TM

CultureGrams World Edition

2014

Libya

Libya's first inhabitants were tribes called Imazighen, meaning “free men.” Outsiders later came to call them Berbers, a term many people still use. During the seventh century BC, Phoenicians set up trading colonies in Libya. Three hundred years later, Greeks colonized the eastern coast. Then, in 146 BC, Romans defeated the Phoenicians and took control of Libya. The area was subsequently invaded and ruled by Germanic Vandal tribes (beginning in AD 429), the Byzantine Empire (AD 533), and Arabs (AD 640). Libya gradually became Arabized as thousands of Arabs settled there and absorbed or displaced the Imazighen. Muslim dynasties ruled until the 1500s, when the control of Libya passed between Spain, Malta, Barbary sea pirates, and finally the Ottoman Empire, which ruled from the mid-1500s to the early 1900s.      Colonization and Independence Beginning in the 1840s, members of the Islamic political Sanusi movement rose up against the Ottomans in North Africa. After defeating the Ottomans in 1911, Italy colonized Libya. At that point, the Sanusis began to fight the Italians. During World War II, Libya became a major battleground for the European powers, with Sanusi leader Muhammad Idris siding with Britain and the Allies. Upon defeat, Italy gave up control of Libya, which was briefly administered by the United Nations. When Libya gained full independence in 1951, Idris became king and remained friendly with Western nations. He held nearly all political power in the country.      Qaddafi Rule Oil was discovered in 1959. Libya went from being a poor agricultural country to a rich exporter of oil, and many Libyans wanted access to the new wealth. A group of junior

BACKGROUND Land and Climate Area (sq. mi.): 679,362 Area (sq. km.): 1,759,540 The fourth largest country in Africa, Libya covers an area larger than the U.S. states of Alaska and Minnesota combined and is smaller than Sudan. Stretching south from the Mediterranean Sea, Libya's rocky coast is bordered by a thin strip of farmable land and then by the vast Sahara Desert, which covers 90 percent of the country. The landscape includes beaches, sand dune–filled deserts, oases, rocky hills, and mountains. Historically, the country had three regions: Tripolitania in the northwest, Fezzan in the southwest, and Cyrenaica in the east. The regions were joined in 1935, but they are still sometimes referred to separately.      Near the coast, a Mediterranean climate provides warm summers, mild winters, and as much as 16 inches (41 centimeters) of rainfall per year. The rest of the country is much drier and hotter. Desert areas may receive only 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of annual rain, and temperatures there may reach 120°F (49°C) during the summer. There are no permanent rivers, only wadis (dry riverbeds) that fill with water when it rains. A huge engineering project called the Great Man-Made River channels water from underground aquifers in the south to the north to use for drinking, irrigation, and industry. History Early Rulers 1

TM

CultureGrams

Libya

military officers staged a coup in 1969. The group's leader, 27-year-old Muammar Qaddafi, began making changes immediately. Money from oil sales was used to build roads, hospitals, and schools. In addition, the agricultural sector grew and gave Libyans more access to food. Qaddafi came up with a governmental and economic system called Jamahiriya (nation ruled by the masses), which was meant to be an alternative to communism and capitalism. In theory, the system advocated a form of democracy, but in reality allowed Qaddafi full control.      Qaddafi exiled political opponents, shut down private newspapers, banned political parties, and replaced Sanusi clerics with his supporters. On separate occasions, Qaddafi tried but failed to merge Libya with Egypt, Tunisia, Syria, and Chad. He led Libya into military conflicts with Egypt (1977), Uganda (1979), and Chad (1983–87). Libya was defeated in each case, but not before creating regional instability. In 1989, Libya reconciled with the Arab world (Egypt in particular) and formed an economic union called the Arab Maghreb Union with Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Mauritania.      Meanwhile, Libya's relationship with Western nations deteriorated. In 1970, Qaddafi ordered the closure of U.S. and British military bases in Libya. He then offered support to militant groups such as the Palestinian Liberation Organization and the Irish Republican Army. U.S. and British diplomats were withdrawn in the early 1980s. In 1986, two U.S. soldiers were killed in a Libyan-ordered bombing of a nightclub in Germany. The United States responded by shelling Tripoli and other cities, killing dozens of Libyans. Then in 1988, Pan Am flight 103 was blown up over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing 270 people. When Qaddafi refused to hand over the two Libyan suspects for international trial, the United Nations imposed economic sanctions against Libya.      In 1999, Qaddafi moved to have Libya rejoin the international community. He allowed the bombing suspects to be tried, and in 2001, the trial ended with one guilty verdict and one acquittal. In August 2003, Libya agreed to compensate the families of the victims of Pan Am 103, after which the United Nations lifted its sanctions. In December that year, Libya announced it would abandon programs to develop weapons of mass destruction. The United States lifted its remaining sanctions in 2004 and restored full diplomatic ties in 2006.      2011 Revolution In February 2011, large-scale rebellions broke out, calling for Qaddafi to step down. Security forces attempted to put down the protests, sometimes with deadly violence. Widespread fighting broke out as rebels and government forces battled for territory. In March, the United Nations authorized military action to protect civilians from violence. Foreign forces disabled much of the military's weaponry and bases and established a no-fly zone over Libya. In May, the International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for Qaddafi on charges of crimes against humanity. By July, foreign governments had begun granting official recognition to the National Transitional Council established by anti-Qaddafi forces. Fighting continued between pro-Qaddafi

