Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
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30 November 2009 to 30 November 2011
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The number of temporary agency workers (TAW) has increased over recent years
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Introduction
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both in the USA and in Europe and the majority of organizations are now faced with
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having to manage employees with this status. In Portugal, the country in which the
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project was completed, temporary agency employment has proved to be such a
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growing phenomenon that the number of TAW doubled from 1998 to 2008 and
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penetration rates increased from 0.6% to 0.9% (CIETT, 2011). For these workers the
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agency is the employer and the temp must be given a written “labor contract” but their
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work is carried out in another organization, the client company. In this country the
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duration of the contract can vary and may be renewed but may not exceed a maximum
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of two years. When a mission with a client company has ended the agency can place
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the worker with another client, however, when this is not possible, workers become
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unemployed with no entitlement to social security benefits. At the same time, by law, workers are expected to be treated equally at the client organization as far as working
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hours and protection against accidents at work are concerned.
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Temporary agency work is associated with more flexibility, lower labor costs, and
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less HR manager (and company) responsibilities since temp agencies appear to reduce
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the time that has to be invested in recruitment and rewards (Torka, 2004). One important question is to ascertain whether these short-term benefits for organizations using TAW may bring the risk of long-term costs, namely poor worker attitudes, wellbeing and behaviors that compromise their effectiveness (Forde and Slater, 2006). However, the results of research comparing temporary and permanent workers have proven inconclusive and shown that attitudes, behaviors or well-being of TAW are
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
not inevitably worse than those exhibited by permanent workers (for example see De Cuyper, De Jong, De Witte, Isaksson, Rigotti, and Schalk, 2008). One of the aspects
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exchange relationship (Blau, 1964) involving unspecified obligations in which there
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depend on the employment relationship they develop. When TAW developed a social
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that had contributed to such an inconsistency of findings is that TAW responses
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are favors that create diffuse future obligations they respond with reciprocity
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(Gouldner, 1960), i.e. they considered that beneficial actions aimed by organizations
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creates the obligations for them to reciprocate in positive, beneficial ways. Several
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authors have demonstrated that when TAW develop a social exchange relationship
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they reciprocate with very positive responses, namely satisfaction, affective
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commitment and organizational citizenship behaviors (Chambel and Castanheira, 2007; Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2002; Van Dyne and Ang, 2004). However, it is
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necessary to work on refining the social exchange theory to include variables that
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would allow for a more effective application to TAW (Gallagher and Connelly,
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2008). Indeed, what is perceived by TAW as a beneficial action received from the
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organization is whatever meets their needs and motivations.
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Our objective, in this project was to investigate different variables that may
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contribute to the understanding of the TAW employment relationship and whether
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this variable plays a crucial role in explaining their answers. This project goes beyond
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previous research on TAW in different ways. At a theoretical level, this project show
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that: (1) The system of HRM has an important relationship with TAW employment relationship, namely psychological contract and leader-member exchange; (2) The social exchange employment relationship of TAW relates positively with their affective commitment and well-being, and contributes to explain the relationship between HRM system and workers’ attitudes; (3) The motives of TAW are important
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
to explain their attitudes and well-being – TAW that desire a direct contract with client company are those that show higher affective commitment and engagement and
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relationship are not independent but positively relate; (5) Training as promoted the
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agency that contract them and with the client company where they work – and this
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lower burnout; (4) TAW developed a double employment relationship – with the
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employability is an important action that relates positively with a social exchange
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employment relationship of TAW; (6) HRM practices relate with the perception of
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work positive events and when the experience of these events is combined with
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savouring strategies, TAW exhibit higher levels of well-being. At an applied level,
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this project produces very innovative results: to introduce the HR system to managers
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and human resources managers, which will enable them to develop a positive employment relationship with the TAW. This will subsequently lead these workers to
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display appropriate attitudes, behavior and well-being; to contribute to the
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accomplishment of equal-treatment principles (Commission of the European
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temporary workers.
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Communities, 2002), with a view to putting an end to discrimination against
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Measurement tools
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We collected scales already used in Portugal, we translated and adapted scales used
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in other countries, we constructed scales for specific purposes adapted to the
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Portuguese culture and context. These included: Interview scripts – We developed a script of interview for client and agency human resource manager to collect information about the motives of contract TAW, their job conditions and characteristics, the relationship between these two companies and the responsibility of each in the management of TAW .
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
Human Resource Management Practices – We build a scale based on Takeuchi, Lepak, Wang and Takeuchi (2007) and Zacharatos, Barling, and Iverson (2005)
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unfamiliar items, and also examined whether it covered the most important aspects of
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with TAW experience read the questionnaire and checked for ambiguous or
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scales. Human Resource Managers from temporary agencies and from companies
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human resource management practices. Our scale included five HRM practices (1)
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performance appraisal (2) integration and socialization, (3) training that promotes
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internal employability, (4) training that promotes external employability and (5)
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rewards. Each practice was measure by the participants' responses to four items on a
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scale of a five-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
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Highest scores in each of the practices indicate that workers perceive each of these practices in a more favorable manner.
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Human Resource Management Attributions - We used an adaptation of Nishii, Lepak,
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and Schneider (2008) HR attributions scale. To assess Commitment-focused HR
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Attributions we relied on these authors’ idea that HR practices that are interpreted as
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reflecting a quality HR strategy and a concern with employee well-being are part of a
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commitment-focused strategy (e.g., “This company makes the hiring choices that it
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does in order to help employees deliver quality service to customers”). To assess
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Control-focused HR Attributions we analyze if these practices are interpreted as being
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part of a cost-reduction strategy and are seen as a way of exploiting employees (e.g.
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“This company uses the performance appraisal system that it does to try to keep costs down”). For each of these HR practices, four statements (two for commitmentfocused and two for control-focused) were presented concerning the perceived organizational intentions behind these human resource practices – training,
performance appraisal, rewards and hiring choices. Items were measured on a five-
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
point scale, ranging from ‘Strongly Disagree’ (1) to ‘Strongly Agree’ (5). In the studies carry out in the project we obtained acceptable construct validity and
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motives and desires for accepting a temporary employment (De Cuyper and De Witte,
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Desires of Temporary Agency Workers - Based on the literature that included TAW
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reliability of this measure.
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2008; De Jong, De Cuyper, De Witte, Silla, and Bernhard-Oettel, 2009) we developed
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8 items to assess desires of TAW, 4 to assess the desire to acquire a direct contract
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with client organization and 4 to assess the desire to maintain a temporary contract
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with this agency. Each item has answer on a scale of a five-point Likert scale from 1
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(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Highest scores in each dimension indicate
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highest desire.
Psychological Contract – This construct was measured by the response to 32 items
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based on a Portuguese translation of the Rousseau scale (2000), which was already
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used in previous studies (Chambel and Alcover, 2011; Chambel and Oliveira-Cruz,
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2010). The scale adopted a multidimensional concept and included the balanced,
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relational and transactional dimensions of psychological contract. The subscale of
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balanced psychological contract included fourteen items (“Provide developmental
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opportunities within this firm for me”), the subscale of relational psychological
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contract included eleven items (“Concern for my personal welfare”) and the subscale
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of transactional psychological contract included seven items (“Employment for a
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specific or limited time”). First, the respondent was asked whether a specific promise was made (no/yes). This was the measure for the content of psychological contract. Second, if a promise was perceived to have been made, then the respondent was asked to evaluate on a 5- point Likert scale the extent to which the promise had been kept 1 (the organization does not fulfil that obligation at all) to 5 (the organization fulfils
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
that obligation to a great extent). This was the measure for the perceived fulfillment of the psychological contract.
