LETTER FROM THE EDITOR: Rabi Al-Thani 1433 Debating Moon-Sighting Certain dilemmas continue to persist within the global Muslim community more because of difference of opinion than any inherent complexities in shariah. One such issue is that of moon-sighting, making it difficult for the Ummah to reach an outright consensus. Over the years, three or four clear positions have evolved in the Muslim world with regards to the method of determining the dates of the holy days and months, with some advocating for local moon-sightings, others preferring to follow Saudi Arabia, yet others relying upon astronomical calculations, and so on. Each group holds its position in all sincerity and with great passion. Unfortunately, the differences in approach, and the strength with which each position is held, often lead to disrespectful exchanges within the community, and even to lasting grudges and ill will between neighbors, friends, and members of local congregations. In this persisting backdrop, the Muslim World League held a two-day conference at its Makkah office in the month of February to tackle the subject in order to organize schedules of worship and starting fasting and celebrations of Eid. The conference gathered a constellation of specialized scholars in fields of shariah and astronomy sciences. The conference discussed the most important factor: the application of the astronomical science in the religious field, which it described as the Shari’ah astronomical science, which according to the MWL Secretary General, Dr. Abdullah Mohsen Al-Turki, this will certainly benefit the quest in grasping the knowledge of moons and almanacs in addition to the time of prayers, fasting and pilgrimage. This issue covers the deliberations of the conference and carries the text of the speeches of the MWL Chief Dr. Tukri, and Prof. Dr. Salih Ibn Zabin Al-Marzouqi, who is the Secretary General of the Islamic Fiqh Council, an affiliate of the MWL, besides the Final Communique and an overall report. Besides, there are many articles of considerable interest to the readers. It reproduces a speech delivered by Prince Turki Al-Faisal’s speech at the World Affairs Council of Washington, DC, at the National Press Club, in November last year, only because of its continued relevance in the context of developments taking place in the Middle East. A story by Aishah Nasarruddin takes an Islamic outlook of the issue of AIDS and its spread in the Muslim countries. She says Islam prohibits those risk behaviors known to be associated with HIV infection. For example, she says, Islam prohibits homosexuality, premarital sex, adultery, drugs, alcohol, anal intercourse and sexual intercourse during menstruation. In addition, Muslim men undergo circumcision, and studies have shown that medically performed circumcision can reduce men’s risk of HIV infection by about 60%. Yet if Muslim countries are not spared from raging HIV, despite religious teaching and cultural taboos, it is because of the Muslims failing to live up to those teachings of Islam, making HIV spread inevitable. Islam in Europe by Saulat Parvez attempts to answer many queries of the medieval period when the Western world was sleeping and Islam was making its history. Muhammad Mojlum Khan reviews an important book About Muhammad: The Other Western Perspective on the Prophet of Islam, edited by Abdelwahab El-Affendi, that takes into account the positive outlook of the Western scholarship while approaching the study of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

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C O N T

Director-General Media & Culture and Chief Editor Dr. Hassan Al-Ahdal

No.9

No.8

Editorial Consultant M. Nasir Jawed Editorial Assistant M. Zakir Hossain

Vol.40

Graphic Designer M. Yuosuf Ali Salim The Muslim World League Journal P.O. Box: 537 Makkah, Saudi Arabia Tel/ Fax: 00966 (2) 5600923 E-mail: [email protected] 2

Allah wants us to benefit from astronomy

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Rely on Islamic text, scientific facts

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Secretary-General Dr. Abdullah A. Mohsin Al-Turki

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Journal

The Muslim World League

No.4

CON

During a three-day international conference in February in Makkah Al-Mukarramah on the issue of moon-sighting, Dr. Abdullah Mohsen Al-Turki emphasized the fact that due to advanced research in the science of astronomy it has become very easy to calculate the lunar months in modern age. This, he says, is completely in consonance with the Commandments of Allah, Who inspires humanity to benefit from them.

Dr. Salih Ibn Zabin Al-Marzouqi is the Secretary General of the Islamic Fiqh Council, MWL, Makkah, that organized the three-day conference on moon-sighting. In a key address to the conference, Dr. Marzouqi underlines the importance of great strides in contemporary sciences including the astronomy, which he said is important along with, of course, the Islamic text, while determining the commencement of lunar months.

Letter from the Editor Sharia ......................................................................................................1 Guidance from Islam Sharia and Astronomy..............................................................................4 Islamic Fiqh Conference: Call for panel to unify lunar calendar Muhammad Zakir Hossain......……..…………….....…….…................5 Final Communique MWLJ Report ….………….…………..........…………….…........……11 Program of the Conference MWLJ Report ………..….…………………………......,.......…….......15 Holy Qur’an and extra-solar earths Sayeedur Rahman ………..………….……………,,,,,,............…........17 l

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E N T S

TENTS Israel, Iran troublemakers in M-E region

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Book review: Prophet of Islam and his western admirers

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Annual Subscription Rates Saudi Arabia Individual subscribers: SR. 36 Organizations: SR. 100 Other Countries Individual subscribers: $20 Organizations: $26

Prince Turki Al-Faisal, the Chairman of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, and one of the founders of the King Faisal Foundation, delivered a lecture at the World Affairs Council of Washington, DC, on 15 November, 2011, in which he takes stock of the challenges facing Saudi Arabia and the Middle-East, and takes to task the regional aggression by Israel and Iran.

The demonization of the Prophet (peace be upon him) and Islam in general by the Western academia nonetheless, there are many admirers of Islam in the West. Muhammad Mojlum Khan reviews a book, “About Muhammad: The Other Western Perspective on the Prophet of Islam”, edited by Abdelwahab El-Effendi that collects excerpts from the works of 12 Western writers who in their works focus on the life and teachings of the Prophet.

Sharia and science in determining moon sighting Dr. Mohammad Iliyas …….….………………………..........………28 Spread of HIV/AIDS: An Islamic outlook Aishah Nasarruddin ……….….……………………….........………34 Islam in Europe: A forgettable history Saulat Parvez ………..….…………………………….......……......37 Sounds of ants talking – Miracle from Qur’an Lewis Smith …………..….………………………….........…….......44 Rabita Round Up MWLJ Report ………..….……………………………........…........48 l

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Cheques payable to Muslim World League may be sent to Circulation & Subscription Deptt. Muslim World League, P.O. Box: 537 Makkah, Saudi Arabia Sole Distributors for K.S.A. and the Gulf The Saudi Distribution Company Tel. 6530909, Jeddah, K.S.A. All articles and correspondence may please be addressed to Chief Editor, The Muslim World League Journal. While we reserve the right to edit, summarise or reject any contribution, no article, report or letter will be returned to the sender. Views expressed in The Muslim World League Journal do not necessarily represent those of the Muslim World League. Articles published may, however, be reproduced with acknowledgement.

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Guidance from The Quran

Sharia and Astronomy

Q u r’ a n and S u n n a h

“They ask you about the waxing and waning phases of the crescent moons, say they are to mark fixed times for mankind and Hajj.” (2:189) “And He who made the night for rest and sun and moon for reckoning of time. This is the decree of the Exalted, the All-knowing.” (6:96) “Allah is He, who created the sun, the moon, and the stars (all) governed by laws under His commandment.” (7:54) “The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year) so ordained by Him the day He created the heavens and the earth; of them four are sacred; that is the straight usage.......Verily the transposing (of a prohibited month) is an addition to unbelief: the unbelievers are led to wrong thereby: for they make it lawful one year and forbidden another year in order to adjust the number of months forbidden by Allah and make such forbidden ones lawful. The evil of their course seems pleasing to them. But Allah guideth not those who reject faith.” (9:36-37) “It is He who made sun a lamp, and moon a light and measured stages so you know number of years and count (of time).” (10:5) “Allah is He who raised heavens without pillars that you can see; Then He established Himself on the throne; And He subjected the sun and the moon (to his law); each one runs its course for a term appointed.” (13:2) 9) Allah created Sun and moon, and He made them subject to you: “It is Allah Who hath created the heavens and the earth and sendeth down rain from the skies......... He has made subject to you, the night and the day; the sun and the

moon; and the stars in subjection by His command.” (14:32-33) “He has made subject to you, the night and the day; the sun and the moon; and the stars in subjection by His command.” (16:12) “See you not that to Allah bow down in worship all things in the heavens and on earth, the sun, the moon, the stars.” (22:18) “Blessed is He who made constellations in the skies, and placed therein a lamp and a moon reflecting light (25:61) If indeed thou ask them Who has created the heavens and the earth and subjected (to His Law), they will certainly reply, “Allah”. How are they then deluded away (from the truth)? (29:61) “See you not Allah merges night into day and day into night; And subjected the sun and the moon (to His Law); each one runs its course for a term appointed.” (31:29) “He merges night into day and day into night; And subjected the sun and the moon (to His Law); each one runs its course for a term appointed.” (35:13) “And the moon, we have measured for her mansions (to traverse) till she returns like the old, (withered, and curved-up like a sickle) date-palm. It is not permitted for sun to catch-up the moon, nor can the night outstrip the day; each swims along in (its own) orbit.” (36:3940) “He created heavens and the earth in true proportions; He makes night overlap day and day overlap night and subjected the sun and the moon (to His Law); each one runs its course for a term appointed.” (39:5)

Hadith The beloved Prophet (peace be upon) said, “See the moon and commence fasting and see the moon and end fasting (make Eid) and if the skies are overcast, then complete the counting of thirty (days).” Ibn Umar reported, I heard the beloved Prophet (peace be upon him) saying, “When you see the crescent (of the month of Ramadan), start fasting, and when you see the crescent (of the month of Shawwal), stop fasting; and if the sky is overcast (and you can’t see

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It) then regard the crescent (month) of Ramadan (as of 30 days, in other words complete 30 days)”. [Bukhari] Abdullah bin Umar reported that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “The month (can be) 29 nights (i.e. days), and do not fast till you see the moon, and if the sky is overcast, then complete Sha’ban as thirty days.” [Bukhari] Abu Hurayrah reported tha the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “Start fasting on seeing the crescent (of Ral

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seemadhan), and give up fasting on see ing the crescent (of Shawwal), and if the sky is overcast (and you cannot see it), complete thirty days of Sha’ban.” [Bukhari] Huzayfah reported that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “Do not fast (for Ramadhan) before the coming of the month until you sight the moon or complete the number (of thirty days); then fast until you sight the moon or complete the number (of thirty days). [Abu Dawood]

Islamic Fiqh Council Conference

Call for panel to unify lunar calendar Muhammad Zakir Hossain

As part of efforts to end differences over the issue of moon sighting during Ramadan, Hajj, and Eid festivals, a conference of experts in Makkah called for the formation of a committee of astronomers and Islamic scholars with the aim to unify to beginning of lunar months in Muslim countries.

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Organized by the Islamic Fiqh Academy, an affiliate of the Muslim World League (MWL), the three-day international conference in February emphasized the importance of sighting the moon to determine the beginning of lunar months of Ramadan and Dhul Hijjah.