and rebel forces, forcing Qaddafi into hiding in August. Sirte, Qaddafi's hometown, remained the last stronghold for loyalist troops until October, when Qaddafi was captured and killed as he tried to escape the city. Qaddafi's death presented Libyans with the new task of laying the foundation for a new government.      Elections and Challenges On 7 July 2012, after more than 40 years of Qaddafi's one-man rule, Libyans participated in democratic legislative elections for the new General National Congress (GNC). The moderate National Forces Alliance, headed by former interim prime minister Mahmoud Jibril, won a parliamentary majority over the religiously conservative Muslim Brotherhood. The GNC elected Mohammed Magarief as the new interim president in August 2012 and Ali Zeidan as interim prime minister in October. Magarief resigned in June 2013 after a new law banning the participation of former members of Qaddafi's government was passed. Nouri Abusahmain, an ethnic Amazigh (Berber), succeeded Magarief as president.      Libya's stability continues to be undermined by social unrest and violent attacks like the 2012 terrorist attack on the U.S. consulate in Benghazi, which resulted in the deaths of U.S. Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens and three others. The government is tasked with improving Libya's current security situation and guiding the country toward upcoming elections for the Constituent Assembly, the body in charge of drafting the country's new constitution.      Recent Events and Trends • Prime minister's brief abduction: In October 2013, Libyan militiamen kidnapped Prime Minister Ali Zeidan and released him hours later after talks with Defense Ministry officials. During the 2011 revolution, Libya's militias fought to overthrow the Qaddafi regime. Today, some of those armed groups serve as the country's army and police, but the government has struggled to absorb many of Libya's militias.

THE PEOPLE Population Population: 6,002,347 Population Growth Rate: 4.85% Urban Population: 78% The most populous cities are Tripoli and Benghazi. About 97 percent of Libyans are of Arab ancestry; full-blooded Imazighen make up only a small minority. The Imazighen are tall and light-skinned, and they have their own language and customs. Though most have fully integrated into Libyan society, some small groups live in remote villages in the west. Tuaregs are another small group. These nomadic herders, who also have their own language, wear dark blue robes and migrate throughout North Africa. Because they are nomadic, some people consider them more African than Libyan. A large but unknown number of foreign workers have come to Libya from Egypt and Tunisia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East. There are also small groups of Greeks, Maltese, and Italians.

2

TM

CultureGrams

Libya

Language Arabic is the official language and is spoken by nearly everyone, but it may take various forms. For example, Libyans read the Qurʾan, school materials, and official documents in classical Arabic. However, in daily conversation they speak a Libyan dialect of Modern Standard Arabic, which is used throughout the Arab world in written communication. Imazighen speak Arabic and Tamazight. Tuaregs speak Arabic and Tamasheq. Second languages include English (most common), Italian, or French.

