, a Mexican song or tune with alternating rhythms of 3/4 and 6/8, into lesson plans to acquaint students in the elementary music classroom with this musical form. The students pretend to play along with the music (Campbell, 1995). Elementary school children can become acquainted with mariachi music by singing traditional mariachi songs or watching videos of mariachi performances. Hispanic children will probably be familiar with mariachis because these much-admired groups provide musical entertainment at social events in the Hispanic community. Teachers can arrange for older mariachi students to bring their instruments to the

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elementary music classroom to demonstrate their skills and interest younger children in mariachi performance. Elementary school children can be invited to sing with high school mariachis and appear on stage with them.

Learning to play mariachi instruments Some middle schools, including grades 6–8 (age approximately 11–14 years), are offering beginning guitar classes to provide training in the necessary skills (Perry, 2004). At the middle-school level, children who will play the violins and trumpets in mariachi groups are just beginning to learn to play these instruments. Because a certain amount of expertise is necessary to play mariachi music, student groups usually are not formed until high school.

Mariachi groups in high school At the high-school level, some schools give credit in fine arts for the course, while other schools give half credit or none at all. Apparently, lack of course credit does not deter those students who want to become mariachis. Students usually meet after school for several hours a week and rehearse for regularly scheduled performances. Concerts of mariachi music customarily feature solo singers who are instrumentalists from within the group. If the high school has a folkloric dance program, the mariachis occasionally accompany the traditional Mexican dances. Since coordination of the two entities requires a great deal of time and work, usually the mariachis do not accompany dance, and the dancers use recorded music.

Mariachi in the universities The status of the mariachi as a symbol of Mexico in the United States is evident not only in the secondary schools, but in universities as well. Some universities have established mariachi programs. Dr. Dahlia Guerra created a mariachi program in 1989 at the University of Texas-Pan American in Edinburg, Texas. Guerra (2003) believes that ‘mariachi music provides discipline in all their [the students’] studies’. She states, ‘In addition to maintaining a required grade point average, they must have a proficiency of their instruments, singing ability, dedication, and love of mariachi music, of course.’ Similar programs are in place in Arizona, New Mexico, and California. In 1972, a mariachi program was formed in New Mexico Highlands University by five students, later adding more students, some of whom were Anglos. After graduation, many of these students started mariachi groups throughout New Mexico. The New Mexico Highlands University mariachi program was one of the first of its kind in the United States. Since 1997, the University of New Mexico has also had its own mariachi ensemble (Watkins & Leger, 1998). Dr. Serafin Zasuesta, president of Southwestern College in Chula Vista, California, brought Jeff Nevin to California to develop an associate’s degree program in mariachi music. Dr. Zasuesta wanted to ‘send a message’ that mariachi is an important musical genre (Ristine, 1999, p. 17). Perhaps other colleges and universities may follow his lead and offer a major in mariachi music. See the appendix at the end of the article for a list of mariachi teaching resources.

Mariachi performances The economy of the United States has facilitated commercialism of the music, but mariachis continue to function as a musical focus in various celebrations of Mexican-American social

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Figure 1 The University of Texas-Pan American Mariachi performing in Tampico, Mexico, with the Orquesta de la Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Hidalgo, March 2004. © Dr. Dahlia Guerra, Chair of Music and Director of the UTPA Mariachi. Reproduced with permission.

life. Wedding receptions, birthday parties, Mother’s Day observances, Catholic masses, funerals and quincieneras are events that are accompanied by mariachi music. A quincienera, the celebration of a girl’s 15th birthday, may feature mariachis playing at the church for the Catholic mass or for the party afterwards. Some restaurants now provide steady work for mariachis, in contrast to the earlier pay-by-the-song type of employment. Stage performances by both local and touring groups are now common in many cities, especially in the Southwest. Loza (1993, pp. 87, 277) describes performance contexts in Los Angeles where mariachis perform in various restaurants and nightclubs that cater to Mexican Americans. Some play for tips at small restaurants, while some perform on a regular basis at major hotels. Others are based at a single restaurant that attracts tourists. House parties for wealthy people provide employment opportunities for mariachis. When performing for wealthy Anglo audiences, the mariachis may find themselves in quite a different situation from when they perform for Hispanic audiences. Anglo audiences may use the mariachis as a display. The spectacle of the charro costumes and instruments provide entertainment for the Anglos, but has no cultural significance for them. The same group of mariachis performing for an Hispanic audience will receive a much more emotional response owing to the cultural communication between the performers and the audience.