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“The committee would consider Makkah as the center for astronomical observation and issue a unified Hijri calendar,” said the final communique issued by the three-day conference on 13 February. The proposed committee, to be based at the League headquarters in Makkah, will study all the research works so far conducted on the issue. On behalf of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah, the Minister of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Call and Guidance, Sheikh Saleh Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Sheikh, opened the conference, which was attended by a number of prominent figures including religious scholars, jurisprudents and astronomers from the Kingdom and abroad took part in the event at the grand confer-

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ence hall of MWL headquarters. Prominent among the dignitaries who addressed the opening session included Grand Mufti and President of the Constituent Council of the MWL as well President of the Senior Scholars’ Commission, Sheikh Abdul Aziz Al-Sheikh, MWL Secretary-General Dr. Abdullah Abdul Mohsin Al-Turki, Secretary General of the Islamic Fiqh Council, Dr. Saleh Al-Baqami, and Dubai Islamic Bank consultant Hussein Hamid Hassan. The conference however said that Islam has no objection to making use of modern technological means to sight the moon. It pointed out that air pollution as well as an increasing number of aircrafts and satellites have made it difficult to sight the moon with the naked eye. “The beginning and end of a lunar month will be based on sighting the new crescent, either by the naked eye or using astronomical observatories. If the crescent is not sighted, the month will have 30 days,” the communique said, quoting the sayings of

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the Prophet (peace be upon him). The conferees said the statements of witnesses could not be accepted if it was impossible to sight the moon on the basis of categorical scientific facts. They also agreed that Muslim minorities in their respective countries should start or stop fasting during Ramadan if the moon was sighted anywhere in the country. “If a Muslim minority in a non-Muslim country cannot sight the new moon for any reason they should follow the nearest Muslim country or Muslim minority group,” the communiqué said. The conference urged Muslim astronomers to provide correct information related to moon sightings to relevant authorities in a country. It also urged the public not to cast doubt on moon sightings after approved by the authorities. In the opening session, Grand Mufti Sheikh Abdul Aziz AlAsheikh emphasized the significance of determining the start of the lunar month on the basis of the sighting of the moon. “Islam has defined that the beginning and ending of the fast depends on the sighting of the crescent and there is no difference of opinion on this,” he said. The grand mufti reiterated Shariah principles should be upheld when calculating lunar months. “We are not waging a war on astronomy. But we don’t want to cross the boundaries of Shariah when making lunar calculations,” he said, while urging the Ummah to stick to relevant Islamic principles. “As for Gregorian months,

they are mainly for determining four seasons of the year and they have no relevance as far as Shari’ah rules are concerned,” he said. In his speech, Dr. Al-Turki hoped to reach sort of uniformity in determining the timing of the Islamic obligatory rituals of fasting and Hajj. “The Islamic scholars and astronomers would discuss how lunar calculations could be used to unite the Muslim Ummah in determining the fasting month of Ramadhan, the timing of Hajj and Eid Al-Fitr and Eid Al-Adha,” he said, hoping the event would be a milestone at least in narrowing differences among Islamic scholars and astronomers across the world when making such calculations. The MWL chief also highlighted the increasing relevance of Islamic astronomy in uniting Muslims worldwide. Spelling out the objectives of convening the conference, Saleh Al-Baqami, secretary general of the academy, hoped the participants would come out with comprehensive solutions to remove the causes of differences with regard to determining the beginning of lunar months. Continuing deliberations on the second day on Sunday, participants discussed five topics focusing on various aspects regarding lunar months and the role of Islamic Shariah principles in determining them. These included the sighting of the moon to mark the beginning and ending of the months for fasting and Haj. The participants also discussed

the Islamic jurisprudent approach with regard to a number of issues such as settling debts, and Iddat, which is the legally prescribed period of waiting during which a woman may not remarry after being widowed or divorced. The session, which is chaired by Grand Mufti Al-Asheikh, would issue a communiqué after wrapping up its deliberations on Monday. Dr. Hussain Hamid Hassan, Legal adviser at Dubai Islamic Bank, and member of the Islamic Fiqh Council, thanked and appreciated the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia under the leadership of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz. He stressed that the Kingdom took proactive initiatives in the past and in holding of conferences and seminars. Speaking about the importance of the theme of the conference, he praised the efforts of the League in the treatment of Muslim jurisprudence issues through its Secretariat General which was established by the various Islamic Affairs He praised contributions made by the Islamic Fiqh Council

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service to the law of Islam. Continuing deliberations on the Conference, participants discussed seven topics focusing on various aspects regarding lunar months and the role of Islamic Shari’ah principles in determining them. These included the sighting of the moon to mark the beginning and ending of the months for fasting and Hajj. The participants also discussed the Islamic jurisprudent approach with regard to a number of issues such as settling debts, and Iddat, which is the legally prescribed period of waiting during which a woman may not remarry after being widowed or divorced. The concluding session, which was chaired by Grand Mufti Abdul Aziz Al-Sheikh, issued a communique after wrapping up deliberations.

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Allah wants us to benefit from astronomy, says Dr. Turki (Text of the speech of the Secretary General of the MWL, Dr. Abdullah Mohsen Al-Turki) The MWL is pleased to express thanks and appreciation to the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Abdullah Bin Abdul-Aziz al-Saud for sponsoring this conference and supporting its programs. Thanks are also due to HRH Prince Naif Bin Abdul-Aziz al-Saud, the Crown Prince and Minister of Interior for his efforts and care given to Islamic knowledge. This conference gathers a constellation of people specialized in fields of Shari’ah and astronomy sciences to tackle the topic of sighting new crescents and of determining lunar months in order to organize schedules of worship. Allah says in Sura Baqarah, verse 189: They ask thee, (O Muhammad), of new moons, say: They are fixed seasons for mankind and for the pilgrimage. It’s a known fact that calculating the lunar months astronomically has become the easiest way available in modern era and age of advanced technology and space. Add to that the advancement of means of astronomical observatories and computer systems. So, it became so easy to know the phases of the moon and all stars and galaxies, not only in days and nights but also in minutes and seconds. Allah has bestowed His bounties on the people, for He has made the course of the two celestial stars- the moon and the sun, run according to determined phases. Allah inspired human to benefit from them to set up an accurate calculating system necessary to their acts of worship and dealings. Allah says in Sura Yunus, verse 5: “It is He Who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light (of beauty), and measured out stages for her; that you might know the number of years and the count (of time).” The most important factor in this con-

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ference is the astronomical application in the religious field; which became known as the Shari’ah astronomical science. This will certainly benefit the quest in grasping the knowledge of moons and almanacs in addition to the time of prayers, fasting and pilgrimage. We thank Allah that He has kept the Muslim Ummah steadfast on the religion he has chosen for it and the entire world. All praise is to Him alone who has kept their interest alive to worship and obey Him in an age where worldly gains has taken over people and diverted them from the duty for which they were born. Allah says “I created the jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me. (Sura Adh-Dhariyat:56) What makes Shari’ah unique is its flexibility and ability to bring benefits and ward off evil. This will enable Muslims to draw the most benefit from scientific inventions in light of religious texts and the ruling drawn there from, while taking into account developments occurring in life. This is clear evidence to the divinity of the Shari’ah. What is connected to the religion, whether be it prohibition and permissibility are revealed by Allah in His book and conveyed by His messenger (peace be upon him) in his Sunnah: “And We have revealed unto thee the Remembrance that thou may explain to mankind that which has been revealed for them, and that perhaps they may reflect. (Quran, Al Nahl: Establish worship at the going down of the sun until the dark of night, (78) Baqarah: The pilgrimage is (in) the wellknown months, (197) Baqarah: The month of Ramadhan in which was revealed the Qur’an, a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance, and the Criterion (of right and wrong). And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the month, (185)

Rely on Islamic Text, Scientific Facts Prof. Dr. Salih Ibn Zabin Al-Marzouqi

Praise be to Allah Almighty who says” They ask you O Muhammad about the new moons. Say:” They are signs to mark fixed periods of time for mankind and for the pilgrimage “ (Qur’an, 2:189) and blessing and peace be upon the Messenger of Allah, our Prophet Muhammad, who encourage to hold fast to the two great sources elucidated in his famous Hadith: “I have left for you two things that if you hold fast to, you will never go astray – the Holy Book of Allah and my immaculate Sunnah.” These are envisaged for Muslims to be a source of illumination and guidance, a reason of success, way of facilitation and mercy in a world whose atmosphere is full with evils. May Allah’s blessing also be upon the noble Prophet’s kinsfolk and Companions! His Eminence Sheikh Abdul Aziz Ibn Abdullah Al-Sheikh Grand Mufti of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, President of the Constituent Council of the Muslim World League and Chairman of the Board of the Islamic Fiqh Council H.E. Sheikh Saleh Ibn Abdul Aziz Al-Sheikh, Minister of Islamic Affairs, Endowment, Dawah and l

Guidance H.E. Dr. Abdullah Ibn Abdul Mohsin Al-Turki , Secretary General of the Muslim World League Chairman of the League of the Islamic Universities & Member of Grand Scholars Councils Your Excellencies Members of the Islamic Fiqh Council of the MWL. Distinguished Guests and Participants Assalamu Allaikum Wa Rahmatullah Wa Barakatuh Praise be to Allah for His infinite blessing; and for making possible this blessed gathering of the elite of Muslim scholars. I am extremely glad to extend my profound thank to the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah Ibn Abdul Aziz Al-Saud for his kind and renewed patronage of this Conference and for his continuous support to whatever benefits Islam and Muslims in general and the Muslim World League and its Islamic Fiqh Council in particular. My deep appreciation also goes to HRH Crown Prince Naif Ibn Abdul Aziz, Deputy Premier and Minister of Interior for his industrious work in serving Islam and Muslims and for his incessant support for

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the various activities of the Muslim World League and its affiliates. Distinguished brothers! I warmly welcome you at the Muslim World League and I am thankful to you for honoring the invitation of your Islamic Fiqh Council. Furthermore, I supplicate Allah Almighty that you help the Muslim Ummah achieve its aspirations. As you all know, the Islamic methodology and guidance are the best way for man to direct orientation, reach destination, surpass obstacles , overcome challenges, address communities situations, reform people’s affairs in this life, as well as achieve progress, success, dignity and sovereignty. The Islamic Fiqh Council has chosen for thorough study at the special conference the significant issue of “The Determination of Lunar Months as Perceived by Muslim Scholars and Astronomers who Rely Solely on Calculation”. The reason behind this is that the said Council is convinced that Muslims are in dire need of studying this controversial question with a view to reaching a solution that put an end for the dispute surrounding it and the controversy that is often raised. In fact, the Council has divided the question into twelve subthemes, which were tackled by forty trustworthy Muslim scholars and astronomers. Despite the fact that contemporary science has developed greatly in astronomy and space fields; and that certain science have reached definite and undisputed results; and that Islam encourage us to take advantage of useful correct science in order to reach Islamic solutions for the issue of determining the commencement of lunar months, we should depend on this issue upon both Islamic texts and scientific facts. The expected results of your deliberation will be beneficial and helpful in achieving the desired objectives as far as the works at your august Conference are progressing in the said manner and for the sake of Allah from Whom success is sought and for

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achieving sublime objectives and that cooperation among the Council members is always upheld as a straight method which is neither affected by whims nor deviated by falsehood. More importantly, the Council has displayed due keenness in selecting a distinctive elite to research on this issue ; and that many institutes participates in this event such as Council of Grand Scholars, members of the Islamic Fiqh Council, Supreme Judicial Council, Ministry of Justice, Supreme Court, King Abdul Aziz City for Science & Technology, Islamic Project for Crescent Observation and a number of Arab universities, including those in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and renowned research centers in the Muslim world. Furthermore, we requested one of the specialists in a USA university to write a relevant research and exchanged correspondence with certain officials at NASA (National Aeronautics & Space Administration) in compliance with the Holy Prophet’s Hadith (Wisdom is what a Muslim seeks; wherever he finds it, he is more entitled than others to uphold). Distinguished Scholars! You came from your countries and assembled here at holiest site for achieving a sublime objective focusing on unifying the word of Muslims on the truth and eliminating the causes of dispute which is time and again on determining the commencement of lunar months. In fact, your task is difficult and has many aspects. We supplicate Allah Almighty to grant you continued success to adopt radical solutions for the issue in question; and that you achieve success and prosperity for your great nation which eagerly aspires to your resolutions that are anticipated to incorporate effective solutions for this issue. (Dr. Al-Marzouqi is Secretary General of the Islamic Fiqh Council, the Muslim World League, Makkah)