Personal Appearance How Libyans dress is a matter of personal preference, family influence, tradition, and location. For social events, people often wear traditional Libyan attire. On Fridays (the day devout Muslims go to the mosque to pray) and religious holidays, most people wear traditional attire. In cities, men and women often wear jeans and short-sleeved shirts at work or around town. Businessmen and civil servants may wear a suit and tie. Especially in rural areas, most women wear a long-sleeved blouse or jacket, floor-length skirt, and head scarf. In cooler weather, men and women may wear a long tunic (called a hawli). Hawlis are always white for men but may be any color for women. Older and rural men may wear the hawli with a vest and a cap, especially on Fridays. A few older, very conservative women may wear a white, sheet-like cover called a farashiya, which conceals the entire body, the head, and one eye. In rural areas, people tend to wear traditional clothing, and women nearly always wear a head scarf.

Religion Islam is Libya's official religion, and Sunni Muslims make up more than 97 percent of the population. Other Muslim groups include Sanusis, Ibadhis (members of a branch of Islam), Sufis (Muslims who seek mysticism and a direct experience of Allah), Sharifs (who claim to be descendants of Muhammad), and marabouts (holy men who are considered teachers and leaders). Although some of Libya's laws are based on the Qurʾan, Libya is more liberal than some Islamic states. For example, girls must receive education, and women may hold jobs and serve in the army.      Religion is a daily pursuit for Muslims. Like practicing Muslims everywhere, most Libyans pray five times a day, profess Allah as the only God and Muhammad as his prophet, help the poor, fast during the holy month of Ramadan, and make a pilgrimage to Makkah (Mecca), in Saudi Arabia, at least once in a lifetime. Friday is the Muslim day of worship, when a sermon is given at the mosque during the noon prayer. Women may go to the mosque, especially during Ramadan, but they usually worship at home. Mosques have separate areas for men and women to worship.

CUSTOMS AND COURTESIES Greetings Libyans consider failing to welcome someone unkind. Even when entering a room full of strangers, it would be rude not to give a general greeting. Al-salām ʿalaykum (peace be upon you) is a typical greeting, to which the response is Wa ʿalaykum al-salām (and upon you peace). Another common phrase is Kayf halak? (How are you?), to which the expected answer is Al-hamdu lillah, bahi (Praise to God, very well). Other greetings include Sabah al-khayr (Good morning) and Masaʾ al-khayr (Good evening). People part by saying Maʿ al-salāmah (Go in safety). When Libyans meet friends, they shake hands, and women might embrace. Men don't shake hands with women unless the woman initiates the gesture.

General Attitudes Libyans tend to value family and community more than individuality. They try to create unity by being hospitable and generous, even to strangers. For example, if a foreign visitor wanted an authentic Libyan meal, Libyans would go to great lengths to meet the request. Libyans are sensitive about how others view them, and they try to display high morals, maintain dignity, and keep promises. People value wealth and education but disapprove of showiness. Libyans view family background as an important part of one's identity and character. It is common to ask about a new person's family, especially their parents. Humor is appreciated, but some political jokes make people uneasy because of the repressive political climate.      Most Libyans have a relaxed sense of time and do not consider punctuality a necessity. Older generations and rural Libyans value clan and tribal traditions. Younger, urban Libyans have begun to embrace modern culture, music, and sports figures. Less technology is available in rural areas. Many people believe showing off or giving too much praise can bring the “evil eye,” or bad luck, so to ward it off, they may say Ma Shaʾ Allah (As God wills it), burn herbs, and read passages from the Qurʾan. Urban Libyans prize modern technology, such as satellite dishes, cell phones, and the internet. However, despite the growing use of technology, people prefer to meet in person to discuss important matters.