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Portuguese and then a translator was asked to translate the Portuguese version back
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the Scandura and Graen (1984) measure. First, the scale was translated into
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Leader-member Exchange (LMX) – This construct was measure with a translation of
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into English (Brislin, 1980). After performing a pre-test, in which we applied the
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instrument to 6 TAW, we selected 6 items (e.g. “I know my supervisor will take the
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initiative to help me if I really need”) since the remaining one item (“I have enough
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confidence in my supervisor that I would defend and justify his or her decisions if he
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or she were not present to do so”) of the original scale was considered unsuitable for
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these workers. In the study carry out in the project we obtained acceptable construct validity and reliability of this measure.
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Perceived Organizational Support (POS) –We used a translation of the short version
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of the scale developed by Eisenberger, Huntingon, Hutchison, and Sowa (1986),
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which included 17 items and was used by Eisenberger, Fasolo, and Davis-LaMastro
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(1990). An example of one item was: “The (organization name) really cares about my
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well-being”. First, the scale was translated into Portuguese and then a translator was
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asked to translate the Portuguese version back into English (Brislin, 1980). Items were
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scored on a seven-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 7= strongly agree). High
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scores indicate high levels of POS.
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Affective Commitment. Affective commitment was measured using Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993). Six items were measured on a seven-point scale, ranging from ‘Strongly Disagree’ (1) to ‘Strongly Agree’ (7). An example item included ‘I feel a strong sense of belonging to (organization name)’. High scores indicate high levels of affective commitment. First, the scale was translated into Portuguese and then a
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
translator was asked to translate the Portuguese version back into English (Brislin, 1980). In the studies carry out in the project we obtained acceptable construct validity
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Chambel and Castanheira scale (2007) that measures general satisfaction with the
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General satisfaction. Satisfaction was assessed by a four-item scale adapted from
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and reliability of this measure.
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organization. An example of an item is ‘In general, I like working here’. Respondents
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answered on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from ‘Disagree’ (1) to ‘Agree’ (5).
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High scores on this scale indicate high levels of satisfaction.
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Burnout. This construct was assessed with the Portuguese version (Marques Pinto,
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2000) of the Maslach Burnout Inventory–General Survey (MBI-GS; Schaufeli, Leiter,
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Maslach, and Jackson, 1996). We selected the two core dimensions: Emotional Exhaustion (five items: e.g., “I feel used up at the end of a work day”) and Cynicism
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(five items: e.g., “I doubt the significance of my work”). All items were scored on a
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7-point frequency rating scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always). High scores on
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Emotional Exhaustion and on Cynicism are indicative of burnout.
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Engagement. This construct was assessed using the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale
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(UWES, Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, and Bakker, 2002), which was already
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used in previous Portuguese studies (Chambel, in press 2012; Chambel & Oliveira-
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Cruz, 2010; Salanova, Lorente, Chambel and Martinez, 2011). We selected the two
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core dimensions of engagement: Vigor (six items: e.g., “When I get up in the
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morning, I feel like going to work”) and Dedication (five items: e.g., “I am enthusiastic about my job”). The engagement items are similarly scored as those of the MBI-GS. Performance - We measured performance using an adaptation of the Williams and Anderson scale (1991), which was already used in previous studies (Chambel and
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
Alcover, 2011; Chambel and Castanheira, 2006, 2007). The measure contained six items with responses on a 1–5 scale ranging from ‘Almost Never’ to ‘Almost
him/her”.
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Savoring - This construct was assessed with the Portuguese version (Meneses dos
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Always’. An example of an item is “He/she carries out the tasks that are given to
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Santos Carvalho, and Marques Pinto, 2008) of the Ways of Savoring Checklist
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(WOSC) (Bryant and Veroff, 2007). We selected six out of the ten subscales of the
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WOSC, which are more suitable to assess savoring responses to positive events in the
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work context: sharing with others (e.g “I looked for other people to share it with”),
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memory-building (e.g “I tried to memorize my surroundings”), self-congratulation
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(e.g “I told myself how proud I was”), comparing (e.g “I compared myself to others and asked myself “Am I enjoying this as much as they are?”), temporal awareness
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(e.g “I reminded myself that it would be over before I knew it”) and counting
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blessings (e.g “I said a prayer of thanks for my good fortune”). Items are rated on a 7-
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point Likert-type response scale (from 1 – “definitely doesn’t apply” to 7 – “definitely
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applies”). Higher scores on each scale indicate greater use of the savoring strategy.
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The double relationship in Temporary Agency Workers
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In this task of our project we focused on a particularly relevant issue for temporary
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agency workers, namely the fact that they have a double employment relationship.
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TAWs simultaneously relate to the agency, with which they have a formal contract, and to the client, at whose premises they work (Coyle-Shapiro and Morrow, 2006; Liden, Wayne, Kraimer, and Sparrowe, 2003). Our goal was to assess different ways in which TAWs are managed by their agencies and by their client organizations. We focused on the management roles of these two organizations, which can be graded
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
within a continuum that goes from a double detachment to a real HR investment strategy coming from a true partnership between agency and client. We aimed to find
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Three studies had been conducted in this task.
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In the first study we gathered a sample of 158 outsourced workers from the
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information technologies sector1. We explored IT outsourced workers’ double
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employment relationship and anticipated that the attitudes that an employee has
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towards both organizations may be influenced by the attributions that employees
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make about the reasons behind the human resource (HR) management practices implemented by the outsourcing company. In this study we addressed (for the first
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time in contingent work research) the concept of HR attributions (Nishii, Lepak and
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Schneider, 2008), which encompasses the idea is that employee’s perceptions of the
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reasons why an organization adopts certain HR practices are related to their affective
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organizational commitment. Nishii et al. (2008) differentiate internal HR attributions
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based on whether they connote positive or negative implications for employees, with
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the expectation that the underlying valence of these attributions will dictate their
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relationship with employees’ attitudinal responses. In line with social exchange
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principles, commitment-focused HR attributions (ie service quality and employee
then likely to engender a felt obligation to reciprocate in positive and beneficial ways
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well-being HR attributions) connote positive consequences for employees, who are
1
Although there are some IT companies using TAWs with the goal of facing market oscillations, our access was denied, meaning that we could not perform any study with this sub-group. As such, we focused on highly skilled workers not as temporary agency workers, but as outsourced workers. However, like TAW these workers establish a double employment relationship: with the outsourcer and with the client companies.
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employment relationship.
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client organization, presents a considerably positive influence on this TAWs double
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out how human resources management (HRM) carried out by both the agency and the
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
(Torka, Looise, and Van Riemsdijk, 2005). In this study we hypothesized that commitment-focused HR attributions are positively and control-focused HR (ie cost
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commitment to the outsourcing company (which is the company that implements the
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related to the affective commitment to the client organization, through the affective
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reduction and exploiting employees HR attributions) attributions are negatively
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practices we are focusing on: recruitment and selection, training and performance
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appraisal). Data analysis showed that our hypotheses were supported. We found that
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commitment-focused HR attributions are positively and control-focused HR
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attributions negatively associated with affective organizational commitment to the
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outsourcing company. We furthermore established that there is a positive relationship
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between affective commitment to the IT outsourcing company and affective commitment to the client organization. Affective commitment to the outsourcing
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company mediates the relationships between commitment-focused and control-
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focused HR practices and affective commitment to the client organization.