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Final Statement

Science is okay but sighting of the moon is must MWLJ Report Praise be to Allah Lord of the worlds; and peace and blessings be upon our Prophet Mohammad, his family and all his Companions. Allah the Almighty made crescents and moons visual signs to know the start of the lunar months. Allah Most High says in Sura Baqarah, verse 189: “They are fixed seasons for mankind and for the pilgrimage.” The Prophet of Allah (peace be upon him) showed the way to know the beginning of the months through visual sightings in many texts of the pure Sunnah. One of which mentioning the time of fasting:” Fast when you sight it, and break your

fast when you sight it”; narrated by Bukhari. The Muslim Ummah followed this system since the time of Prophethood without encountering any problems in its practical application. However, in current times many problems have emerged as a result of skepticism, and controversy that arise at the start of the month of Ramadhan or its end and also at the start of the month of Dhul-Hijjah. These problems are further exacerbated with convergence of distances of far away countries and the development of modern means of communication. Today, the world is literally

a global village. Furthermore, the modern age has not helped in the process. Visual sightings are hindered due to alarming levels of pollution surrounding our atmosphere. Smoke clouds, gazes and fumes have made it almost impossible to see a clear sky. Light pollution is another element contributing to this dilemma. (These are the bright lights of cities causing the formation of a glow in space that reflects on plumes of gazes that take the shape of light resembling the crescent). Planes and satellites roaming the skies are also reflecting lights in space. For this and other reasons, there is disagreement in the evidence of

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sighting of the new moon. Sightings of the crescent have led to significant differences in some Muslim countries, reaching threeday difference in some cases. This issue has become of the biggest dilemma with Muslims. It is, however, a well-established fact that this universe is governed by laws and ways enacted by the Omnipotent Creator, who has designed it with the highest degree of creativity, precision and perfection. Among the marvelous creations of the Almighty are the sun and the moon. These two celestial stars are signs to find out times, years and calculation. Allah said in Sura Ya-Sin:” And the sun runs its course for a period determined for it: that is the decree of (Him), the Exalted in Might, the All-Knowing. And the Moon, - We have measured for her mansions (to traverse) till she returns like the old (and withered) lower part of a date-stalk. It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon, nor can the Night outstrip the Day: Each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law). Allah further states

in Sura Ar-Rahman, verse 5: The sun and the moon follow courses (exactly) computed. And also said in Sura Yunus, verse 5: It is He who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light (of beauty), and measured out stages for her; that ye might know the number of years and the count (of time). Nowise did Allah create this but in truth and righteousness. (Thus) doth He explain His Signs in detail, for those who understand. And because sighting of the moon is connected to many acts of worship considered essential pillars of Islam such as Hajj, Fasting, and because lunar months are the basis and the criterion for many religious laws such as (Idda) the waiting period a woman has to wait after divorce, the intentional abstention from one’s wife, and expiation, Allah says in Sura Baqarah, verse 234: “If any of you die and leave widows behind, they shall wait concerning themselves four months and ten days: When they have fulfilled their term, there is no blame on you if they dispose of themselves in a just and reasonable manner.

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And Allah is well acquainted with what ye do.” He also said in Sura Baqarah, verse 226: “For those who take an oath for abstention from their wives, a waiting for four months is ordained; if then they return, Allah is Oft-forgiving, most Merciful.” Allah also said in the matter concerning the expiation for wrongful death in Sura An-Nissa, verse 92: “(Is prescribed) a fast for two months running: by way of repentance to Allah.” And Sura al-Mujadala, verse 4:“And if any has not (the wherewithal), he should fast for two months consecutively before they touch each other”. Several conferences and symposia have been held to tackle this key issue. Some Fiqh councils and religious institutions have researched it; nevertheless, the controversy still rages on. Now, there is a need for an in-depth study that would examine different views to reach effective solutions. It’s, however, necessary to focus on what the Shari’ah has to say in this along with what Allah has made available in great advancement in astronomy and observatories. Based on its responsibilities to deal with Muslims’ issues in addition to the urgent need to tackle this important subject, the Fiqh Council of the Muslim World League convened this conference. A number of distinguished Islamic scholars and astronomers from within and outside the country have assembled in the most sacred place and the holiest precinct on earth: Makkah. Hosted by the custodian of the two Holy Mosques, King Abdullah Bin Ab-

dul-Aziz al-Saud may Allah guide and support him to serve Islam and Muslims. After viewing the research presented and heard the summaries thereof and having participated in many discussions, the participants stressed the following: The basis governing the confirmation of the beginning and the end of the lunar month is the sighting. Sighting could be with the naked eye, through telescopes or observatories. If for any reason, the new moon wasn’t sighted, then a complete thirty days should be observed. Abu Huraira said, the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Fast when you sight the moon, and break your fast when you see it. If you are unable to see it, complete the month of Sha’ban thirty days”. Narrated by Bukhari. Ibn Omar said that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “A month consists of 29 days, do not fast until you see it (i.e. the crescent) if you are prevented from seeing it, then finish the month 30 days,” narrated by Bukhari. He also said: the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Do not fast until you see the Hilal, and do not break your fast until you see it. If you are unable to sight it, then you have to estimate it,” narrated by Bukhari. All these Ahadiths and others are clear proof that the ground for determining the beginning and the end of the month. Since the duty is not fulfilled without it, sighting of the crescent is a communal obligation and duty. The action and decision of the Prophet (peace be upon him) support that. Abu Dawood narrated on the authority of Aisha, who said: “The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to pay great attention to

the month of Sha’ban more than any other month. Then he fasts at the start of Ramadan. If he was unable to see the crescent, he would count 30 days then fasts,” narrated by Abu Dawood. In another narration of Ibn Hibban and Ibn Khuzaima, “The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to pay great attention to the crescent of Sha’ban more than any other. Abdullah Ibn Omar narrated, he said: ‘People have sighted the crescent, so I told the Prophet (peace be upon him) that I have seen it. He fasted and ordered people to fast it’.” Astronomical calculation is considered a science in its own right. It has its rules and principles, and some of its results are conclusive. Among these are the following: time of junction; the birth of the crescent; the moment the moon disappears, before or after the setting of the sun disk. And that the height of the moon on the horizon the night prior to its birth would be less than one degree or one more than one degree. However, some of its findings are still cast in doubt and assumption among the scholars. Such as the possibility of sighting or not the crescent if its height in the horizon is less than ten degrees. Accordingly, when looking into the matter of a witness sighting the crescent, attention should be paid to the following: The astronomers should not decide that the crescent was not born. Astronomically, the setting of the moon should not be proven before sunset, for, it is contradictory to what is generally accepted among scientists. If the setting of the sun disk was astronomically proven before the setting of the moon, and

its height was one degree or less, then the eye sighting should be accepted if given in detailed. If the setting of the sun disk was astronomically proven before the moon and whose height in the horizon is more than one degree, then the eye sighting should be accepted. Abu-Bakhtari said, narrated by Muslim, “We traveled for Umrah and when we reached Batni Nakhla. We tried to see the crescent. Some people said it is 3-night old, while others said it’s only two-night old. We told Ibn Abbas: we saw the moon; some people said it was three-night old and others said it is two-night old. He said on what night did you see it? We said such and such night, he replied: ‘the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Allah elongated it to be seen, it was a one night crescent”. In another narration, the messenger of Allah said: “Allah has made it bigger to be seen, if you couldn’t see it, complete the count”. It means it has prolonged its period for the sake of sighting. An-Nawawi explained saying: “to clarify, there is no consideration as how big or small the crescent is, and that Allah makes bigger to be seen, if it wasn’t sighted, then complete thirty”. The witness to the sighting has to fulfill all conditions in order for his report to be accepted. He should have sharp sight, the way he saw the crescent when he saw it and anything that will cast away doubt on his report. As for Muslim minorities living in the west unable to see the crescent for one reason or another, they have to follow the closest Muslim country to them where the new moon was sighted. If not, the nearest country with a Muslim

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minority where the crescent was sighted through one of the Islamic centers. The difference of moon sighting locations (Ikhteelaf al-Matale’a) is a natural fact agreed upon by everyone. The Conference calls on all concerned to adopt the decision no (2)of the Council of Senior Scholars of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia in its second session held in the month of Sha’ban 1392H, stating the following: (Second: to consider the matter of difference in moon sighting locations or not sighting a theoretical issue that has a room for Ijtihaad. The difference in it and in other similar issues can happen with those involved in religion and science. It’s considered an accepted controversy that will result in twice the reward for the one who made Ijtihaad and was right, and one reward for the one who made Ijtihaad and wasn’t right. Scholars differ in this matter in two ways. Some say Ikhteelaf al-Matale’a should be taken into consideration while others say it shouldn’t. Each party quoted the evidence from the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Perhaps both parties have quoted the same source such as what Allah says in the Qur’an: They ask thee, (O Muhammad), of new moons, say: They are fixed seasons for mankind and for the pilgrimage. And the Prophet’s saying:”Fast when you see it, and break your fast when you see it…” This comes as a result of the difference in understanding the text and inferring it accordingly. Following the review of this matter, and realizing that this difference is harmless after more than fourteen centuries since the emergence of Islam where the Ummah has never been united in

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sighting the crescent, the Council advises to leave the matter as is. Therefore, every Muslim country has the freedom to choose what it sees fit through its scholars and applies one of the opinions. For, each has evidence and reference). With its assertion to take Ikhteelaf al-Matale’a into consideration, The Islamic Fiqh Council of the Muslim World League has reached these findings in its fourth session held in the year 1401H (in light of this, the Islamic Fiqh Council has decided: there is no need for the call to unite the new moons or Eid days in the Muslim world. Doing this does not ensure their unity. Hence, the matter of affirming the birth of the crescent should be left to the Ifta institutions and courts in Muslim countries. This is better and most likely beneficial for the Islamic common good. What unite the Ummah and closes their ranks together is the application of the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of His Messenger (peace be upon him) in all their affairs). Difference in sighting the new moon should not exceed more than one day. Because more than that is contradictory to strict scientific evidence. The affirmation of the beginning of lunar months pertaining to acts of worship is a legitimate matter. It is the responsibility of the Shari’ah scholars authorized by official bodies. It is however, the responsibility of astronomers to provide accurate calculations related to the birth of the moon and the position of the crescent. They must estimate the visibility conditions of any location on the planet and any other information deemed necessary to support competent Shari’ah entities issue l l

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the accurate and right decision. Deciding fasting the month of Ramadan and other rites through sighting of the crescent doesn’t contradict taking advantage of modern sciences for these purposes. Islam is in complete harmony with astronomical calculations and observatory advanced technologies as long as they benefit people. If the beginning of the new month has been confirmed and the ruler approved it in a Muslim country, there is no need to delve into the matter any further by casting doubt on it. This act is of the matters of Ijtihaad that puts an end to differences. Muslim minorities living in one country should be encouraged to unite the beginning and the end of their fast according to sighting conditions mentioned. Muslim governments should be encouraged to pay attention to ways of sighting the crescent and establish committees for this purpose. The conference praised the efforts of some Muslim countries in the field of monitoring and establishing observatories, led by KSA’s King Abdul-Aziz City of Science and Technology. The conference invites all concerned to benefit from the new modern scientific means, and for further cooperation between Shari’ah scholars and astronomers for the common good of Muslims in timing their religious rites. The conference recommends presenting this statement on the Islamic Fiqh Council of the Muslim World League. Peace and blessings on our Prophet Mohammad, his family and all his companions.

Program of the Conference

Speakers His Eminence Sheikh Ahmad Al-Murabit Moussa His Eminence Dr. Suleiman Bin Saleh Al-Qardawi His Eminence Dr. Abdullah Bin Wakeel Al-Sheikh His Eminence Dr. Sharaf AlQuthat Moderator His Eminence Dr. Othman Bin Ibrahim Al-Murshed

Opening Session Saturday: 11 February 2012 Time: 13:00 Recitation of the holy Qur’an – His Eminence Sheikh Abdullah Bin Ali Basfar Speech of the Secretary General of the Islamic Fiqh Council Speech of the Guests of the Conference delivered by His Eminence Dr. Hussein Hamid Hassan Speech of His Excellency the Secretary General of the Muslim World League Speech of His Eminence the Grand Mufti, President of the Constituent Council of the Mus-

lim World League Speech of the Custodian of the two Holy Masjids, delivered by His Excellency Sheikh Saleh Bin Abdul-Aziz Bin Mohammad AlAs-Sheikh Minister of Religious Affairs, Endowment and Da’wah and Guidance First Session Saturday 11 February Time: 18:40–21:00 Topic: Interpretation of the relevant Qur’anic verses and their meanings. The narrations of the sighting of the crescent, narration, knowledge and their significance.