Gestures Libyans tend to gesture frequently during conversation, using hand movements for emphasis. For example, touching the tips of the fingers to the thumb can accentuate a point. Like Muslims everywhere, Libyans use their right hand to eat. Libyans do not usually need much personal space, and people stand relatively close to one another while speaking.      With the exception of shaking hands, it is improper for a man to touch a woman in public, even if she is his wife; however, women often hold hands with each other and men may greet close male friends with a kiss on the cheek. Many people consider it improper to smoke or use coarse language in front of older men. It is considered rude for a woman to spit or cross her legs at the knee rather than the ankle. Libyans are careful never to point the soles of their shoes toward another person, as this is considered offensive. For this reason, people do not rest their feet on furniture and are careful not to point the soles of their feet at others when sitting cross-legged. Visiting 3

TM

CultureGrams

Libya

Libyans see visiting as an important way to show respect and maintain relationships. So, they visit each other often, especially on weekends and holidays. In rural areas, events such as births or weddings might involve the entire community. Whole families may visit each other, but men and women spend most of their time in separate rooms (children may be with either group). Guests are often invited, but unexpected visits are also welcomed.      Upon entering the home, guests are offered tea or coffee and food. Though guests may initially refuse, hosts will persist in offering many times. It is polite to accept at least a small portion. It is unthinkable for hosts to ask guests to leave. Even when the guests stand up to go, the hosts will say it is too early to leave. Hosts usually accompany guests to the gate of the house and may offer them a ride.

Under Qaddafi, the Libyan government intervened dramatically in the housing market, generally to the benefit of some of the country's poorer citizens. The government devoted significant funds to building new apartment buildings in slum areas, and, in 1978, it confiscated the private property of numerous landlords, immediately making tenants the owners of the homes they had been living in. One of the nicest types of traditional Libyan home is a villa made of concrete and stones and surrounded by a wall low enough to climb over but high enough to provide privacy for the occupants. Dating and Marriage Libyans meet through relatives or friends, at college, or at work, but they do not usually date in the Western sense of the word. Instead, couples spend time together with family members or with a group of friends, escorted by chaperons. Even if young people meet in college, marriages are usually coordinated through their families. Today arranged marriages are less common than in the past. Young people now have more input than in the past. Potential couples are able to get to know one another, usually by speaking on the phone, and then decide if they would like to proceed with the marriage.      Traditional weddings are elaborate, lasting up to six days. Because of the time and expense involved in such an event, many modern Libyan weddings last from one to three days. Still, many customs have been retained, including signing a marriage contract; having families exchange gifts to demonstrate wealth and generosity; using henna dye to decorate the hands and feet of the bride and other females; and hosting large parties for both families. These parties often feature a great deal of food, music, dancing, and gifts. One-day weddings are most common in cities, where most of the wedding festivities take place in a hotel banquet room.

Eating Libyans begin and end meals by washing their hands. Breakfasts are light, and the main meal is lunch. An afternoon snack and tea may precede a light dinner. People also drink tea (usually green tea) with fresh mint after most meals. Families eat together whenever possible. Most Libyans sit on cushions around a low table or a tablecloth spread out on the floor; some use a full-size table and chairs. Utensils are usually used, but some dishes (such as stews) are eaten using bread as scoops. Mealtimes are usually filled with conversation, but some people in the older generation prefer to eat in silence. Although there are quite a few restaurants (especially fast food establishments), most people dine out only occasionally. Young people see fast food as a rare treat. When one does dine out, a service charge is often added to the bill.

LIFESTYLE

Life Cycle Libyan rituals are similar to those practiced in other Islamic nations. When a baby is born, the father kisses it and whispers the call to prayer in its ears. This ensures that the first words a baby hears is Allahu Akbar (God is great). When a woman returns from the hospital with her baby, she finds her close relatives waiting for her. As the mother and baby lie down together, family members sing and clap. The women make a distinctive sound, known as zagharid, which serves as an invitation for neighbors to join the festivities. Traditionally, the family held another gathering seven days after the birth to celebrate the infant living through the first week. As the infant mortality rate has dropped significantly in the last few generations, this celebration is now held any time between one week to a few months after the birth. Nearly all families hold these celebrations, particularly for the firstborn child.      When a person dies, the body is washed and wrapped in white linen. Passages from the Qurʾan are read aloud as family and friends mourn. The burial takes place as soon as possible, usually after the afternoon prayer (around 4 or 5 p.m.) on the day after the death. After the burial, family members of the deceased stand in a line and mourners come to shake hands and say a few words of support. For three days after the burial, the family home is open for people to stop by