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In the second study, we focused on temporary agency workers with lower skills,
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who cover the needs resulting from productive oscillations. We assessed the double
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commitment of temporary agency workers in five companies (a Call Center and four
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companies in the industrial sector). We presupposed that a favorable interpretation of
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the HR management system implemented by the client company is directly related to
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the development of an affective commitment towards it. When the client implements
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HR management, the affective commitment to this organization will have an impact on the commitment to the agency. This relationship will be reversed when the agency implements HR management (ie. from commitment to the agency to commitment to the client) (Coyle-Shapiro and Morrow, 2006; Lapalme, Simard, and Tremblay.,
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
2011)2. As expected, our results showed that a favorable interpretation of HR management practices implemented by the client organization is significantly related
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practices implemented by the client organization are positive, s/he will develop a
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the affective commitment to the client organization. If a TAW perceives that the HR
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to the affective commitment to the agency: this positive relationship is mediated by
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strong commitment to this company. However, since the agency is the one
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responsible for placing the TAW at that particular client, employees will also
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reciprocate to this company by establishing a strong affective commitment to it as
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well.
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In the third study we researched the topic of the double employment relationships
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of low skilled temporary agency workers and contrasted it with the double employment relationships of low skilled outsourced workers. Both groups of
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employees have double employment relationships, but the way they are managed is
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substantially different. Outsourced workers are managed by the outsourcing company
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(having direct supervision from this company, which has an active role in the HR
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practices implementation), whereas TAWs are mainly managed by the client
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organization (management by the agency is limited to recruitment, selection, pay
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rolling and contract renewal and client has an active role in the other HR practice
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implementation). Similarly to our first study, we focus on the construct of HR
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attributions (in this case, solely on attributions that encompass a concern with service
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quality and employee well-being: commitment-focused HR attributions) (Nishii, et al., 2008). We expect3 that in the case of outsource workers, because the outsourcing
company has a more intense role on managing them, their HR attributions will first 2
Also verified in our first study in this task: outsourcing company was responsible from HR practices and is the first in the employment relationship. 3 Data for our study is still being analyzed, meaning that no definite results are presented at this moment.
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
related with the commitment to the outsourcing company and afterwards the commitment to the client organization where work is performed (Lapalme et al.,
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to the outsourcer. Additionally, this commitment to the client organization would lead
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and affective commitment to the client organization may be mediated by commitment
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2011). This means that the relationship between commitment-focused HR attributions
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to high performance levels (Riketta, 2002, 2008). In contrast, with TAW we expect an
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employment relationship where the managing role of the contractor (agency) is not so
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prevalent, because the most HR practices are implemented by the client organization
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where the TAW is placed at the moment. This means that, in this case, the primary
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form of commitment would be established with the client organization (Connelly,
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Gallagher, and Gilley, 2007). Thus, the positive relationship between commitmentfocused HR attributions and affective commitment to the agency would be mediated
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by affective commitment to the client organization. The affective commitment to the
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agency would then relate with employee performance at the client’s site.
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The facilitating role of HRM with temporary workers4
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The aim of this task is to understand which human resource management practices
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(HRM) contribute to the similarity of performance, job satisfaction and well-being
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levels among temporary and permanent workers, and whether the employment
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relationship (i.e. psychological contract and leader-member exchange) mediates the
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relationship of these practices on these workers’ answers. We assumed that workers have a tendency to feel and behave like others, when they perceived similarity of work conditions and HRM. We considered that workers developed a social exchange
4
When this project was planned this task will only develop with industrial workers. However after, we verified that it also is possible to analyze contact centers workers. Thus we overcame our objectives and conduct the studies included in this task with both contact centre and industrial workers.
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Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
relationship and exchange positive outcomes not only with inducements received by these HRM but also with the expectation of prospective inducements that will emerge
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effect of organizational practices on employees’ attitudes and performance.
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Six studies had been conducted in this task.
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In the first study our aim was to compare TAW and permanent workers on the
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relationship between HR practices and affective commitment toward the company
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and the mediator role of psychological contract fulfillment in this relationship. We
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considered that workers interpret organizational actions, such as HRM practices, as indicative of the personified organization's commitment towards them, and
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reciprocate their perceptions accordingly in their own commitment toward the
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organization (Whitener, 2001). Moreover, HRM not only captures a worker's
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perception of organizational treatment but also evokes an evaluation of the
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discrepancy between what is promised and what is fulfilled. In the presence of
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inducements provided by HRM, workers may become less vigilant in monitoring the
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extent to which the organization is fulfilling its obligations included in the
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psychological contract (Coyle-Shapiro and Conway, 2005). Indeed, in this study
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psychological contract fulfillment was considered a mechanism for operating within
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the social exchange relationships (Aggarwal and Bhargava, 2009). The argument was that favorable outcomes stemmed from high-quality social exchange relationships not only because of the content of such relationships, but also because when workers evaluated the fulfillment of organization promises, their responses to these evaluations differed on the basis of their overall social exchange relationship quality.
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workers’ relationship with their leaders is the proximal variable that mediates the
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leaders work as proxies for organization relationship and therefore expect that
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from the fulfillment of promises made by the organization. Moreover, we assume that
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
Fulfillment cognitions might be most prevalent in high-quality social exchange relationships (Dulac, Coyle-Shapiro, Henderson, and Wayne, 2008). Thus, this study
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relations among this system and workers’ commitment. The sample included 2362
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psychological contract fulfillment, and this fulfillment partially accounts for the
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anticipates that the system of HRM is positively related to perceptions of
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workers (885 temporary agency and 1477 permanents) from 5 different companies (2
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contact-center and 3 industries) and the data were analyzed with SEM, namely
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multiple group analyze. We confirmed that the system of HRM related positively with
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the workers’ affective commitment and the organization psychological contract
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fulfillment partially mediated this relationship. We also verified that these results
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were similar for temporary and permanent workers. However, these relationships were significantly lower for temporary workers when compared with these
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relationships for permanents workers. This may occurred because temporary workers
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answers may depend from other variables.
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With the goal of understanding if this model explain not only the affective
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commitment of temporary workers but also their well-being, we conduct a second
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study with a similar model of the first but where we included TAW burnout and
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engagement. We analyzed the same sample of temporary workers (N= 885). Job
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demands and job resources had been considered important variables to explain
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workers well-being. Job situations with high demands and low resources promote
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high strain like burnout and job situations with high demands and high resources promote high well-being like engagement (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). The system of HRM may made high resources to workers perform their tasks and contributed to low burnout and high engagement (Schaufeli and Salanova, 2007). As far as temporary workers are concerned, there is an additional reason for these relationships.
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Maria José Chambel
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TAW have high levels of insecurity regarding future employment and this demand increases the risks of poor well-being (McLean Parks, Kidder and Gallagher 1998;
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consequence it could reduce workers’ strain and increase engagement (Berntson and
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workers with a sense of being able to cope with potential hazards, and as a
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Sverke, Gallagher and Hellgren, 2000). The system of HRM provides temporary
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Marklund, 2007). As predicted by the Job Demand-Control (JDC) model (Karasek,
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1989) one might expect this feeling of control over the work situation to alleviate the
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strain experienced by temporary workers and increase the motivation to perform it
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(Schreurs, Emmerik, Notelaers and De Witte, 2010). In keeping with these ideas, we
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considered that HRM to be related with the lower burnout and higher engagement of
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TAW. On the other hand, psychological contract fulfillment/breach has been found to be associated with not only workers’ affective commitment but also with workers’
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well-being (Chambel and Oliveira-Cruz, 2010; Conway and Briner, 2002; Gakovic
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and Tetrick, 2003; Parzefall and Hakanen, 2010). In this study psychological contract
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fulfillment was considered a mechanism for operating within the relationship among
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HRM and temporary workers’ burnout and engagement.