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Second Session Sunday 12 February 2012 Time: 10:00–12:30 Topic: Divergence in Sighting the Crescent Possibility of designating Unified Areas for Crescent Sighting Speakers His Excellency Dr. Saleh Bin Abdullah Bin Humaid His Excellency Dr. Mohammad Bin Abdulkarim Al-Issa His Eminence Dr. Abdullah Bin Abdul-Aziz Al-Musleh His Eminence Sheikh Badr AlHassan Al-Qassimy His Eminence Dr. Abdullah Bin Fahd Ash-Sharif His Excellency Engineer Mo-

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hammad Shawkat Oudah His Excellency Dr. Abdul Khaliq Ash-Shaddadi Moderator His Eminence Dr. Suleiman Bin Saleh Al-Qardawi Third Session Sunday 12 February 2012 Time: 13:00–14:30

His Excellency Sheikh AbdulAziz Bin Saleh Al-Humaid His Eminence Mohammad Bin Ahmad As-Saleh His Eminence Dr. Saad Bin Turki Al-Khathlan Moderator His Eminence Dr. Abdullah Bin Hamad Al-Ghatimel Fifth Session Monday 13 February 2012 Time: 10–12:30

Topic: How Accurate are Astronomical Calculations? Speakers: His Excellency Dr. Qais Bin Mohammad Al-Sheikh Mubarak His Excellency Dr. Ilyas Fernini His Excellency Dr. Mohammad Al-Hawari His Eminence Dr. Nizar Mahmoud Qassim Ash-Sheikh His Excellency Saleh AsSa’ab His Eminence Dr. Mohammad Jamil Al-Mustafa Moderator His Eminence Dr. Abdullah Bin Musleh Al-Thumali Fourth Session Sunday 12 February 2012 Time: 18:40–21:00 Topic: The Extent of Taking Astronomical Calculations into Consideration In the event of non-sighting and sighting of the Crescent Speakers His Eminence Dr. Nasr Farid Mohammad Wasil His Excellency Dr. Abdullah Bin Suleiman Al-Mani’e His Excellency Dr. Abdussalam Al-Abadi

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Topic: Rule and Required Mechanisms governing the Sighting of the Crescent Conditions of Accepting or Rejecting Sightings with the Naked Eye Speakers His Eminence Sheikh Mohammad Taqi Al-Uthmani His Eminence Dr. Abdullah Az-Zubeir Abdur Rahman AsSaleh His Eminence Dr. Mohammad Jabr Al-Alfi His Eminence Dr. Syed Mohammad Abdur-Razak AtTabataba’e His Excellency Zaki Bin Abdurrahman Al-Mustafa His Excellency Dr. Aiman AlKurdi Moderator His Eminence Dr. Ibrahim Bin Nasser Al-Bishr Sixth Session Monday, 13 February 2012 Time: 13:00–14:30 Topic: Cases of Sighting the Crescent and Standards Followed Thereof

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Speakers His Excellency Dr. Humaid Majool Al-Nuaimi His Excellency Dr. Jalaluddin Khanji His Excellency Dr. Mohammad Ilyas His Excellency Dr. Hassan Mohammad Ba-Surra His Excellency Dr. Mohammad An-Nawawi His Excellency Eng. Mohammad Shawkat Oudah presenting the summary of Dr. John Caldwell’s research. Moderator His Eminence Dr. Saad Bin Turki al-Khathlan Seventh Session Monday, 13 February 2012 18:40–20:00 Topic: The Use of Modern Technologies of Astronomical Observation in Sighting the Crescent Speakers His Excellency Dr. Abdurrahman Al-Maghrabi His Excellency Dr. Haiman Zinalabideen His Excellency Dr. Abdulaziz Bin Sulatan Ash-Shamari Moderator His Eminence Dr. Nizar Mahmoud Qassim Al-Sheikh Eighth Session Monday, 13 February 2012 20:15 Topic: Reading of the Final Statement

Qur’an and Extrasolar Earths The Holy

Sayeedur Rahman

[The following is an excerpt from the book “Extraterrestrial Intelligence: Amazing New Insights from Qur’an” just published electronically by the author on amazon.com.)

Man’s outlook of the universe has undergone a sea change consequent to the phenomenal advances he has made in the realm of astronomy today. Approximately a century ago, it was a time when the universe was so small and confined that it prided itself on no more than a handful of plainly visible stars. And even a couple of more centuries earlier to that it was considered to be a geocentric one. But the rapid strides of science and technology during the twentieth century with the invention of a range of powerful telescopes and the constant space explorations greatly contributed to the emergence of the other dazzling and immensely illuminating face of the universe, rendering the older concept a tinny and miserable speck in relation to the mind-

blowing and boundless sea of the emerging one. It has, thus, discovered in the universe more than 100 billion galaxies, each one of them populated by hundreds of billions of Sun-like or many times still bigger stars. And our very own Milky Way galaxy is home to around 400 billion stars. These numbers are so enormous that if only the stars of our one single Galaxy are to be dispersed among the present inhabitants of the Earth, then each one of us would be richer by at least 60 of them! All that is visible to our naked eyes in the sky is around a mere 6,000 stars. All of them are the members of our own Galaxy, and lie in the immediate neighbourhood of the Sun. They are located in one of its spiral arms at a distance of around 25,000 light years

from its core. Apart from these adjoining stars, nothing is usually visible to the plain eyes across the length and breadth of the night sky. Thus, whatever is directly visible to us bears absolutely no significance in comparison to the Galaxy, let alone the amazing universe. Accordingly, the entire universe lies far beyond our eyesight, to be felt or figured out with the help of some extremely powerful telescopes alone. Its true expanse could also be discerned from the fact that the far-flung galaxies are located at such inconceivable distances as billions of light years in every direction. Every galaxy varies from a few thousand to hundreds of thousands of light years in diameter, and lies millions of light years away from the neighbouring one. Even the average

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distance between the stars of the Galaxy is five light years. The true picture of the universe was revealed to us consequent to the invention of some of the most advanced telescopes in the twentieth century. As a result, modern astronomy is striving relentlessly in order to figure out as to what might exist in this gigantic universe. Do more solar systems similar to our own exist in the Galaxy or elsewhere? If they do, then do they possess terrestrial planets, or simply earths similar to the Earth? If yes, then do they harbour life or the intelligent one as well? What might be the form of life there? Does man exist only in this precise part of the universe and in the obscure outskirts of the Galaxy, or he enjoys many more similar abodes as well? Science enjoyed a rather easy and comfortable ride till this point. It did not prove much difficult for it to sit back on the Earth and realize the true expanse and

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the broader picture of the universe chiefly by studying and analysing the electromagnetic radiations emanating from the heavenly bodies. But, the real challenge it is confronted with today is in finding other Earth-like planets in space and life in them. There is no denying of the fact that it is an extremely demanding task and a difficult terrain. Science is very much aware of the limitations is this field. It is proving to be next to impossible for it just to venture out of the Solar System physically to reach the nearest star located at a distance of 4.3 light years or 40 trillion kilometres. Let alone this nearest star, man hasn’t been able to land even on Mars, our neighbourhood planet situated at eight hundred thousand times nearer to it or merely 50 million kilometres away. The same range of powerful telescopes that greatly enabled science to fathom billions of light years deep into the universe and picture the distant galaxies and l l

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other celestial bodies with great accuracy have failed miserably in detecting the planets revolving around even the nearest stars. This is because the light and other electromagnetic radiations radiated by them are billions and trillions of times fainter than their parent stars, rendering the telescopes ineffective in dealing with such an awkward situation. The optical telescope has lost its utility in this sphere long ago. The more powerful infrared one, together with the other indirect techniques, have, however, until the year 2002, discovered roughly 70 solar systems in our nearby vicinity of around 250 light years in every direction. Research and development is presently continuing with frantic pace and the present telescopes are being improved upon to enable micro-level studies of the heavenly bodies with more precision. The most optimistic aspect of these solar systems lying in our immediate neighbourhood is that all the 200odd planets discovered in them so far are all gaseous in their makeup and are comparatively larger and of the size our Jupiter, whereas the smaller terrestrial ones are yet to fall into our grasp. As a result, science is endeavouring very hard to determine as to which of these planets might be the terrestrial ones in order to search for life there. Many exclusive projects have been commissioned long ago under the banner of the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) in order to communicate with the potential technological civilizations through artificial radio waves. Effort is being made under one such project to communicate with

40 such civilisations. This is the only true and effective mode the science is presently endowed with in its search for life in the heavens. But, this too is an extremely time-consuming and much annoying task. If, for instance, an effort is made in this fashion to communicate with a prospective terrestrial planet revolving around a 12 light years distant star, Tau Ceti, as is the case with the project SETI today, it would take the signal exactly the same 12 years to reach the target. If it so happens that some creatures are readily available there to receive it, are scientifically and technologically well advanced like we do to be able to decipher it, and respond at once with the same coin, then it would take another 12 years for the counter-signal to follow back to us. It would, thus, take a minimum of 24 years merely for the ‘handshake.’ Hence, rather than we contacting the aliens afresh and re-inventing the wheel, the major thrust of SETI today is centred on locating and listening to the prospective signals already beamed to us by the aliens themselves in their search of their own extraterrestrials. It should be born in mind once again that all these efforts are being undertaken in anticipation that the probable extraterrestrial civilisations around us are more superior in scientific and technological terms and better skilled in interstellar communications than we do. But, this task too is not that much easy either. It is, according to a scientist, akin to finding a signal bottled and cast in the deep oceans long ago. It is for these reasons that astronomy wasn’t able to meet

with any success as yet. Today we have a situation where some western government-funded premier space organisations have been forced to wind up their respective SETI projects in utter desperation, whereas there are still more, particularly the non-governmental ones, which are persisting in their endeavour in the earnest hope that they might succeed one day. This pertains to the practical aspect of the search for extraterrestrial abodes of intelligence physically. But, modern astronomy has amassed many significant and irrefutable intellectual and rational arguments concerning their existence in abundance. That is to say that it has met with fair success in discovering the smoke permeating all through the universe, but it is yet to lay its hands on the precise fire giving rise to it. And in the present context it seems highly probable that man could just firmly argue upon their definite existence, rather than hunting them down physically. The most striking argument of the presentday astronomy in this respect is as to why has man found existence at this precise point of time in a very long geological history of an insignificant planet of an ordinary star at the outskirts of an average galaxy of the astonishingly old and gigantic universe, where he enjoys centrality neither in his own Solar System nor in the Galaxy, let alone the universe? In its attempt to work out a solution to this core issue, science was able to gather some quite significant insights from the Solar System alone. Of the four of its terrestrial planets -- Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars – particu-

larly the last two resemble with each other the most. It should be borne in mind that generally it is the kind of these planets that science is currently on the look out for in the outer space. It has constantly tried to explore Mars by sending an array of probes both into its space and on the surface. As a result, it has found profound scientific evidence suggesting the abundance of liquid water on its surface in its distant past, which continues to exist even today in the form of frozen ice hidden deep beneath its surface. Existence of water, as a rule, is a precursor to life. Mars boasts a very thin atmosphere even today, compelling the science to draw the inference that it might have been much denser in the presence of surface liquid water billions of years ago. Science intends to conclude from this evidence that whenever the circumstances were conducive on Mars in the past, life might have existed there in some form or the other, just to be obliterated when they turned hostile. If so, then life just cannot remain confined to the Earth alone. But, in the same breath, it cannot be presumed to be similar to our own either. It can also be deduced from this on a much wider scale that wherever in the universe Earth-like planets are found to possess the basic life-sustaining ingredients, life itself might exist there. But, science deems only those ingredients to be life-sustaining that it is obliged to in our present context. It is absolutely not necessary, otherwise, for the components of life elsewhere to be similar to those over here too; if Carbon, Oxygen, and Nitrogen are its building

