Exercise. Draw a phrase structure tree for the following phrase
the hungry alligator by the shop across the road
NP
Det
AdjP
N
PP P
NP
Adj
the hungry
alligator by
Det
N
the
shop
PP P
NP
across Det N the road
Formal
SYNTAX 2
Verb Phrases The simplest VP is a single lexical verb, where the verb must be intransitive. The cat disappeared
VP → V
Transitive verbs require a complement VP → V NP
John made the icecream
We can merge these two rules to cover both types
VP → V (NP)
More problematic are ditransitives which require two complements Mary sent her mother a letter
VP → V NP NP
Mary sent a letter to her mother
VP → V NP PP
Again, we can merge these rules with our earlier one to cover all types VP → V (NP)
NP PP
Our VP rule so far VP → V (NP)
NP PP
Consider the sentences:
He ate the chocolate cake He quickly ate the chocolate cake He ate quickly He ate the chocolate cake quickly
What does this tell us? (i) AdvPs are part of the VP and are always optional (ii) They can fill three different slots in it Our rule must be adjusted accordingly VP → (AdvP) V (AdvP) (NP)
NP (AdvP) PP
One last complication Here is a sentence, using a ditransitive verb, that obeys our rule We baked the cake for the party carefully V NP PP AdvP Note, however, we can replace the AdvP with a different, but equally optional, phrase that says something similar We baked the cake for the party with care V NP PP PP
Do we need to add another phrase to our rule?
In short no, but we need to modify one of them
One last complication Remember any adverb answers a wh- word
So do PPs occurring in the same place
where? when? how?
here yesterday carefully
etc.
where? at the house when? on Friday how? with care etc.
Thus they serve the same function. We baked the cake for the party We baked it We baked it
here at the house
yesterday on Friday
carefully with care
They both modify the verb. When they serve the same function, we group them together and call them ‘adverbials’
VP → (AdvP) V (AdvP) (NP)
NP (Adverbial) PP
Exercise: Draw VPs for
vanished suddenly
reads a book on Fridays
vanished suddenly VP V
AdvP
vanished
Adv suddenly
reads a book on Fridays VP V reads
NP det a
PP N
P
book on
NP N Fridays
So far, we have only considered phrase structure. We turn now to full sentences.
Finishing the tree: Sentences Notice sentences divide neatly into two large constituents NP VP The happy aardvark chewed the ants We baked the cake for the party The money in the vault disappeared Mary likes cake
We represent the basic structure of a sentence as S
NP We call these the
subject
VP &
predicate
of the sentence
Exercise: divide the following into subject and predicate
Ivan gave the files to Al. The alligator in the cage by the zookeeper’s house is unhappy The planning committee rejected the application. Incidentally, I sold your socks to the Art Gallery for a small fortune. The car crashed into the fence. The cats may well complain about the lack of food. He is eating the poisoned doughnut.
subject
predicate
Ivan gave the files to Al. The alligator in the cage by the zookeeper’s house is unhappy The planning committee rejected the application. Incidentally, I sold your socks to the Art Gallery for a small fortune. The car crashed into the fence. The cats may well complain about the lack of food. He is eating the poisoned doughnut.
Basic S-Structures The old alligator in the swamp likes his a new home
Sentence Subject
Predicate
The old alligator in the swamp
likes his new home
NP
VP
The girls read the books thoroughly S NP Det The
VP N girls
V read
NP det the
Our tree is almost complete.
N books
AdvP Adv thoroughly
Auxiliary verbs We have one more node to place on the tree He might leave the house
S NP
AUX
Pron he
might
VP V leave
NP Det
N
the
house
Note: The structure of the auxiliary node can be quite complex. We will only use it for auxiliary verbs
Draw tree diagrams for the following sentences
The cat ate the mouse
Some small rodents hid in a bin
THE COMPLEX VERB GROUP To capture the idea that an event is or may happen in the future, it is common in English to use a more complex verb group.
The complex verb group contains up to four auxiliaries.
We were reading She has been reading They may have been reading They may have been being visited
Each auxiliary has a different FUNCTION
All auxiliaries are optional and any combination is possible, e.g. We were reading
be + V
He has read
have + V
The has been reading
have + be + V
They may have been reading
modal + have + be + V
They may have been being visited
modal + have + be + be + V
Notice that the order is fixed , whatever the combination modal + have + be + V If there is NO modal in a complex verb group, tense is always marked on the first (leftmost) auxiliary