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Nevertheless, the majority of temporary agency workers wish to acquire a
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permanent contract (CIETT, 2011) and they may see temporary work as a transitional
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solution that helps them to find permanent employment at the hiring-in client
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organization (Feldman, Doerpinghaus and Turnley, 1994; Torka and Schyns, 2007).
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These desires and perceptions can be related to their commitment since by wishing to acquire a permanent status, these temporary agency workers show a strong affective liaison with this organization. In doing so, temporary workers seem to be balancing future benefits from the client organization with their inducements and concurrently maximizing the realization of future benefits from this organization, namely a direct
15
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
long-term contract (Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler, 2002). Furthermore, this desire can also be related to temporary agency workers’ well-being. Temporary workers display
1
09
analyzing the relationship between HRM and temporary workers’ commitment and
-2 01
a permanent status in that organization (De Cuyper and De Witte, 2008). Thus,
—
lower burnout and higher engagement, in order to improve the likelihood of acquiring
t-
20
well-being implies controlling the effect of this desire. The hypotheses were tested
or
using structural equation modeling (SEM) and to control for potential confounding
R
ep
effects, desire to have a direct contract with the client and sector were introduced in
iti
es
the model as observed variables. The hypotheses were supported. The system of
tiv
HRM was positively related to workers’ affective commitment and engagement and
ev ct
Ac
negatively to workers’ exhaustion. Psychological contract fulfillment partially mediated these relationships.
Pr
oj
The third study of this task compared the employment relationship of temporary
—
and permanent workers within the same company of electronics in Portugal. We
Ph
d)
analyze the relationship of HRM each practice and the affective commitment of
be l(
workers and the mediation of this relationship by psychological contract fulfillment.
m
The results show that regardless of the type of the contract the perception of human
C
ha
resource practices related to the perception of psychological contract fulfillment by
sé
the company. Additionally and according to the norm of reciprocity, we verified that
ia
Jo
when workers thought the company was fulfilling its obligations they responded
—
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ar
favorably showing more affective commitment towards the company. However, we found differences between these two groups of workers: for the permanent performance appraisal, training and rewards were Human Resources practices that were significantly related to psychological contract fulfillment, while for the temporary ones there weren’t any specific practices that had a significant relationship
16
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
with that variable. The fourth study developed in this task analyzed the relationship between the
1
09
analyze the desire to acquire a direct contract with client organization and the desire
-2 01
sample of 605 temporary agency workers (2 contact-centers and 4 industries) we
—
desires of temporary workers and their affective commitment and well-being. With a
t-
20
to maintain a temporary contract with this agency (voluntariness). As expect, the
or
majority of TAW desire a direct contract with the client organization. However, about
R
ep
half also say do not mind continuing to be temporary. These two options do not seem
iti
es
to be mutually exclusive and workers can develop different patterns that conjugate
tiv
these two desires (De Jong, et al., 2009). In order to identify the patterns, a cluster
ev ct
Ac
analysis was carried out with the two variables for the total sample. We obtained 3 patterns: pattern 2, characterized by high voluntariness and high desire to have a
Pr
oj
direct contract with client organization, included 319 TAW (52,7% of the total);
—
pattern 1 that included 141 (23.3%) workers was also characterized by high desire to
Ph
d)
have a direct contract with the client organization, but a low voluntariness; pattern 3
be l(
included low voluntariness and low desire to have a direct contract with client. This
m
pattern included 145 TAW (24%). The self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci,
C
ha
2000) considers that when people are motivated because they value an activity, have
sé
more interest, vitality, and general well-being. Thus, we expected that when
ia
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temporary work is an option that satisfies workers’ goals, they show high motivation
—
©
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ar
and well-being. On the other hand, when temporary workers desire a permanent status, as we explained in study two, temporary work has an instrumentality value and workers also show a strong affective liaison with the client organization and positive well-being. We performed differential analyses (ANCOVAS) after control the effect of sector, age and gender of workers, and analyzed the relationship of the different
17
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
identified patterns and TAW affective commitment, burnout and engagement. As expected, when workers conjugated these two desires showed higher affective
1
09
direct contract with client and have low voluntariness presented identical
-2 01
or wanted to be temporary. However, contrary to what expected, TAW that desire a
—
commitment and well-being than workers who do not want to have a direct contract
t-
20
psychological states than TAW with these two desires and had higher results than
or
TAW with low desire to have a direct contract and low desire to maintain a temporary
R
ep
status. In general, these results showed that the desire to have a direct contract with
iti
es
the client organization as more important to predict TAW answers than the
tiv
voluntariness.
ev ct
Ac
In the fifth study, we compare the relationship between supervisor and organizational psychological contract fulfilment in the prediction of job satisfaction
Pr
oj
and organizational affective commitment among a sample of traditional (in-house)
—
and temporary agency workers. We considered that workers develop a psychological
Ph
d)
contract specific to different foci during his/her professional activity and believes that
be l(
the relationship is regulated by a set of mutual obligations (Marks, 2001; Shore, et al.,
m
2004). Specifically, temporary workers do not have a formal contract with the host
C
ha
organization and this multi-foci psychological contract reality, namely organization
sé
and supervisor, would appear to be more suitable (Marks, 2001). We expected that in-
ia
Jo
house workers’ attitudes relate independently from the fulfillment of psychological
—
©
—
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ar
contract by organization and by supervisor. In contrast, in temporary workers the relationship between the fulfilment of the organization’s psychological contract and outcomes can be explained by enhancement of fulfilment of the supervisor psychological contract. The study sample involved 215 in-house and 229 temporary call centre workers. Structural equation modelling (SEM) and in particular multiple
18
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
group analysis was used. Results indicated that supervisor psychological contract fulfilment explained the variance of workers’ attitudes over and above that explained
1
09
the supervisor psychological contract fulfilment partially mediated the relationship
-2 01
these relationships were different for temporary and permanent workers. For former,
—
by organizational psychological contract fulfilment. However, we confirmed that
t-
20
between organizational psychological contract fulfilment and workers’ attitudes. For
or
in-house their job satisfaction was only explained by the organization psychological
R
ep
contract fulfilment and affective commitment was independently explain by
iti
es
organizational and supervisor psychological fulfilment.
tiv
The sixth study was aimed at comparing temporary and permanent workers in
ev ct
Ac
manufacturing industry on the mediating effect of leader-member exchange (LMX) on the relationship between human resources management practices and work
Pr
oj
engagement. LMX introduces the question of whom the employees relate to in the
—
organization. First, leaders are the most proximal, and often unique, representatives of
Ph
d)
the organization that TAW get to know (Lewin, 1945). Second, leaders can provide
be l(
different kinds of inducements, economic and social alike. Thus, in exchange for
m
positional resources from a leader, a member commits himself or herself to higher
C
ha
degrees of involvement in the unit's functioning (Dansereau, Graen, and Haga, 1975).
sé
High-quality leader-member exchange has been found to be associated positively with
ia
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subordinate performance, commitment, and satisfaction and negatively with turnover
—
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ar
intention (Bauer, Erdogan, Liden, and Wayne, 2006; Gerstner and Day, 1997). The idea that more proximal foci mediate the effect that distal foci may have on employees attitudes (Lewin, 1945), led us to look for the mediating effect of LMX on the relationship between HR practices and work engagement, and to test for differences between temporary and permanent workers. The study sample involved
19
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
1096 line workers from 4 Portuguese companies from ceramics, food and electronic industries, of which 487 were temporary agency workers. We used Preacher and
1
09
practices predicted work engagement for both types of workers. In addition, as
-2 01
associated with the mediator. Results indicated that human resources management
—
Hayes (2008) procedure to estimate the magnitude of the specific indirect effects
t-
20
expected, LMX mediated this relationship for temporary workers but not for
or
permanent workers. Exchange with leader seems to be more rewarding for temporary
R
ep
worker than permanent ones. A possible explanation for this difference may be that
iti
es
temporary workers perceive team leaders as a stronger source of inducements,
tiv
therefore choosing them as preferred target for social exchange. Another reason for
ev ct
Ac
this difference may also lay in the fact that temporary workers don’t get to know any
Pr
oj
other representatives during their stay in the organization.