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blocks here, it can be some other elements elsewhere. Basing upon these and other such arguments, in the estimation of modern astronomy, the number of potential terrestrial planets and the intelligent civilizations flourishing in just a single galaxy like ours might even exceed the incredible 10 million mark! But, still, there are many more scientists who vehemently dispute it and believe that this fascinating universe belongs exclusively to us alone. In fact, such enormous difference of opinion among the scientific community quite clearly portrays the respective fairly optimistic and utterly pessimistic tendencies of both the parties to the dispute. If such is the case of one single galaxy, then it is anybody’s guess as to what might be in store for us in the other at least 100 billion more galaxies. Moreover, there is growing scientific evidence today suggesting the existence of many more invisible universes on the lines of the present visible one as well. These are some of the empirical and observational realities and assumptions based thereupon concerning the true expanse of the universe, the potential multiplicity of the earths and the probable existence of intelligent life in them, which have been dealt with very briefly here. Now, viewed from another angle, the modern science has benefited us in an unprecedented way not only in our understanding of the many vital realities of the natural world it has also enabled us greatly to place a whole host of statements concerning it of the Qur’an in their right perspectives. The ground-breaking insights thus obtained shall

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go a very long way in resolving many of the riddles faced by the science itself in its ardent quest for the aliens. This humble writer, thus, wishes to share with the esteemed readers at large quite a few of them in the following pages. Hence, at the very outset, the Qur’an proclaims thus: 1) They did not esteem the Almighty the way he deserves, whereas all the earths would be in his fist on the Last Day and the skies would be rolled up in his right hand... This is a very precise and definite assertion of the Qur’an concerning the multiplicity of the earths. Here the original Arabic word jamee (all), which accompanies another word to emphasize and pluralize it, has occurred with ‘earth’ denoting its plurality. Basing upon this verse, a multitude of the classical exegetes of the Qur’an since the earliest period has argued upon more than one earth in the universe. Chiefly among them are: Zamakhshari (died 1143 AD), Razi (1209), Qurtubi (1272), Nasafi (1301), Baizawi (1389), Aaloosi (1853) etc. Also Tabri (922), Baghwi (1122), Ibn Kathir (1372), Suyuthi (1505) etc. too have quoted extensively from Hadith substantiating this Qur’anic statement. More of this type of statements would be dealt with in due course. When we have at least one clear statement upon the plurality of earths, we shall now deliberate upon their actual numbers, which shall, in return, reinforce the former further. Nearly all the exegetes mentioned above have argued upon seven earths similar to the seven skies. To arrive l l

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at this precise number, if their rational lot has taken to arguing from chapter 65:12 of the Qur’an in the light of the prevalent astronomical knowledge of the time, the others have related a few narrations too. It should be remembered at this point of time that as far as the skies are concerned, the Qur’an definitely mentions their number to be seven at not merely one or two places, but repeatedly on seven different occasions. On the contrary, however, one doesn’t find any such specification or stipulation concerning the number of earths in the universe. Nor have they appeared anywhere in their plural form either. It is high time, therefore, that in order to arrive at their real number, we took to gaining newer and more direct insights from the Qur’an in the light of modern human knowledge accumulated over centuries of observation and experiment rather than the one that was based purely

upon ancient logic. So the Qur’an portrays the universe very marvellously on another occasion thus: 2) Blessed is He who made in the sky constellations, and in them made lamps and luminous moons. ‘Lamp’ has metaphorically been used here to denote the sun, as a similitude has been drawn between the two at another place thus: 2.1) He made the Sun a lamp. So, the pronoun ‘them’ in the verse under discussion is compulsorily indicating the nearer noun ‘constellations,’ rather than the farther ‘sky,’ which the earlier exegetes had thought to be the case due to the lack of any other alternate interpretation then. As such, the suns and the moons are contained in the constellations, and the constellations themselves, in the sky. This contention is further strengthened by the following assertions that the sky has basically

been divided into constellations themselves: 2.2) I swear by the sky of constellations. 2.3) Indeed, we have made constellations in the sky and adorned it for the onlookers. The word burooj, with its singular burj, used in these verses to denote ‘constellations,’ literally means castles or towers. But, in the Qur’anic terminology, according to the noted exegete Razi, one of the meanings it has historically found is the twelve stellar constellations of yore. And it has found ready acceptance among a great number of former and latter exegetes and researchers too. In the modern context, however, as they were totally unrealistic, speculative in nature and based upon the classification of merely the partially visible part of the sky, these constellations of the ancient astronomy have lost their relevance completely. In the modern astronomy, though, the whole of the sky, both visible and invisible to the naked eye, has quite realistically been divided into such larger constellations of stars as are known today as the ‘galaxies.’ Thus, in view of both the above Qur’anic statements and the present corroborative scientific evidence, the meaning of ‘constellation’ could fairly and reasonably be enlarged and substituted with the wider ‘galaxy’ today. And even this latter term seems to be more in harmony with its literal meaning than the former. Consider another significant aspect now. The words ‘suns’ and ‘moons’ stated to exist in the galaxies have appeared in their singular forms in the original Arabic

text, whereas logic requires that to exist in multiple galaxies, they should be multiple in numbers themselves. As such, each galaxy should consist of no less than a sun and a moon. It, thus, shows that both of these words are appearing as plurals in their generic forms. There is ample evidence of the generic nouns appearing in singular forms in the Qur’an without the customary alif lam prefixed to them. ‘Sign,’ ‘house,’ and ‘grain’ in chapters 3:50, 7:78, and 36:33 respectively are a few other instances from the same Qur’anic usage. Now if considered in the present context of the roughly 100 billion galaxies discovered so far in the universe, there have to be at least the same number of suns and moons, but their upper limit could be anything. Their true number could even be the one that is arrived at by multiplying the 100 billion galaxies with the hundreds of billions of more stars that each one of them is composed of. As far as the suns are concerned, there just cannot be an element of surprise in their numbers for the modern astronomy, as it has itself practically demonstrated to us that every star in the galaxies is a sun in its own right. The numbers concerning the moons, however, are definitely quite revealing and much fantasising. But, the moot point here is that when the universe is home to a minimum of 100 billion moons, then what could the number of the earths in it be? Can there be a moon without an earth to revolve around? Or, can a satellite exist without a planet? A moon is always the precursor of an earth accompanying it. As such, earths too have to be

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around the same 100 billion at the least! The real number of earths in the universe could also be deduced from the fact that merely one of the 400 billion stars of our one single galaxy, i.e., the Sun, carries around it eight planets or earths and more than 60 moons revolving around them. Apart from them, 70 more solar systems carrying 200odd earths too have so far been discovered in our immediate vicinity spanning around an area of just 250 light years in every direction, which is an extremely negligible fraction in comparison to the total area of the Galaxy 100,000 light years across. Remember, modern astronomy was only able to discover these many earths in our close by neighbourhood, and it doesn’t rule out the possible existence of the many more fainter ones in it. So, if the present telescopes are improved upon or some other superior technology is worked out then it could radically alter the current scenario in the very same environs and elsewhere in the Galaxy too. When such is the case with an ordinary galaxy, then one can truly imagine the other remaining galaxies and the number of earths present in them as well. But, at this point of time, it is an altogether different matter if these earths are rocky and could be habitable like our own Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars or gaseous and inhabitable like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. It could now be seen as to how brilliantly the Qur’an causes newer and far-reaching meanings to emerge in the contemporary scientific age from the same set of old words with a mere pronoun

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indicating the right noun. It could also be gathered from the present discussion that the Qur’an, rather than resorting to direct speech, cherishes to deal with and conveys the realities of the natural phenomena in such a meaningfully implied phraseology whose true purport should only be revealed at an appropriate time. In the present verse itself, for instance, rather than affirming the constellations and galaxies to be containing earths in clear and unambiguous terms, a very meaningful suggestion has been made that they do comprise moons. In other words, suns and moons have clearly been mentioned here, whereas the earths which form the crucial intermediate link between them have intentionally been omitted so that this great natural reality should marvellously be revealed upon man only after he himself is able to figure it out through his own instincts and knowledge. It should be born in mind here that far from any thought of the multiplicity of the moons, man in the ancient period was completely oblivious even of the fact that our own moon too owed its existence to that of the Earth. The forthcoming discussions would effectively unveil the expediency behind this amazing mode of Qur’anic expression. Furthermore, the current Qur’anic affirmation of the presence of the suns in the galaxies bears another significant universal insight for us. It firmly establishes that all the stars contained in the galaxies are the suns in their respective spheres! As stated above, modern science too considers them to be nothing but the suns. It should particularly be noted l l

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that all the galaxies discovered so far by the modern science are contained in the nearest of the seven skies according to the Qur’an: 2.4) We have adorned the nearest of the skies with the adornment of the stars. The Qur’an also states that all the seven skies are located one above the other: 2.5) The one who created seven skies one above the other… When all the heavenly bodies discovered so far are contained in the nearest sky, and when the skies themselves are placed one above the other, it could rightly be inferred from it that only the nearest sky is visible, and that the remaining six of them lie concealed from us. We shall now discuss the composition of these six invisible skies too in the light of the following four statements of the Qur’an, which shall reinforce our present contention even further: 3) Don’t you observe as to how the Almighty has created seven skies one above the other as layers, and in them made the moons luminous and the suns, lamps? In the same way as the suns and the moons were used in the previous statement in their singular forms in the context of all the galaxies of the nearest sky, here too they have appeared in a similar fashion in relation to all the seven skies. The customary alif lam too has clearly been prefixed to each of them indicating their use as generic nouns. Thus, the suns and moons are very much the part and parcel of not just the present sky, but that of the remaining six of them as well. Yet again, with the existence of the moons, the companion earths too are convincingly

established in all the seven skies! And with the uniformity of expression employed concerning all the seven skies here, it could further be deduced from it that there also exists uniformity between each of them concerning the number of earths they comprise. And when the nearest sky contains a minimum of 100 billion of them, then similar would the case be with each of the remaining skies too! It is now very much obvious as to why the generic alif lam has been prefixed to the ‘suns’ and the ‘moons’ appearing particularly in the current statement alone in contrast to the previous one when they are being used in their generic forms at both of these places. It is, in reality, being intended to convey through this difference of expression in the previous statement that even though the suns and the moons do appear in their generic forms there too, they are, however, not present in their entirety only in the first of the skies, but in comparison to their sum total in all the skies their number is merely partial in nature. So, the alif lam was prefixed to them only where they were to denote their total number rather than the partial one. This prefix in the current statement is, therefore, simultaneously indicative of their usage in their generic forms as well as their entirety. It is, thus, very much evident that both of the current and the previous statements are mutually interpreting the apparent ambiguities present in either of them with remarkable ease; if the latter statement is effectively clearing the doubt concerning the generic nature of the suns and the moons occurring in the former statement,

the former statement itself is specifying the actual number of earths being affirmed in the latter. Thus, the latter statement quite convincingly consolidates and supplements the former. We find another statement of the Qur’an in absolute conformity with the present one in the following words: 4) Say: Can you be ungrateful to him who has created the earths in two days, and equate others with him? Remember, he is the Lord of all the worlds. He has placed in the earths stabilisers from above, blessed them, and determined their foods in four days, alike for those who question. He, then, turned towards the skies, which were in the state of smoke then, and said to them and the earths, “Both of you submit yourselves willingly or unwillingly.” They said, “We do submit ourselves willingly.” Then, he secured them (i.e., the earths) in the seven skies in two days and revealed in each of the skies its due command. And we have adorned the nearest sky too with a few lamps, and safeguarded it. Such is the estimation of the all-mighty, the all-knowing! Four plus two, the six-day creation account here comprises the formation and coming into being of all the natural phenomena in existence today: 4.1) He created the skies and the earths and all that exists in between in six days… It flows from it, hence, that the current statement is illustrative of the state of these phenomena prior to their creation in their current form and as to how did all the seven skies and the other bodies present therein come into being. Thus, a mention is being made

here, in line with the previous statement, concerning the creation of all the earths in existence in all the seven skies in their generic form, rather than that of our own solitary one. Another significant argument favouring this contention is that when it has taken a total of six days for the creation of all that exists, then how can it take exactly the two-thirds of it for the creation of merely a single earth? It should be born in mind that the total mass of the Earth pales utterly before that of the present universe; it is roughly 1.3 million times smaller than just our single sun, the Sun itself is around 400 billion times smaller than the Galaxy, the Galaxy is about 100 billion times smaller than the total matter discovered so far in the universe. Furthermore, the proportion of the matter discovered so far to the space is just an atom of Hydrogen to 7.6 cubic meters of space. So, the gigantic nature and the true expanse of the universe could very well be imagined. In addition, there are six more skies and the matter contained in them as well. It unmistakably indicates, thus, that the earths too must be inestimable! Nevertheless, while basing ourselves on the enormous mass of the seven skies and their boundless frontiers and arguing upon the existence of innumerable earths commensurate with their formation in two-thirds of the total time of creation, it has to be remembered that the earths do not exist in space on their own; their very existence depends on that of their companion stars, the stars themselves owe their subsistence to that of the galaxies, and so on.