Family The most important unit in society is the family. Children are expected to obey and respect their parents and elders. Even small children help with simple chores. Young people usually live at home until they marry. A young man may move away to work or study, but it is socially unacceptable for a young, unmarried woman to live on her own. Adult children expect to care for their elderly parents. There is a strong stigma associated with placing aging parents in a rest home. Most people find the idea distasteful and view rest homes as places for elderly people without families to take care of them.      Women are permitted to attend universities and to work; about 40 percent of urban women work outside the home in positions ranging from teachers to doctors. But even when women work in offices with men, there is still separation. For example, male and female teachers may have separate lounges where they can relax or grade papers. Inside the home, women are responsible for children and household chores. Rural men usually take care of farming and other physical labor, but women occasionally help with these tasks, too. Housing 4

TM

CultureGrams

Libya

and visit or sit with the family. These visits may last anywhere from 10 minutes to an entire evening.

Islamic holiday is Eid al-Fitr, a three-day celebration following the holy month of Ramadan, when Muslims fast from dawn to dusk. Eid al-Adha is a four-day holiday that celebrates the pilgrimage to Makkah. Also called the Feast of the Sacrifice, it honors Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son. Libyans also celebrate Islamic New Year and the Prophet's Birthday, for which many people light off fireworks.

Diet Breakfast often consists of bread with jam and butter, cheese and olives, and tea or coffee. Popular dishes at other meals include couscousi (couscous, a hot sauce, and meat), sharba libiya (“Libyan soup,” made of lamb and tomato stock, orzo pasta, chickpeas, cilantro, lemon, mint, and curry), couscousi bil-bosla (couscous with sautéed onions), makaruna mbakbaka (any pasta simmered in tomato and lamb stock with a mixture of spices), and hassa (gravy made of lamb, oil, crushed tomatoes, flour, and spices). Libyans enjoy various sweets, such as baklawa (a pastry filled with nuts and honey) and magrud (semolina cookies stuffed with dates and dipped in syrup). Fresh fruits and vegetables make up a large part of the diet, including dates, grapes, oranges, watermelon, potatoes, peas, and onions. Libyans generally avoid alcohol and pork because they are forbidden by Islamic and Libyan law. All meat must be halal, which means it is slaughtered according to Islamic tradition, including saying a prayer first.

SOCIETY Government Head of State: Interim Pres. Nouri Abusahmain Head of Government: Interim PM Ali Zeidan Capital: Tripoli In 2011, anti-Qaddafi rebel forces established the National Transitional Council (NTC), which held elections for the country's 200-member interim parliament, the General National Congress (GNC), in July 2012. The NTC was dissolved as the GNC assumed power following the elections. The GNC elected an interim president and prime minister, who serve as head of state and head of government, respectively. The GNC is also tasked with organizing elections for a new parliament, the Constituent Assembly, whose job will be to draft Libya's new and permanent constitution.      The 2012 parliamentary elections were generally considered free and fair. Members of the official national army were not allowed to run for office or vote. The voting age is 18.

Recreation Libyans enjoy visiting each other and watching movies at home. The most popular sport is soccer (football), but only men attend professional matches. Young men also enjoy volleyball and basketball. Men go to cafés and play games like chess, cards, and dominoes. Some Libyans watch chariot and horse races. Women usually spend their leisure time socializing. They pay visits, have tea parties, and shop together. Young men and women stroll separately through town in the evening. On weekends, families may have picnics, and in the summer they go to the beach to swim, fish, or relax.

Economy GDP (PPP) in billions: $87.91 GDP (PPP) per capita: $13,300

The Arts Traditional folk dances where men and women dance separately are associated with each region. Dancing and singing take place at most celebrations, family parties, tribal meetings, and Sufi ceremonies. Popular instruments are the ʿoud (lute), the zokra (similar to bagpipes), the darbuka (drum), and the al-nayy (bamboo pipe). In some cases, traditional sounds have been blended with European pop styles to create a unique type of Libyan music.      Poetry recitation is popular, and Libyan poetry often includes themes of nationalism, religion, and love. Traditional handicrafts, like making jewelry and weaving fabric for shawls or carpets, are still practiced today. Like other Muslims, Libyans avoid depicting people or animals in their art. Instead they use intricate patterns and elaborate calligraphy to decorate paintings and buildings.