—
Employability development through training: Can it mitigate employment insecurity5?
Ph
d)
The main goal of this task was to understand the relationship of training on
be l(
workers’ attitudes and well-being. We believed that a higher perception of training
m
that promotes employability would be related to more positive attitudes and well-
C
ha
being (Forrier and Sels, 2003).
sé
Four studies had been conducted in this task.
ia
Jo
In the first study we considered that training entails a social exchange relationship
exchange the inducements received by this practice with a positive attitude, namely
—
©
—
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ar
(Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960; Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002), where workers
5
When this project was planned this task will only develop with contact centre workers. However after, we verified that it also is possible to analyze industrial workers. Thus we overcame our objectives and conduct the studies included in this task with both contact centre and industrial workers.
20
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
affective commitment toward the organization. Several studies have considered training as a critical practice in the promotion of emotional commitment of
1
09
(Nishii, et al., 2008). Workers respond positively to the training if they see that this
-2 01
motivations (Wright and Snell, 1991) and workers’ conceptions about this practice
—
employees, but it is necessary that the training investment takes into account workers’
t-
20
investment is done based on a genuine concern for their needs. In the specific reality
or
of TAW, their needs are related to the concern of finding a new job and to remain
R
ep
continuously active in the market (Kluytmans and Ott, 1999). As such, we believe
iti
es
that training courses that give temporary workers the opportunity to develop skills and
tiv
improve their performance by increasing their employability may be a vehicle to
ev ct
Ac
achieve their affective commitment toward the user company. Moreover a positive perception of this practice is also a way by which the workers can percept the
Pr
oj
organizational support, this is, the organization's commitment and investment in the
—
workers (Wayne, Shore,. and Liden, 1997). In fact the perception of organizational
Ph
d)
support (POS) has been seen has a variable that mediates what the organization gives
be l(
the employees and the feedback it gets of them. In theoretical terms, Rhoades,
m
Eisenberger and Armeli (2001) argued that perception of organizational support is a
C
ha
mediator between the company's practices and the affective commitment of
sé
employees. Thus, we assume that the POS mediates the relationship between training
ia
Jo
that promotes employability and TAW affective commitment. In this sense, a positive
—
©
—
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ar
evaluation of the training contributes to a positive perception of POS, which, in turn, relates positively with affective commitment. This study used a sample of 240 call centre employees. All of them were temporary agency workers at the same call centre, performed similar tasks and came from different agencies. They participated in training sessions to learn how to perform
21
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
their tasks and deal with the equipment and also had some behavioral and attitudinal procedures in the relationship with the client (Russell, 2008). The number of training
1
09
that when TAW perceive training as promoting their employability, they report higher
-2 01
higher competence levels, the worker received longer training. Our results showed
—
hours depends on the product and process complexity, and whenever they involved
t-
20
affective commitment toward the organization. This is very important in the call
or
centers’ context since service customization and quality advocate the importance of
R
ep
the quality of employee-customer interaction, which can only be assured by high
iti
es
worker commitment (Batt, 2002; Holman, 2005). As expected, we also verified that
tiv
training is related to the employment relationship of temporary workers. In line with
ev ct
Ac
Koh and Yer (2000) we found that it was possible for the organization to create a mutual investment relationship with temporary workers: the organization invested in
Pr
oj
training and the employee responded with a social emotional relationship. However,
—
we found that the relationship between training and temporary workers’ affective
Ph
d)
commitment is only partially mediated by POS. These result indicated that training
be l(
was either directly related to this attitude or to another mediator which was not
m
accounted for in this study.
C
ha
In the second study included in this task we wished to demonstrate that the
sé
existence of social exchange within the employment relationship of TAW did not
ia
Jo
occur only in response to the present moment. We believed that the TAW
—
©
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ar
psychological states were also based on expectations in the future and these in turn are guided according to the interpretation that the workers made of the company obligations (Hannah & Iverson, 2004). That is, in addition to the formulations made by Blau (1964) and Gouldner (1960), the relationship of social exchange assumes the existence of an agreement, either tacit or explicit, between employer and employee
22
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
about the role each should play in the course their relation - the psychological contract (Rousseau, 1995). In fact, workers react to the actions of organizations based on their
1
09
opportunities for fulfillment of the obligations included in the psychological contract.
-2 01
needs, but also on their interpretations of whether it provides them with the
—
interpretations of whether they provide them with the inducement that satisfies their
t-
20
As through training TAW have the opportunities to develop their skills and improve
or
their behaviors, these actions will be positively related to the perception that the
R
ep
organization is fulfilling or over-fulfilling its obligations of providing development
iti
es
job opportunities, more challenging goals, and being concerned with workers’ well-
tiv
being (Suazo, Martínez, and Sandoval, 2009). Training can also be related to the over-
ev ct
Ac
fulfillment of organizational obligations of employment security and stability. In fact, the main motive behind choosing temporary employment is to find a permanent job,
Pr
oj
as these workers see temporary employment as a transitory stage leading to
—
permanent employment (CIETT, 2010; De Cuyper, and De Witte, 2008). So, this
Ph
d)
over-fulfillment of employment security and stability obligations provided by training
be l(
may also contribute to the perceptions of fulfillment or over-fulfillment of the
m
organization’s obligations to address workers’ goals and well being. This perception
C
ha
of obligation fulfillment on the part of the organization entails positive responses
sé
from workers as currency to reciprocate the benevolent treatment received (Shore et
—
©
—
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ar
ia
Jo
al., 2004; Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski, and Bravo, 2008). The hypotheses were tested in a sample of 393 blue-collar TAW from four
Portuguese industries. We verify that training was positively associated with affective commitment, and negatively with exhaustion. Moreover, we found that psychological contract fulfillment partially mediates the relationship between training and these workers’ psychological states. As expected, training relates to TAW psychological
23
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
states through two separate processes: direct - the exchange between inducements received by training; indirect- through the expectation of prospective inducements
Shapiro and Morrow, 2006; Dulac et al., 2008).