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This is because all the heavenly bodies hold each other through an invisible force known as the universal law of gravitation, to which the Qur’an too stunningly refers to as the invisible pillars: 4.2) He has created the skies with pillars invisible to you… The first four days of creation compulsorily includes the formation of all the earths, their companion suns, and all the other heavenly bodies bound together under the universal law of gravitation thus. The singling out of the earths with a special mention, however, signifies their central character, and their particular existence and preponderance is firmly established in every nook and corner of all the seven skies. Besides, if the prevalence of the earths in all the skies was argued upon in the previous statement with the mere mention of the attendant moons, a similar case is being made out in the current one of the compulsory existence of the accompanying suns with the solitary mention of the earths in all the skies. Thus, arguing upon the existence of suns through that of the earths once again reinforces

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the far-reaching reality that it is the latter that enjoys centrality of endurance all through the skies, and that the subsistence of the former is purely secondary in nature and relative to that of the latter. In other words, the fundamental objective behind the creation of the suns is their service to their respective earths and those inhabiting them. Even though the earths appear to remain subservient to the suns by revolving around them, but in reality, it is the latter that are at the constant service of the former and those who dwell in them by providing them with the means of sustenance. The Qur’an very clearly points to this fact in the following words: 4.3) He has subjugated to you the night and the day and the Sun and the Moon… When the Sun has been subjugated to man, then its servitude to his domicile Earth too is also established beyond reasonable doubt. It flows from it that the existence of the servant suns is pointless without that of the master earths. In principle, thus, wherever in the skies exist the suns, with them exist the earths too!! Basing l

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on the generally comprehensible suns, a very powerful argument is being made here through these statements with regard to the existence with them of the concealed earths thus. That is to say that on the strength of the realities science could reasonably perceive, we are also being acquainted today with those that generally fall beyond its scope too. The first Qur’anic confirmation of these rational contentions could be found in the very first verse of the current statement. The phrase ‘the one who has created the earths’ here is immediately being introduced, in an extremely eloquent and comprehensive manner, as ‘the Lord of all the worlds.’ This very bluntly suggests that the latter phrase has been substituted for the former. In other words, with the very mention of the creation of the earths, the formation of all the heavenly bodies mutually bound together under the law of gravitation is meant here. For the expression ‘all the worlds’ to mean all the natural phenomena in existence would be dealt with in detail in the coming pages. It, thus, shows that ‘earth’ has once again been used here as a generic noun. Further corroboration in this regard could be found in the remaining verses as well. Accordingly, after the creation of all the earths, the Creator turned towards the skies that were in the state of smoke then. Remember, the ‘sky’ too is similarly appearing in its singular form as do the ‘earth’ to denote that both of them have been used as generic nouns. This is the reason why both of these genders have been addressed to in the dual

form initially in the passage ‘Both of you submit yourselves willingly or unwillingly.’ But, in the very next verse, in an extremely marvellous fashion, each of them has been separated in its plural form as well; if the earths were indicated with the pronoun ‘them,’ the number ‘seven’ has been assigned to the skies. That is, when both the genre of the earths and the skies submitted themselves willingly before the Creator, he secured the former in the latter. Imagine once again that hadn’t the earths been multiple in number, how could have they been secured in all the seven skies then? Razi too has inferred all the earths in existence here. Moreover, the literal mention of the compulsory existence of the companion suns hitherto concealed deliberately by contenting with the creation in all the seven skies of the mere earths is significantly being revealed towards the end through the expression ‘And we have adorned the nearest sky with a few lamps,’ implying that the present discussion is being carried out in the context of virtually all the earths and their accompanying suns right from the very beginning itself and confirming the logical interpretation we have resorted to in this regard earlier. Also, notice the sagacious divergence of expression employed here; if a mention of only the earths in all the seven skies was made in the earlier part of these verses by concealing the existence of the suns, in the latter part, on the contrary, only the suns have been mentioned in the nearest sky, and the already established earths have been deliberately left

out. This very clearly suggests that just like the Qur’an argues upon the certain existence of the earths with the simple mention of the accompanying moons, it also establishes direct correlation between the earths and the attendant suns with a mention merely of any one of the two. And ‘lamps’ here as well is appearing as a common noun devoid of the prefix alif lam indicating the suns and their companion earths are comparatively lesser in number than those present in the remaining six skies. This is why the wisdom behind the creation and dispersal of such a great number of earths in all the skies is being described in the end as ‘Such is the estimation of the all-mighty and the all-knowing!’ It has also to be born in mind at this stage that the securing of the earths in the seven skies in two days also includes the transformation of the skies from their earlier smoky state to the present one, as another statement makes an explicit assertion that the earths were disseminated only after the erection of the skies: 5) Are you more difficult to create or the skies that he built? l

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He raised their roofs high, proportioned them, darkened their nights, brightened their days, and after that did he spread the earths out. Amid the creation of the skies and the spreading out of the earths, the passage ‘darkened their nights, brightened their days’ bears another testimony for us. Accordingly, the creation of the nights and days of the skies is in reality indicative of the creation of the suns in them, as without the latter the occurrence of the former just cannot be possible. Hence, creation of the suns prior to that of the earths too is quite obviously established. As such, the present verses are meant to elucidate and remove the apparent ambiguities contained in the previous statement and to strengthen and augment our contention there. The following verses too reinforce this fact even further: 6) The Almighty is he who has created seven skies, and likewise, the earths. His command descends among them (i.e., the earths) in order that you may know that he is capable of every thing, and that he encompasses everything knowl-

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edgeably. It is this verse that formed the historical basis for the many exegetes of the Qur’an to confine the multiplicity of the earths to seven. According to them, a similarity is being drawn here between the earths and the skies with the number seven. Had that been the case, however, a statement could have been made in a straightforward way that the Almighty has created seven skies and seven earths, and there wouldn’t have been any necessity for generating the current ambiguity. In reality, however, here too the same caution and foresight are unmistakably at work which we are witnessing continuously with regard to the actual number of earths contained in all the seven skies. Thus, a careful consideration of the Qur’anic usage of the word ‘skies’ on other occasions reveals that just as all the seven skies and the other heavenly bodies present in them are referred to with the phrase ‘the skies and the earths and all that exists in between’ the same sense is also conveyed with the mere ‘skies’ too. Respective instances of both these usages are as follows: 6.1) He created the skies and the earths and all that exists in between in six days, and then ascended the Throne… 6.2) Your Lord is the Almighty who created the skies and the earths in six days, and then ascended the Throne… In both of these mutually comparable verses, the six-day creation account discloses that a mention is being made in each of them concerning the creation of virtually all the natural phenomena in existence. Thus, if a broad

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classification of these phenomena is made then it would consist of three broad elements: seven skies, all the earths, and all the remaining heavenly bodies. The first of these verses just corresponds to this categorization, whereas the same meaning is being conveyed in the second verse with the mere mention of the skies and the earths, and the third element has completely been omitted deliberately. Hence, it could rightly be inferred from it that ‘skies’ is a comprehensive Qur’anic term that simply incorporates all the seven of them and all the stars and the other heavenly bodies present in them as well, and which is occasionally emphasized with the number ‘seven’ or with the phrase ‘the skies and the earths and all that exists in between.’ Likewise, its usage in the verse quoted in statement no. 4.2 above is another example, where all the heavenly bodies mutually bound together under the universal law of gravitation too have plainly been referred to as the ‘skies.’ Moreover, apart from these arguments, for the term ‘sky’ to connote all the bodies it consists of is a self-evident truth too. To mean the citizens with the mere mention of their respective countries of domicile is in practice in general. From the statements of ‘India is a multi-religious country’ or ‘UK is a developed state’ it is always meant that the religiosity or the development exist in their respective citizens and not in those countries per se. Accordingly, the statement ‘the Almighty is he who has created seven skies, and likewise, the earths’ denotes that in the same way as the seven skies together

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with the other heavenly bodies and particularly the innumerable suns inhabiting them were created, earths too have been given similar abundant existence. Thus, if a correlation was established between the earths and the suns in all the seven skies in the statement no. 4 above, a similarity between them is also being drawn here in terms of their absolute numbers, reinforcing the contention that this latter statement is basically meant to refine and further define the former. In this manner, the actual comparison being made here in the phrase ‘and likewise, the earths’ is between the earths and the seven skies, rather than merely the number seven. As stated earlier, science is in the process of gathering considerable evidence upon the existence of many more invisible universes similar to the present visible one as well. As a result, the concept of multi-verse has begun to gain ground today. However, as could be gathered from our present discussion, the Qur’an has already accorded a definite shape to this concept by unequivocally revealing their actual composition and their absolute number as well. All the heavenly bodies discovered so far by the modern astronomy are contained in just the nearest or the very first sky according to the Qur’an. The remaining six skies too carry galaxies, suns, moons, and earths in them and are invisible to us because all of them are placed one above the other. This quite clearly suggests that each one of them is a separate universe in itself. Modern astronomy too considers them to be beyond the pale of our observation and, thus,

concealed from us. Furthermore, another significant reality baring itself in the light of the present discussion is that the term ‘earth’ has generally been used in the Qur’an in its generic form, which is sometimes provided emphasis with jamee or a pronoun in its plural form is used to indicate it. It could, however, be contended here that the word ‘skies’ in its singularity is a comprehensive term to include all the earths as well, as our own earth too bears the same status in relation to the other earths. Even though such instances too are commonly found but it would be reflective of merely a partial reality of the Qur’an, as on many other occasions the plurality of the earths is sought with its mere mention in its singular form. Many of the instances referred previously do fall under this realm, and still more shall follow in due course. So, unless it specifically refers to just our own, ‘earth’ shall always be regarded in its generic form. Nevertheless, if it accompanies ‘sky’ or ‘skies,’ or is used in their context, then it shall always be considered to be conforming to the same usage. On quite a few occasions, however, the phrase ‘the skies and the earth and all that exists in between’ too has been used just to lay additional emphasis upon their plurality. These are some of the verses conveying the plurality of the earths in direct and real expressions. There are many more that dwell upon the subject indirectly and figuratively, still. They shall be dealt with in due course. It could reasonably be concluded from this discussion, thus, that the Qur’an always resorts to such vocabulary and expression in re-

lation to describing the multiplicity of the earths that if on the one hand their true number remains obscure to the predecessors, on the other, when man is well set on the threshold of figuring that great reality out through his own instincts and in the light of his own knowledge, it should itself reveal to him extremely emphatically. The Qur’an declares the basic objective behind such a methodical and long-term approach in very clear terms as follows: 7) Soon shall we reveal to them our signs in the environs of the earth and the skies and in their own lives until it becomes manifest to them that this is the truth. Isn’t it enough for your Lord to be witness over everything? Both according to the lexicon and the narration, the original Arabic word a‘faaq used here denotes the environs of the earth and the skies. Thus, it is clearly evident from this verse that those of the signs of Providence contained in the environs of the earth and the skies and kept concealed from the predecessors just to be revealed to man at a later date are nothing but this very massive universe and particularly its countless earths themselves being disclosed in an amazing idiom to us currently. So, the Qur’an itself has provided an extremely significant authentication to this humble writer in aid of his present endeavour. And the phrase ‘until it becomes manifest to them that this is the truth’ explains the rationale behind it that this carefully crafted strategy of the concealment of the true expanse of the natural world and its delayed disclosure to man in the light of his own knowledge was resorted to in order to establish

and demonstrate before him the marvellous and truthful nature of the Qur’an. This is the reason why it is again being asked if it wasn’t enough for the Almighty to be witness over everything, indicating that all the natural phenomena fall quite within the Divine knowledge, and, thus, finding a mention in this amazing Book. And it is why it has been undertaken at another occasion to reveal these signs later on, asserting that they would be so clear or so complete in harmony with the knowledge of man that he would clearly discern them: 7.1) Say: “Praise belongs to the Almighty alone. Soon shall he reveal to you his signs, and you would certainly recognise them.”