Clark Mariachi music as a symbol of Mexican culture 235

Conclusion The role of the mariachi as a symbol of Mexican culture is likely to remain virtually unchallenged by other types of Mexican music. Combining music with a visual presentation assures the mariachi its distinctive status. Charro uniforms and standardized instrumentation produce an immediately recognizable ensemble. This is perhaps the most compelling reason the mariachi stands out as the musical icon of Mexican nationalism. No longer limited to Mexico or the southwest United States, the mariachi tradition has become well known in the United States. Various Internet websites provide global access to information about mariachis. Originating from traditional celebrations in rural Mexico, mariachi music, loved by the Mexican people, has successfully crossed the border and established itself as a symbol of Mexican culture in the United States. The growing Hispanic population and the use of Spanish as the second most popular language in the United States seem to ensure that mariachi music will continue to become more important throughout the country as well as in the southwestern United States. Establishment of mariachi programs in the schools indicates that ethnic music occupies an increasingly significant role in music education.

Implications for teachers Embedded in educational curricula emphasizing academic subjects that are tested by the state, teachers of music seem to take a back seat in the field of education, but the relevance of music in the lives of our students cannot be overestimated. Music teachers can encourage all students to take pride in their cultural heritage. Participation in meaningful musical performances can be a powerful incentive for kids to come to school. The reason mariachi programs exist in the schools is because the kids want them. The extensive development of mariachi programs in the United States can serve as a model for music educators in other regions to encourage and promote the use of traditional music in the music curriculum.

Appendix: resources for teaching Mariachi Songs appropriate for elementary school children: ‘Las Mañanitas’ ‘La Cucaracha’ ‘Cielito Lindo’

‘De Colores’ ‘La Bamba’ ‘Las Golondrinas’

Anderson, M. W. (1991). Teaching music with a multicultural approach (pp. 66–67, 71, 74–75, 79–82). Reston, VA: MENC. Ballard, K., & Benevidez, C. (2002). Mariachi. Teaching Music, 9(4). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from Academic Search Premier database (10697446).

This article provides information about costumes, instruments, repertoire and strategies for teaching a mariachi group. Harpole, P., & Fogelquist, M. (1989). Los mariachis! An introduction to Mexican mariachi music [audiotape]. Danbury, CT: World Music Press.

A booklet accompanies the tape and provides instructions for its use. Willoughby, D.(1999). The world of music (4th ed.) (pp. 159–161, 167–168). Dubuque, IA: Mcgraw-Hill.

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Websites www.elmariachi.com www.sobrino.net These sites provide information on the history of mariachi tradition, educational videos and audios, pictures of performing groups, sound clips, and sheet music for arrangements of mariachi music.

References Alliance for California Traditional Arts. (n.d.). Retrieved 20 July 2005 from www.actaonline.org/archives/reviews/plan_dela_villa.htm Alonso, S. (2003). Arpa de mariachi. Whittier, CA: Mariachi Publishing Company. Retrieved 16 November 2003 from www.sobrino.net/mer Anderson, M. W. (1991). Teaching music with a multicultural approach. Reston, VA: MENC. Ballard, K., & Benevidez, C. (2002). Mariachi. Teaching Music, 9(4). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from web13.epnet.com/citation.asp (10697446). Bryce, R. (1996). Forget the macarena: Texas high schools do the mariachi. Christian Science Monitor, 88(221). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from web13.epnet.com/citation.asp (08827729). Burr, R. (2002). Academia, civic groups work to preserve music’s heritage. Billboard, 112(35). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from web13.epnet.com/citation.asp (00062510). Campbell, P. S. (1995). Lesson plan for a mariachi ‘son’. Music Educators Journal, 82(2). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from web13.epnet.com/citation.asp (00274321). El Cuarteto Coculense. (n.d.) Retrieved 2005 from www.arhoolie.com/titles/7036.shtml Guerra, D. (2003) Program notes: Mariachi Vargas concert, 5 October 2003, Civic Center, McAllen, Texas. Harpole, P., & Fogelquist, M. (1989). Los mariachis! An introduction to Mexican mariachi music [audio tape]. Danbury, CT: World Music Press. Jáquez, C. (2002). Meeting la cantante through verse, song, and performance. In N. E. Cantú & O. NájeraRamirez (Eds.), Chicana traditions: Continuity and change (pp. 167–182). Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press. Loza, S. (1993). Barrio rhythm. Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press. Mackey, C. (1996). Mucho mariachi. Americas, 48(1). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from web13.epnet.com/citation.asp (03790940). Martinez-Avila, C. (1997). Marvelous mariachi. Hispanic, 10(11). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from web13.epnet.com/citation.asp (08983097). Peña, M. (1999). Musica Tejana. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University. Perry, R. (2004). Mariachi education in Texas. Retrieved 5 February 2005 from www.governor.state.tx.us/divisions/music/education/mariachi.htm Ristine, J. (1999). San Diego college program develops mariachi professionals. Community College Week, 11(23). Retrieved 19 September 2003 from web13.epnet.com/citation.asp (10415726). San Miguel, Jr., G. (2002). Tejano proud Tex-Mex music in the twentieth century. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. Sheehy, D. (1997). Mexican mariachi music: Made in the U.S.A. In K. Lornell & A. K. Rasmussen (Eds.), Music of multicultural America. (pp. 131–154). Belmont, CA: Shirmer, Wadsworth Group/Thompson Learning. Simonett, H. (2001). Banda Mexican musical life across borders. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Sobrino, L. (1998). A look at the history of women in mariachi music. Retrieved 23 November 2003 from www.sobrino.net/mpc/womenmariachi/alook.html Watkins, S., & Leger, J. K. (1998). Mariachi in New Mexico public schools. Retrieved 1 November 2003 from www.nmhu.edu/faculty/homepages/jklhompg/p-schools.htm Willoughby, D. (1999). The world of music (4th ed.). Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill. Zehr, M. A. (2003). Mariachi’s encore. Teacher Magazine, 14(7). Retrieved 31 August 2003 from www.epnet.com/academic/acasearchprem.asp (9797679).