09
In the third study of this task our aim it is also to analyze psychological contract
-2 01
1
—
that will emerge from the fulfillment of promises made by the organization (Coyle-
t-
20
fulfillment as a mechanism through which training affects stress in call centres. The
or
hypotheses were tested on a sample of four hundred and twelve call centre operators,
R
ep
using structural equation modeling. As expect, our results demonstrated that training
iti
es
is negatively related to workers’ exhaustion and that the relationship is fully mediated
tiv
by the fulfillment of socio-emotional obligations. We found that it was the fulfillment
ev ct
Ac
of balanced obligations, and not relational obligations that mediated the relationship between training and exhaustion. Hence, we verified that training was related to lower
Pr
oj
levels of employee exhaustion through fulfillment of the balanced psychological
—
contract. Our findings highlight the centrality of psychological contract fulfillment to
Ph
d)
call centre workers, and the importance of training in constructing positive
be l(
employment relationships with workers.
m
The last study done in the context of the task number five, we distinguished TAW
C
ha
perceptions about the training that promotes internal and that promotes external
sé
employability. Till now, in the three previous studies, we looked at training and
ia
Jo
employability in a global sense, however Benson (2006) showed that training can
—
©
—
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ar
promote employability in an internal (training more focused on developing specific skills to the current position of the employee and to the actual company's business) or in an external way (training more focused on the development of generic and transferable skills). The favorable responses of temporary workers depends on the actions that companies have that can satisfy their needs (Koene and Van Riemsdijk,
24
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
2005), and because their needs are most of all connected with the assurance of being employment in a near future (Cuyper and De Witte, 2008), we considered that the
benefit, to which TAW respond with positive psychological states.
09
This study included a sample of 425 TAW from four Portuguese industrial
-2 01
1
—
training that promotes internal or external employability will always be seen as an
t-
20
companies. First our findings suggested like it was expected, that perception of
or
training that promoted internal employability entailed a social exchange relationship
R
ep
of temporary workers, in which they answered to that positive action with their
iti
es
affective commitment. Furthermore temporary workers that considered that
tiv
organization invest more in this action also were those with lower exhaustion. More
ev ct
Ac
interesting, our findings suggested that temporary workers’ exhaustion was a mechanism that contributed to explain this social exchange, because it partially
Pr
oj
mediated the relation between this to variables. However, and contrary to what was
—
expect, our findings showed that the perception of training that provided temporary
Ph
d)
workers with broadly marketable skills did not contribute to promote affective
be l(
commitment toward organization. This result is consistent with Benson’s study (2006)
m
that verified that actions of tuition-reimbursement facilitated the exit of employees,
C
ha
but our research analyzes TAW and this result can be more significant because the
sé
importance of having skills that can be used in another company may be more
ia
Jo
relevant to these workers. We believe that this may have occurred due to the fact that
—
©
—
M
ar
TAW also have an employment relationship with the agency, i.e. the organization that contract them (Liden, et al., 2003; Lapalme, et al., 2011). We can consider that the
perception related to training as a promoter of employment opportunities in another organization can be related with commitment toward the agency, the organization that will have a role in a reassignment. On the other hand, the workers’ reactions to
25
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
organization practices depend on what they consider to be the underlying intentions of the organizations to implement such practices (Nishii, et al., 2008). These temporary
1
09
but simply due to the fact that the competences acquired were transferable to other
-2 01
their external employability, not because of an intention to meet the worker's needs,
—
workers may interpret client organizations having developed training that promotes
t-
20
organisations. These hypotheses require further research to verify the relationship of
or
training with both liaisons of temporary workers or to attributions by workers. Our
R
ep
results neither supported that training which promoted external employability can be
iti
es
an organizational practice that contributed to lower stress of temporary workers.
tiv
Although the perception of more opportunities of employment might decrease the
ev ct
Ac
employment insecurity inherent to temporary workers this was not related with their well-being. This may had occurred because insecurity may not be the most important
Pr
oj
demand of temporary workers because insecurity in this context is not grounded in
—
feelings of unpredictability (De Cuyper, De Witte, Kinnunen, & Natti, 2010).
Ph
d)
Training can reduce employee’s feelings of exhaustion because may equip employees
be l(
with skills and knowledge needed in work (Batt, 2002; Castanheira and Chambel,
m
2010). Thus, training that promotes internal employability is an organization action
C
ha
that contributes with skills and competences that aid workers to perform better their
sé
tasks and consequently related with less exhaustion. Contrary training that promotes
ia
Jo
external employability does not contribute with skills and competences useful in
further research to verify the relationship of training insecurity and knowledge in explains temporary workers’ strain.
—
©
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ar
actual functions and may not relate with workers strain. This hypothesis requires
Eustress, savoring and well-being of temporary workers
26
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
Occupational stress among temporary workers has been highlighted as an important topic of research (for review, see De Cuyper et al., 2008). Several studies
1
09
health. Nevertheless, empirical evidence on the predicted negative relationship
-2 01
more adverse job conditions and, therefore, exhibit poorer physical and psychological
—
have been conducted to test the assumption that temporary workers are exposed to
t-
20
between temporary employment and health is inconclusive (De Cuyper et al., 2008).
or
Moreover, most of these studies are grounded in the Work Stress Theory, with an
R
ep
exclusive focus on pathology. To overcome this acknowledged limitation, we
iti
es
developed this fourth set of studies and included positive variables, relations and
tiv
processes to study temporary workers’ well-being. More specifically, we were
ev ct
Ac
interested in studying which employment and job aspects temporary workers perceive as positive as well as workers’ eustress levels, namely professional engagement
Pr
oj
(Schaufeli and Salanova, 2007); we explored also workers’ savouring strategies
—
(Bryant and Veroff, 2007), used to appreciate and enhance eustress experiences,
Ph
d)
through the adaptation of the Portuguese version of Bryant and Veroff`s scale of
be l(
savouring strategies (Menezes and Marques-Pinto, 2008) to this employment context.
m
Finally, we aimed at understanding which different human resource practices are
C
ha
associated with these positive events in the working context. Our main purpose was to
sé
shed some light on how to develop HRM systems that enhance the probability of
ia
Jo
eustress experiences, the use of strategies to savour these positive experiences, and
—
©
—
M
ar
thus contribute to temporary workers’ feelings of engagement. Three studies had been conducted in this task. The first study sampled one hundred and twenty call centre workers from a Portuguese temporary work agency. These workers were asked to identify positive events they experienced during their work. Based on a content analysis, we were able
27
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
to match positive events into two main categories: One related to the experience of positive relationships (e.g. “daily meeting with peers”; “Christmas dinner”, “meeting
1
09
feedback”, “merit recognition”). This study drew our first attempt to categorize
-2 01
sessions”; “having been assigned new tasks with more responsibility”; “performance
—
new people”); and another category related to human resource practices (e.g. “training
t-
20
positive events in the temporary work context. These categories will be further tested
or
in future studies. In what concerns engagement levels, we established good levels of
R
ep
Vigour and Dedication, concluding that temporary workers exhibited positive
iti
es
indicators of well-being. As far as the adaptation of the savouring instrument is
tiv
concerned, we were able to identify the major strategies in our sample (with good
ev ct
Ac
psychometrics indicators), building a base-line framework for future studies. Moreover, we were able to establish significant relationships between positive events,
Pr
oj
savouring strategies and levels of engagement. We found that savouring strategies
—
(namely “comparing” and “self-congratulation”) were important moderators in the
Ph
d)
relationship between positive events and engagement. When workers experience
be l(
“positive events related to human resource practices” and savour these experiences
m
(through comparing and self-congratulation’s strategies), they tend to exhibit higher
C
ha
levels of engagement (vigour and dedication) when compared to those workers not
sé
using these savouring strategies. As expected, this study confirmed that human
ia
Jo
resource practices can elicit positive events, and, furthermore, when the experience of
—
©
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ar
these events is combined with savouring strategies, workers’ exhibit higher levels of well-being. The second and third studies sampled, respectively, four hundred and twelve call centre’s operators and their respective supervisors (one hundred and thirty two supervisors). These call centre workers were employed either in a temporary basis or
28
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
with a permanent contract. In call centres, supervisors are assigned to implement high-involvement strategies and keep workers’ aligned with call centre’s goals
1
09
challenges or social events to keep workers motivated. Therefore, supervisors are
-2 01
supervisors spend a great deal of time giving performance feedback, promoting work
—
(Castanheira and Chambel, 2010; Kinnie, Hutchinson, and Purcell, 2000). Hence,
t-
20
important organizational agents that can influence the way workers interpret and
or
make sense of their daily experiences. Our assumption was that these events promoted
R
ep
by supervisors could be important sources of positive events for both supervisors and
iti
es
operators. Furthermore, most of these savouring strategies (sharing, comparing, self-
tiv
congratulation or building memories) are the basis of several well-documented
ev ct
Ac
actions to promote employees’ involvement (participation, empowerment, discussion groups, and celebration of successes: Batt, 2002, 1999; Kinnie et al., 2000).