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References The Qur’an 39:67 25:61 71:16 85:1 15:16 37:6 67:3 71:15-16 41:9-12 25:59 31:10 16:12 79:27-30 65:12 25:59 7:54 41:53 27:93 (The author is Member, International Council for Scientific Signs in Quran and Sunnah, Muslim World League, Makkah Al-Mukarramah. He can be contacted at: [email protected])

Shariah and Science

in determining R’uyah and modern

Islamic calendar

(This paper was presented at the MWL conference in February 2012) Prof. Dr. Mohammad Iliyas, Ph.D. Through the collective efforts made globally, it is remarkable that Muslim have tackled the issue of a Unified Islamic Calendar worldwide in a relatively short period of 40 years. We look through the progress in underlying science supporting shariah and global efforts. Introduction Allah Almighty in His infinite mercy tied up science and technology to our needs for discharging our duties to Him in the usage of time in such a way that it helped develop science and technology as an urgent need for the community. Unity of Time is so important that Allah uses Time as an element of ‘Oath’ in Surah Al-Asr. During the last pilgrimage, the issue of the correct calendar basis was among the important messages delivered. Thus, it shows the critical nature of unity of correct time

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and why we all are devoting our time and energy to try and handle this issue of development and re-establishment of correct Islamic calendar on modern globalized setting. Accordingly, our primary focus under International Islamic calendar program (IICP) is: Standardize the basis for calculating the beginning of each Islamic calendar month; This basis to be expected visibility of the new lunar month (imkane Ru’yah fil hilal); Use of this information through the systematic use of International Lunar Date Lines (ILDL) in determining sighting reports and the beginning of all months but in particular the months of Ramadhan, Shawwal, and Dhul Hijjah. We need to implement ‘same expected visibility criterion’ for every place or region but simplified in us-

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age with ‘Ikhtalafe Matale’ consideration provided by shariah. It is easy to ascertain sighting reports against moonset after sunset and expected visibility considerations (OIC Resolutions, Penang Declaration, Saudi Arabia Decree, Islamabad Resolution, Delhi Resolution, Comstech Pakistan Resolution, Virginia Declaration, Pakistan Resolution-1983, and many other similar agreements over many years) with the help of global visibility ILDL data and regional calendar data using “one sighting sufficient for the region sharing same night” consideration as widely discussed and elaborated. Alhamdolillah, with the re-affirmation of moon set after sunset as a minimum basis in the Middle East region after many years of work, we have moved closer towards our objective on unity of the criterion from fifty over versions used in the past decades. We can all be proud and grateful to Allah for making this progress possible. I should think that a great deal of our task is done in approaching the convergence of the criterion. 2. Lunar Calendar in Islam The Islamic calendar has a critical role to play. This l

is due to its involvement in important religious practices and being an important element of Islamic civilization. The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle and it is a manifestation of close interaction of science, Sharia and society. Unfortunately, due to some confusion on scientific aspects, the Islamic calendar practices underwent some serious problems some 50 years ago which resulted in the sue of several dozen differing methods of calculations worldwide, varying within countries and from one country to another and causing public chaos over the years. 3 The Basics of Islamic Lunar Calendar It was on 10 Dhul Hijjah, during the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) last pilgrimage in the 10 year of Hijrah, that the decision to introduce a purely lunar Islamic calendar was made due to the following Quranic injunction: The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year); of them four are sacred that is the straight usage. (9:36) In addition to the above verse which removed human interference, we also have another critical verse: They ask thee concerning the new moons. Say: They are but signs to mark fixed periods of time in (the af-

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fairs of) men and for pilgrimage. (Quran, 2:189) Through this verse the many possibilities linked to the scientific basis of using moon for calendar was narrowed down to just one thereby converging to the single way of usage by combining sighting, expected visibility, and non-interference from administrative machinery by removing the practice of adding a 13th month irregularly (which is known as intercalation). This was supplemented by facilitating practicality through sharia principles like Ikhtalefe Matale (using a sighting over a wide zone). This established the natural time regulation into the sharia domain of ‘Lawful and Prohibited’ perspective. It is important to remember that the original Islamic calendar as a separate time keeper from the pre-Islamic Arabia Makkah calendar was started on 1st Muharram following the last pilgrimage by the Prophet in 632 CE (11 H). A

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few years later, the Islamic Era of Hijrah was introduced backdating the calendar to the year of Prophet Muhammad’s migration (Hijrah) to Medina 10 years before the last pilgrimage i.e. 1 Hijrah. The early introduction of an Era further consolidated the use of a unified calendar basis (for instance the Christian Era AD was introduced after more than 600 years of adoption.) 4 Lunar, Luni-Solar, and Solar Calendars The process of keeping track of time is almost as old as human civilization. Although today we widely use the sun for this purpose, it is only rather recently that the sun became dominant over the moon in this sphere of influence. The basic reason behind the early choice of the moon for calendrical use was its astronomical strength and superiority over the sun for an unaided yet simple and accurate cycle-system of time keeping. It is therefore, not surprising that all

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most all early civilizations started with the lunar calendar – Babylonians, Greeks, Jews and Egyptians in the Middle Eastern zone; Aztecs and Incas of the West; Chinese and Hindus of the East. Julius Caesar in 46 BC, ‘the year of confusion’, decided to replace the seasonally adjusted lunar calendar by a purely solar one (complied in 45 BC). It seems that it was not really so much the lunar calendar itself but the misuse of power by pontiffs in the matter of ‘intercalation’ which angered him enough to take the step. The Julian solar calendar of 45 BC accumulated an error of some 10 days by late 16th century CE. It was this slow cumulative error which led to the Gregorian Reform of 1582 CE. (by Pope Gregory) whereby the solar date was advanced by 10 days (Oct. 15 followed Oct. 4) and the additional quad-centennial rule of only 28 days in February was introduced. England did not agree to adopt the Gregorian correction until 170 years later in 1852 when in England Sept. 14 followed Sept. 2. On this occasion, England also shifted the start of the New Year to January 1 from March 21. These chaotic practices in the use of solar calendar only go to reflect the intrinsic strength of the lunar calendar system which, in its over 5,000 years’ recorded history, never gave a real cause for concern. 5 Sighting the New Moon and Science The Qadi (Ibn Rushd) said: “What is dictated by analogy and experi-

ence is that the new moon cannot be seen when the sun has not disappeared yet, unless it is far away from it, for at that time it is greater than the arc of vision, though it varies growing greater or lesser, but it is unlikely, Allah knows best, to be so large as to be seen when the sun has not gone down yet. The best reliance in this matter is on experience, as we have said. There is no difference here whether it is before the declining of the sun or after it, and the thing to be considered is the disappearance of the sun.” In order to establish a local calendar according to shariah, we need to sight the new moon in the evening horizon at a place after sunset. To do this successfully, we need to calculate our calendars based on the Hisab fil Ruyah or expected visibility of the new crescent moon. Also we need all countries to use same criterion for expected visibility in all countries uniformly and practically. We can in simple terms, the calculations should be made to show that the moon locate at least above the local horizon at the time of local sunset in a way we would need the sun to be above the local horizon for it to be seen by people from the surface. For the moon, it has to be somewhat higher up from the horizon compared to the sun as we will explain. The reason for why sight the new moon, we require it to be much higher above the horizon where as the sun can be just above the horizon is because the moon is not a light lamp while the

sun is. We can in fact make good calculations about the predictability of new moon’s visibility all over the world on any evening. This is due to the research work done on the prediction science over the last three decades building on the exciting researches made in previous centuries by many Muslim scientists starting in the 2nd century Hijrah. 6 Al Qardhawi on Using Calculations for Accepting Sighting Reports I had called, several years ago, for the adoption of definitive astronomical calculations for use, at least, in rejecting (premature sightings), if not in establishing (the beginnings of the lunar months). This I did in order to minimize the many differences that occur every year over the beginning of the time to fast and the fixing of the day for Eidul Fitr. Often, there are differences of fully three days between the various Islamic countries. The use of calculations for rejecting sightings is something that we can use, while still adhering to the majority opinion of fiqh scholars in regard to maintaining sightings by the naked eye as the basis for ascertaining the lunar months. But, if calculations show that a sighting is not possible (at a certain place and at a certain time) for the reason that the moon will not yet have been born there, or at any place in the Islamic world, then it becomes essential to reject any claim of a sighting at that time and place. This is be-

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cause the actual situation, as determined by means of conclusive astronomical calculations, refutes the claim. Rather, at such times, people should not even be asked to attempt to sight the crescent; and the shariah courts, fatwa houses, ministries of Islamic affairs, should not even open their doors to people claiming to have made sightings ((before the times determined by calculations) and willing to give testimony shahdah to the same. This was the position I felt comfortable with, and the one I mentioned in my writings, lectures, and fatwas. But then it was the will of Allah that I should find the matter explained by one of the major imams of the Shafii school of fiqh, Taqi Al-Din Al-Subki (d. 756AH), concerning whom it was said that he had attained the rank of mujtahid. Al-Subki wrote in his fatawa that if astronomical calculations precluded the possibility of sighting the moon, then it is the duty of the Qadi to reject the testimony of al witnesses. He wrote: “This is because calculations are conclusive evidence, whereas hearsay and the testimony of witnesses constitute possibility. And possibility cannot even be compared to conclusive evidence, much less take preference over it.” Al-Subki also mentioned that it is up to the Qadi to investigate the testimony of witnesses, in all legal matters. Then, if he finds that the testimony is disproved either by physical evidence or common sense, then he must reject it. He wrote: “The condition for accep-

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tance of evidence is that it is possible, physically, rationally, and legally. So if calculations indicate conclusively that something is impossible, then that something will be considered legally impossible, as it will be impossible to be witnessed, and the shariah does not deal with impossibilities.” In such cases the testimony of witnesses will be considered either supposition, or mistake, or falsehood. What if al-Subki had lived to see our age, and the progress made in the science of astronomy and physics? 7 International Lunar Date Line In the present times, if a calendar is to serve a practical use on global scale, the dates have to be interrelated between any two places through a Date Line. Both lunar and solar systems are basically local. For a long time in Europe as elsewhere, time and date was reckoned according to the local meridian of each place until nearly the end of the 19th century. Up until the introduction of the telegraph, trains, fast travel, and good time-clocks changed that. It was here that the solar system began to be internationalized with the arbitrary adoption of Greenwich, in 1984, as the Prime Meridian. In fact, there were 10 strong contenders including Jerusalem and the Egyptian Pyramids for the selection as a Prime Meridian. The adoption of the Prime Meridian gave rise to the International Solar Date Line (180 degrees longitude line) i.e.