Oil transformed Libya into one of Africa's wealthiest nations. Crude oil and refined petroleum products account for more than a third of the GDP. Libya also exports natural gas and fruits, vegetables, grains, and cattle. However, the country still imports about two-thirds of its food. Oil wealth is shared through a system of subsidies on gas and food.      The Libyan economy has also faced many challenges. For example, efforts to encourage employees to own their businesses largely failed because of mismanagement and corruption. The UN sanctions imposed on Libya were deeply damaging. Libya could not trade directly with Europe or the United States, so shortages in many goods occurred, inflation increased, and technology and infrastructure grew out of date. Many Libyans became bitter toward the nations that imposed the sanctions. The economy has improved since trade was normalized, but full recovery will take time. The economy, which has been controlled by the state, is gradually moving toward becoming more market-based and diversified, lessening dependence on oil revenues. The currency is the Libyan dinar (LYD).

Holidays National holidays include People's Authority Announcement (2 Mar.), Evacuation of British Troops (28 Mar.), Student Revolution Day (7 Apr.), and Evacuation of American Troops (11 June). Although these secular holidays take place on the same day every year, religious holidays follow the Islamic lunar calendar and so fall on different days each year. One

Transportation and Communications 5

TM

CultureGrams

Libya

Internet Users (per 100 people): 17 Cellular Phone Subscriptions (per 100 people): 156 Paved Roads: 57%

Country and Development Data Capital Population Area (sq. mi.) Area (sq. km.) Human Development Index Gender Inequality Index GDP (PPP) per capita Adult Literacy Infant Mortality Life Expectancy Currency

Most highways are paved, but rural and desert roads are not. While many families have cars, buses are often used for travel between cities. Within cities, vans can be hired as taxis. Remote areas are accessed by four-wheel-drive trucks. Tripoli, Benghazi, and Sabhah have international airports.      All newspapers, radio and television stations, and mobile phone and internet providers are owned by the government, and media coverage is tightly controlled. However, satellite dishes allow Libyans to see foreign programs. Cellular phones are extremely popular and easy to obtain. Internet use is on the rise, and major cities have internet cafés.

CultureGrams

Tripoli 6,002,347 (rank=108) 679,362 (rank=18) 1,759,540 64 of 187 countries 36 of 148 countries $13,300 96% (male); 83% (female) 12.26 per 1,000 births 72 (male); 78 (female) Libyan dinar

TM

ProQuest 789 East Eisenhower Parkway Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA Toll Free: 1.800.521.3042 Fax: 1.800.864.0019 www.culturegrams.com

Education Adult Literacy: 89.2% Mean Years of Schooling: 7.3 Education is mandatory for children ages 6 to 15. At all levels, boys and girls may attend classes together or separately. They receive comparable educations, including religious studies. After age 15, students may attend three years of high school or four years of vocational training. University study is available for all Libyans who complete high school, and all public education is paid for by the government. There are many public universities and several private universities, which are funded through tuition and investments. Today, many college graduates are unable to find jobs that match their qualifications, so they seek employment outside the country. English and computer skills are requirements for many jobs and growing areas of study for young Libyans. Some older Libyans are illiterate because they never attended school. Children in remote areas don't always attend school, because of transportation difficulties.

© 2014 ProQuest LLC and Brigham Young University. It is against the law to copy, reprint, store, or transmit any part of this publication in any form by any means without strict written permission from ProQuest.

Health Libyans receive free medical care, but many facilities, particularly in rural areas, lack basic supplies. For this reason, wealthier people seek care at private medical clinics in Libya or outside the country. Public facilities are better in major cities, where hospitals are linked to medical schools. Towns and villages are served by small hospitals and clinics. Despite government efforts to control diseases, there are occasional outbreaks of hepatitis A and polio. Libya's social security system provides maternity leave, disability benefits, and pensions.

AT A GLANCE Contact Information Embassy of Libya, 2600 Virginia Avenue NW, Suite 705, Washington, DC 20037; phone (202) 944-9601; web site www.libyanbureaudc.org.

6