Pr
oj
Therefore, we believe that when supervisors implement positive events and,
—
simultaneously, develop strategies to savour these moments, both supervisors and
Ph
d)
operators will experience higher levels of well-being. Building on study one we were
be l(
interested in analysing supervisors’ perception of positive events, their levels of
m
engagement, and use of savouring strategies. We established that supervisors identify
C
ha
several types of positive events: “Being a trainer”; “Recognition from team
sé
members”; “Recognition from organization or clients”; “Improving workers’
ia
Jo
performance” and “Cohesion and affective relationships”. These categories can be
—
©
—
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ar
grouped into two major ones, similar to those found in study one (“the experience of positive relationships” and “positive events related to human resource practices”). Again, we found good levels of vigour and dedication among supervisors and we were able to confirm the internal consistency of savouring strategies’ instrument. Finally, results demonstrated that, as expected, savouring strategies (“self-
29
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
congratulation”; “comparing” and “building memories”) are associated with higher levels of engagement. Further statistical analyses are still ongoing. We want to
or
t-
20
intervening actions.
R
ep
Analysis and integration of results
iti
es
As planned in this task we developed specific written reports for each of the
tiv
organizations participating in our studies to explain the main results. The delivery of
ev ct
Ac
the report will be followed by a group meeting discussion of the organization’s weaknesses and strengths, main conclusions and practical implications.
Pr
oj
We also developed monthly team meetings with the goal to bring together all the
—
tasks and respectively results obtained. The agenda of each meeting was partner
Ph
d)
previously between members and after we wrote the respective summary.
be l(
In this task we had an initial meeting – January 2010 – with the project consultants
m
- Professor Bas Koene (Rotterdam School of Management, Netherlands) and
C
ha
Professor Nele De Cuyper (Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium) – to review the
sé
goals and the design of the project studies and developed a final meeting – November
ia
Jo
2011 - with Prof. Bas Koene for project evaluation6. The collaboration of these
—
M
ar
consultants there were also in a Co-Direction of a PhD thesis7 and two papers. With the objective of integration of project results we wrote a book that involve all the team members.
—
©
1
09
groups interviews with supervisors to debate main results and discuss possible
-2 01
operators’ levels of well-being. In the mean time, we have been conducting focus
—
analyse whether supervisors’ savouring strategies and levels of engagement influence
6
Contrary of the planned the consultant Professor Nele De Cuyper did not participate in this final meeting for personal reasons. 7 With Professor Nele de Cuyper.
30
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
Finally, we organized in November 2011: a workshop with leaders from temporary work agencies and human resources managers from different organizations working
t-
1
20
09
European academic and expert community.
-2 01
workshop with researchers and experts in this field to partner the project results with
—
with TAW to partner the project results with business community; an international
or
Conclusions
R
ep
This project demonstrated the importance of HRM practices to temporary
iti
es
workers’ attitudes and well-being. We established that the system of HRM was
tiv
related to a social employment exchange between temporary workers and the
ev ct
Ac
organization. Therefore, we found support that HRM practices is positively associated with affective commitment and engagement, and negatively with burnout. Moreover,
Pr
oj
we found that psychological contract fulfillment partially mediates the relationship
—
between HRM and workers’ psychological states. As expected, the system of HRM
Ph
d)
relates to workers’ psychological states through two separate processes: direct - the
be l(
exchange between inducements received by HRM practices; indirect- through the
m
expectation of prospective inducements that will emerge from the fulfillment of
C
ha
promises made by the organization (Dulac et al., 2008).
sé
This project also confirmed that the majority of temporary workers accept this
ia
Jo
type of contract because they see no other employment alternative and desire an
—
©
—
M
ar
opportunity to have a direct contract with the client company (CIETT, 2011). However, they also showed some voluntariness with their current employment status because it gives them greater flexibility, freedom and opportunity to develop skills and competences. These two options do not seem to be mutually exclusive and workers can develop different patterns that conjugate these two desires (De Jong et
31
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
al., 2009). However, we observed that the desire to have a direct contract with the client company related positively and negatively respectively with positive and
1
09
organization similar to that of core workers. In doing so, employees seem to be
-2 01
taken on as permanent workers and therefore established a relationship with the
—
negative psychological states. We considered that because these workers wished to be
t-
20
balancing future benefits from the client company with their inducements and
or
concurrently maximizing the realization of future benefits from it (Coyle-Shapiro and
R
ep
Kessler, 2002). So you might argue that temps are trying to signal to the client
iti
es
company that they would be good workers if they were made permanent (Chambel
tiv
and Castanheira, 2007).
ev ct
Ac
This project also confirmed that temporary workers establish a relationship with the organization through the relationship developed with the supervisor (Marks,
Pr
oj
2001). On the contrary, for permanent workers, our results showed that the
—
relationships between workers to both the organization and the supervisor were
Ph
d)
independent. The possible contact with other organizational agents and the possibility
be l(
of ongoing relationships probably contributed to such independent relationships.
m
Permanent workers directly reciprocated affective commitment on the part of the
C
ha
organization (e.g., the fulfilment of its obligations) with their positive psychological
sé
states. Contrary, temporary workers do not have a formal attachment to the
ia
Jo
organization where they work and, subsequently, the relationship is characterized as
—
©
—
M
ar
being more distant and the supervisor as matching the organization. The relationship with the supervisor might escalate in importance as a compensation for the loss of organizational relationship with the extended organization (Lewin, 1945). In this project we also replicated the results obtained by Nishii et al. (2008), by using now the HR attributions theory to assess the dual employment relationships of
32
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
contingent workers. We observed that commitment-focused HR attributions, ie interpreting HR practices as being motivated by a quality strategy and a concern with
1
09
interpretations of HR practices as being motivated by a cost-reduction strategy and an
-2 01
commitment. In contrast, control-focused HR attributions, which comprise
—
employee well-being, are positively associated with affective organizational
t-
20
intention of employee exploitation, showed a significant negative relationship with
or
affective organizational commitment.
R
ep
In the same vein, this project found support that more important than hours of
iti
es
training was the interpretations that temporary workers made about this practice.
tiv
When temporary workers considered that training enhances their employability,
ev ct
Ac
workers’ special needs (De Cuyper and De Witte, 2008) – they reciprocated this positive action with their affective commitment toward the organization (Gouldner,
Pr
oj
1960). This project also found that training was related to lower exhaustion among
—
temporary workers. Training promotes workers’ employability, which has long been
Ph
d)
recognized as an important resource to combat employment insecurity (Forrier and
be l(
Sels, 2003), hence being associated with lower strain (Xanthopoulou, Bakker,
m
Demerouti, and Schaufeli, 2007) and higher well-being (Batt, 2002).