Sylvia Clark is a graduate student in music at the University of Texas-Pan American in Edinburg, Texas. Her undergraduate degree is in music history from the University of

Clark Mariachi music as a symbol of Mexican culture 237

Illinois. She is certified in both literary and music braille and works as a braillist for the McAllen Independent School District, McAllen, Texas. She is harpist with the McAllen Symphonic Band and plays for weddings and other social events. As part of her repertoire, she plays much of the same Mexican music that is performed by the mariachi ensembles. Emigrating from Illinois in 1981, she is not a member of a mariachi group, but has observed many of the mariachi groups who perform in South Texas and the impressive development of mariachi programs in the schools, which began in the Rio Grande Valley in the 1980s. She has published two articles in the American Harp Journal: ‘Using the Harp in the Concert Band’ (winter 2003) and ‘Benjamin Britten: A Ceremony of Carols, There is no Rose’ (summer 2004, Teachers’ Forum). The present article, ‘Mariachi music as a symbol of Mexican culture in the United States’, was written for an assignment in a graduate music history course titled ‘Hispanic Music of the Southwest’, taught by visiting professor, Dr. Manuel Peña. Address: Cathey Middle School, 1800 N. Cynthia, McAllen, TX 78501, USA. [email:[email protected]]

Abstracts Mariachi Musik als Zeichen Mexikanischer Kultur in den Vereinigten Staaten Der Beitrag folgt der Entwicklung der Mariachi Musik von ihrem ländlichen Ursprung bei kulturellen Feiern in Mexiko bis zu ihrer derzeitigen Stellung in der amerikanischen Musikerziehung. Als wesentlicher Faktor bei traditionellen Festen trat Mariachi Musik vornehmlich zur musikalischen Präsentation mexikanischen Nationalismus in Erscheinung, was erhalten blieb und vertieft wurde, als die Mexikaner in die Vereinigten Staaten übersiedelten. Die Einbeziehung der Mariachi Musikpflege in das Musikcurriculum stellt eine ununterbrochene Musikvermittlung sicher, die lebenswichtig für die Identität der Hispanischen Bevölkerung ist. Musiklehrer können Kinder dazu anleiten, die Tradition ihres eigenen kulturellen Erbes zu erkunden wie das von anderen Ländern. Die Teilhabe an der für sie bedeutsamen Musikkultur kann den Schülern helfen, Nationalstolz zu entwickeln und so eine wichtige Basis ihrer Erziehung zu legen.

La música mariachi como símbolo de la cultura mexicana en los Estados Unidos La intención de este estudio fue seguir el desarrollo de la música mariachi desde sus orígenes en las celebraciones de las culturas rurales en México hasta su posición contemporánea en la educación musical. Factor dominante en las ceremonias tradicionales, la música mariachi emergió como la principal representación musical del nacionalismo mexicano en México, una representación mantenida y elaborada por los mexicanos que emigraron a los Estados Unidos. La incorporación de la enseñanza del mariachi al currículo escolar garantiza la transmisión continuada de una música que es vital para la identidad de la población hispana. Los profesores de música pueden alentar a los niños a explorar las tradiciones musicales de su propio patrimonio cultural, así como las de otros países. La participación en audiciones musicales significativas puede ayudar a los alumnos a sentirse orgullosos de sí mismos, agregando una poderosa dimensión a su educación.