C
ha
Our results also supported a positive relationship between affective commitment
sé
toward the client company and affective commitment toward the agency organization.
ia
Jo
These results are consistent with previous research on temporary agency workers
—
©
—
M
ar
(Connelly et al., 2007; Lapalme, et al., 2011). This allows us to conclude that,
although the two commitments are different, they are strongly related to one another, which adds an extra relevance to the adequate management of each of these attitudes. Limitations and future research This project has a number of limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, this
33
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
project has a cross-sectional design and it does not allow causal relationships to be established among the variables. However, the hypothesized relationships were based
1
09
method variance. Nevertheless, the research was focused on workers’ perceptions and
-2 01
reported data, which raises the question of results being contaminated by the common
—
on generally theoretical presupposes. Second, variables were assessed through self-
t-
20
reactions to their employment relationship and self-reported data seemed appropriate
or
in this case. Moreover, as referred to by Spector (2006), common method variance
R
ep
concerns associated with heavy reliance on self-reported data measurements may be
iti
es
overstated. Still, in order to minimize the impact of common method variance, the
tiv
statistic analysis followed several methodological and statistical recommendations of
ev ct
Ac
Podsakoff, MacKenzie and Podsakoff (2003). Third, the project samples were bluecollar workers and contact centre operators and the possibilities for generalization to
Pr
oj
other occupational groups needs to be demonstrated. However, these workers represent
—
sectors that employ a large percentage of temporary workers (CIETT, 2011). Fourth,
Ph
d)
also related to generalization, the data was only collected from organizations that used
be l(
TAW to increase flexibility and adjust the number of workers to the productivity
m
demands at any one time (Lautsch, 2002). However, the motive to use TAW is similar
C
ha
in other companies and the actions and treatment developed toward them is also
sé
common. Fifth, the majority of project studies only analyzed psychological states –
ia
Jo
affective commitment, burnout and engagement – and not performance, an also
—
©
—
M
ar
important outcome of temporary workers. However, these psychological states have been the most frequently studied and the most related to workers’ performance (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, and Topolnytsky, 2002; Riketta, 2002, 2008; Taris,
2006; Harter, Schmidt, and Hayes, 2002). Finally, temporary workers at organizations where this research was carried out had similar work conditions, treatment and
34
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
training opportunities as permanent workers and this condition may have been directly related to their psychological states (Torka and Schyns, 2010).
1
09
permit analyze causal relationship between variables. The analyze of different
-2 01
limited knowledge. Future researches projects should include longitudinal studies that
—
Temporary agency work is a complex reality about which we still have relatively
t-
20
pathways - different reassignments at the same or different clients, establishing a
or
permanent contract at the client or at the agency – will permit examine the extent to
R
ep
which the desires and opportunities that TAW have over time explain their well-
iti
es
being, attitudes and behaviours. On the other hand, it is important design studies to
tiv
replicate the findings reported in the actual project but among temporary agency
ev ct
Ac
workers with different conditions, namely not having the same work conditions, treatment and training opportunities as permanent workers or having high
Pr
oj
voluntariness about their status. Furthermore, the theoretical model that was tested in
—
this research should be enriched with the inclusion of different variables to enable a
Ph
d)
better explanation of the employment relationship and temporary workers’
be l(
psychological states. For example, we considered that temporary workers experience
m
stressful situations that are attenuated with HRM and, consequently, workers feel
C
ha
lower burnout and higher engagement. However we only analyze HR practices and it
sé
is possible that the stress felt by temporary workers cannot be attenuated by these
ia
Jo
practices. In fact work demands and resources may be relevant to explain temporary
—
©
—
M
ar
workers’ stress. Thus, future research should include work stress measures and control the possible effect of other demands and resources permitting further knowledge about the role of HRM to explain temporary agency workers’ stress. Moreover, HRM should only entail a social exchange relationship when it is perceived by workers as an organizational intention to satisfy their need or as a
35
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
support action signaling fair treatment. Future studies need also to include these variables to explain the responses of temporary agency workers. Finally, though we
t-
20
Practical Implications
or
This project has several implications for the daily management of temporary
R
ep
workers. First, based on results, it is possible to conclude that it is also possible for
iti
es
temporary workers to develop a social exchange employment relationship. Through a
tiv
system of HRM practices that include a good integration and socialization in
ev ct
Ac
organization, a clear and fair performance appraisal and training actions that promoted employability, organizations signal their support to TAW and they
Pr
oj
reciprocate with a positive attitude towards the organization and exhibit lower strain
—
and higher engagement. These outcomes have been pointed in the literature as
Ph
d)
priorities in the study of temporary workers and their employment relationships (De
be l(
Cuyper et al., 2008). This project shed more light onto this literature, demonstrating
m
the role of HRM regarding these outcomes. Research developed in different
C
ha
organizational contexts has shown that temporary workers have noticeably fewer
sé
opportunities for HRM practices (Aronsson, Gustafsson and Dallner, 2002; Feldman,
ia
Jo
Doerpinghaus and Turnley, 1994; Virtanen, Kivimäki, Virtanen, Elovainio and
©
—
M
ar
Vahtera, 2003). This study may contribute to changing this situation. Investment in
—
1
09
performance and OCBs should be analyzed in future research.
-2 01
analyzed in this project, relationships with other outcome variables such as task
—
could report some correlations that illustrate the meaning of the psychological states
HRM is good for both temporary workers and organizations, contributing to an effective employment relationship. The system of HR practices is fundamental for the management of temporary workers as it is related to higher levels of affective commitment and lower strain and higher engagement. Establishing and maintaining
36
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
these psychological states is vital to organizational effectiveness as it affects critical behaviors such as task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (Meyer
1
09
psychological contract. This is highly relevant since it is also through the fulfillment
-2 01
project results showed that HRM system is also associated with the fulfillment of
—
et al., 2003; Riketta, 2002, 2008; Taris, 2006; Harter, et al., 2002). Furthermore, this
t-
20
of psychological contract that HRM system contributes to workers’ positive
or
outcomes. One the other hand, we found that answers to HRM practices depend from
R
ep
the interpretations that TAW made about organization’s intentions. Managers can act
iti
es
on the communication of the HR practices (Guzzo and Noonan, 1994) so that
tiv
interpretations are more positive. Top managers and direct supervisors may influence
ev ct
Ac
HR attributions by adequately communicating the reasons behind HR practices when an employee enters the organization and by reinforcing those statements while the HR
Pr
oj
practices are being implemented. In particular, transmitting the ideas of preoccupation
—
with service quality and concern with worker employability and well-being, may lead
Ph
d)
to more positive answers. Furthermore, our results indicated that there is an
be l(
opportunity to influence workers’ answers in the context of temporary workers’
m
management by providing appropriate relationships with the supervisor. This
C
ha
proximal agent is regarded as the organization and the social exchange with the host
sé
organization occurs through his/her actions (Lewin, 1943). Finally, the results of our
ia
Jo
project showed for managers that TAW developed a double commitment, one toward
—
©
—
M
ar
agency and the other toward client organization. They should develop a HRM partnership to secure a good treatment of TAW: agency has a responsibility to choose a client organization that satisfies their needs; client has the responsibility to ensure a fair treatment (Lapalme et al., 2011). Finally, we believe this study has critical societal implications. Given the growth
37
Maria José Chambel
TAW PROJECT - 2009-2011
of the number of temporary workers, it is vital that equal-treatment between temporary and permanent workers is assured in organizations (Commission of the
t-
1
20
09
be a new avenue to putting an end to discrimination against temporary workers.
-2 01
positively associated with favorable outcomes; hence we believe this HR practice can
—
European Communities, 2002). Our results demonstrated that HRM system is
or
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