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Anti Prime. It is here, in the matter of a Lunar Date Line, that the lunar calendar got left behind, and it is this need of a Date Line for Lunar calendars that I had the pleasure to undertake three decades of research work leading to the successful development of International Islamic lunar date lines (ILDL). The ILDL puts the world information on global visibility into a line so to say and makes it easy to use. We can in fact make good calculations about the predictability of its visibility all over the world on any evening which translates into a line of global visibility which is now widely known as International Lunar Date Lines (ILDL). 8. International Islamic Calendar Indeed, to produce a unified basis of world Islamic calendar, a new revised system of calendar calculations has been initiated about 35 years ago and has been progressively implemented an all countries in the world with support from the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). This system, which I had the privilege to initiate about 40 years ago, required that all countries base their national calendars on the scientific basis of ‘expected visibility of the new moon’ uniformly. An important decision by Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Indonesia, and many other countries in South East Asia, Indian subcon-

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tinent, North Africa, Europe and the American continent sealed the pact on the use of a new Imakane Ruyah based unified Islamic calendar system worldwide. The new system has become operational in the National Taqwims of these countries including Saudi Taqwim (Ummul Qura) gradually but surely. Accordingly, the dates for important occasions like the beginning and end of Ramadhan and Hajj follow the new calculation system known as the Imkane Ruyah system. This caps Muslim’s success in global implementation of a unified Islamic calendar system. We are pleased to record a major success through global implementation system conceptually although slight improvements in the global implementation need to be tackled for greater uniformity. 9. Shariah on the Use of One Sighting for Other Places A part (7.1.1.2.1) of Ibn Rushd’s Arabic book ‘Bidayate Al-Mujtahid Wa Nihayat Al Muqtasid’: If we say that sighting is established for those who have not sighted it on the basis of a report, then can this be extended from one and to the other, I mean, is it obligatory upon the people in one region, if they have not sighted the moon, to adopt the sighting in another land, or is sighting necessary for every land? There is disagreement over this. As for Malik, Ibn al-Qasim and the Egyptian jurists (who follow the Maliki school), have related from him that if it is established for the people of one

town that the people in another have sighted the moon, they are under an obligation of qada for the day observed by the others but was missed by them. This was also the opinion of al-Shafii and Ahmad There is the issue that stems from the establishment of the ruyah by means of a report. That is, can the ru’yah of a certain geographical location be accepted by the people of another location as their ru’yah? The majority of the fuqaha contend that if the new moon is sighted anywhere, fasting becomes mandatory. (wajib) upon all Muslims who have access to that information. This ruling is based upon their interpretation of a famous and authentic hadith, which is: “Fast when you see it (the new moon of Ramadhan) and break you fast when you see it (the new moon of Shawwal).” They regarded this hadith as addressing Muslims in general regardless of where they reside. It has also been established that there is not a single hadith, authentic or weak, that says that when the new moon is sighted in one locality or area it is binding on the residents of that area alone. Nor has it been stated by any of the Companions that they had different opinions about the obligation of fasting upon all Muslims when the sighting of the moon of Ramadhan is established in either on the two ways (i.e. ruyah or a report of a ruyah). Nevertheless there is an ‘athar reported by Ibn Abbas which is interpreted by

some fuqaha’ to mean that the sighting of the new moon in one area is binding only on the residents of that area. Kurayb reported that he saw the new moon (of Ramadhan) in Syria on Friday night. When he arrived in Madinah he learned from Ibn Abbas that the new moon was sighted in Madinah on Saturday night and that the residents of Medina intended to base their calculations upon their own sighting; they would either complete their month or establish the ruyah of the month of Shawwal themselves. Kurayb said, “Don’t you consider as sufficient the sighting of Muawiyah and his fasting (in Syria)?” Ibn Abbas answered: “This is how the Messenger of Allah instructed us.” The Maliki school report two opinions of Malik concerning this matter. The first, narrated by Ibn al-Qasim and the Egyptians says that if the people of a certain areas, have established the ru’yah (and it) has reached the people of another area, the latter is to make up the fast of that day if they have not fasted it. The second is reported by the Medina Malikis and says that a ru’yah is authentic only for the people in whose areas the moon has been sighted. The exception made by Malik is when the Imam accepts the report and makes it mandatory upon the people. The Hanafis contend that if a report about the sighting of the moon is received from other places, the responsible people among the Muslims will have to examine the news, and if it is found authen-

tic they can accept that ru’yah as for their locality as well. The Hanbalis contend that if the ru’yah is established in any locality fasting becomes obligatory upon all the other areas of Muslims (“lazima jami al-bilada as-sawmu”). Since the ru’yah has been established by Muslims fasting becomes a wajib for all: it is as if all localities are one. They interpret the report of Kurayb to refer to the end of fasting and the people of Medina argue that they could not end their fasting on the authority of a single report since it will also involve making up for the first day if they accepted his report. The Shafiis are the only ones to contend that if the ru’yah is established in a certain area it becomes wajib only on the people of that area and on those who are in the vicinity of it to fast: as for those who live far away. It is not wajib upon them to fast until they establish their own ru’yah. This ruling is based upon the report of Kurayb, since the Shafiis accept isolated reports (akhbar al-ahad) as an authentic source of law.

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10. Concluding Remarks Through the collective efforts make globally, it is remarkable that Muslims have tackled the issue of a Unified Islamic Calendar world-wide in a relatively short period of 40 years. Remembering that when Gregorian Correction was introduced to Christian Solar calendar in 1582 CE, it took England and the colonies nearly 200 years to adopt it.

Spread of

HIV/AIDS

An Islamic Outlook At the end of 2010, an estimated 34 million people were living with HIV, of whom 16.8 million were women and 3.4 million were children. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the most affected region, with 22.9 million people living with HIV followed by South and Southeast Asia. In 2010, AIDS claimed 1.8 million lives. Besides the fact that the number of people being infected with HIV continued to fall; there were over 7000 new infections per day, and 97% of these new infections occurred in low and middle income countries (UNAIDS, 2011). Aishah Nasarruddin Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was first described in the early 1980s in homosexual men and later drug users, in San Francisco and New York City who presented with unusual features of opportunistic infections (1). It is a virus that infects cells of the human immune system, causing impairment of their function. It results in failure of the immune system, leading to ‘immune deficiency’ where it can no longer fight off infections and diseases. The weakened immune system makes immunodeficient people more susceptible to a wide range of infections which are unusual

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among people without immune deficiency. Most people infected with HIV are unaware that they have been infected as they can be asymptomatic and do not immediately feel ill after infection. However, as the immune system progressively deteriorates, susceptibility to infection may lead to symptoms. A person is said to have acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) - the most advanced stage of HIV infection when he has any of more than 20 opportunistic infections or HIVrelated cancers, or when the CD4 T cell count is less than 200 per mm3 of blood. l

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HIV is a blood-borne virus, characteristically transmitted through sexual intercourse, shared intravenous drug paraphernalia and mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, delivery or breastfeeding. The most common route of infection varies among countries and cities, depending on the affected group of population and local practices. Most at-risk populations are the injecting drug users, men who have sex with men, and commercial sex workers due to their specific social and behavioral characteristics. Due to this very fact, when it comes to HIV we cannot escape from

among men in many countries. Nevertheless, today the proportion of women living with HIV is 50% globally (UNAIDS, 2011). AIDS in Religion It was postulated that behaving They have emerged as another in accordance with religious te- group being hit by this disease, nets may have impacts on health and many of them are innocent. and disease transmission. Due to Infected men who engaged in risk the common constraints religions behaviors may transmit the displace on sexuality, religiosity ease to their stable intimate partmay be negatively related to sex- ners or unsuspecting wives, who ually transmitted diseases (2). A may later transmit it to their chilcloser look at Islam reveals a spe- dren should they become pregcific prohibition on risk behaviors nant. To make matters known to be associated with HIV worse, women are infection. For example, Islam more vulnerable than prohibits homosexuality, premar- men to contract HIV ital sex, adultery, drugs, alcohol, infection due to bioanal intercourse and sexual inter- logical, cultural and course during menstruation. In socioeconomic factors (WHO, 2003). addition, Muslim men undergo Biologically it circumcision, and studies have is much easier for a shown that medically performed woman to contract circumcision can reduce men’s HIV from sexual inrisk of HIV infection by about tercourse with a man, 60% (2). However, the fact that than it is for a man Muslim countries are not spared with a woman. Womfrom raging HIV epidemic shows en have larger surthat despite religious teaching and face area of mucous cultural taboos, there are Muslims membrane which is who engage in these activities, able to tear and absorb fluid easmaking HIV spread inevitable. It ily. Moreover, seminal fluids is a public secret that premarital have higher concentration of HIV sex is rampant, prostitution flour- compared to fluids secreted by ishes; drug addicts run free; and women. In addition, the presence homosexual/bisexual groups are of sexually transmitted disease becoming progressively more which often does not give rise to visible in these regions. any symptoms in women making them unlikely to be recognized or The Female Factor treated, can increase the risk of However, HIV affects not only HIV ten-fold. the high risk groups, but it has Besides biological factors, found its way into the general social and cultural status quo has population as well. In the early made young women more vulnerstages of the pandemic, HIV was able to HIV infection. Cultures thought to primarily affect men, of silence that expect women to as the disease was predominantly

be ignorant about sex, and not to enquire about sex and sexuality, have prevented them from comfortably seeking information about reproductive health. Some women experience sexual and physical violence that may result in HIV infection, as coerced sex and rape are usually conducted without the use of a condom. Women who experienced this situation and mothers of young girls who know that their chil-

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discussing its close relation with morality and religious values.

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dren were abused are frequently reluctant to come forward to speak out for fear of stigmatization, victim-blaming, the shame of incestuous rape and others. As a result, these traumatized young girls may suffer low self-esteem, feeling worthless and may resort to dangerous and destructive behavior. Studies have indicated that girls who had been sexually abused manifested greater levels of high risk sexual behavior such as having sex at an early age or trading sex for food, money shelter or drugs. Thus, even though a

rape victim may not contract HIV from the perpetrator, she may acquire it later on as a result of engaging in high-risk sexual activities. Studies in some countries also revealed that women often avoided negotiating condom use, as it can trigger an aggressive male response. Among married couples HIV risk is negligible if both partners are faithful to each other and do not engage in risky behaviors. However, there are many cases where the male spouses are exposed to HIV risk in different forms. In this kind of situation women are often unable to negotiate safe sex with their partners for fear of hostility and unwanted consequences. Additionally, economic dependence on men and lower social status in the society prevent women from detaching themselves from abusive and risky relationships. If they were abandoned or divorced by their husbands, economic vulnerability may force women to engage in unsafe transactional sex in exchange for the basic necessities of living, this is especially relevant in relation to women with limited educational and poor background. This also can lead to HIV infection. Responding to victims Due to these dynamics and disparities in HIV transmission, it often triggers a dilemma on how to interact and respond to the potentially deadly disease. The religious response towards HIV varies generally. One response is associating HIV with divine punishment and thus turning to dis-

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approval or victim-blaming; and the other is adopting a compassionate approach towards HIV patients, believing that religion advocates mercy and care for people who suffer from illness or catastrophe, even if they suffer as a result of sin or crime. For example, during the early days of HIV/AIDS, some religious circles viewed people living with HIV/AIDS as ‘sinful recipients of God’s punishment’. Reverend Jerry Falwell commented in 1987, saying that “God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah primarily because of the sin of homosexuality. Today He is again bringing judgment against this wicked practice through AIDS” (3). In the same year, President Ronald Reagan made a statement alluding that God had brought the plague of AIDS as a response to illicit sex, which is against the Ten Commandments. Evangelist Billy Graham also made a comment about AIDS being God’s judgment on human sin, however later he withdrew his statement saying that AIDS was a disease and to suggest that it was part of God’s judgment would be very wrong and cruel(4). A Muslim point of view was advocated by Professor Malik Badri, in relation to a narration of the Prophet: Abd Allah ibn ‘Umar said: the Prophet (peace be upon him) came to us and said, ‘O Muhajirun you may be afflicted by five things, God forbid that you should live to see them. If fahishah should become widespread, you should realize that this has never happened without diseases befalling the people,

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which their fore bearers never suffered’. The word fahishah is often translated as fornication or homosexuality. However, critiques have argued that this interpretation should be re-examined, suggesting that fahishah may refer to a larger swathe of sins than simply transgressive sex and can be interpreted in the context of Islamic social justice (6). References 1. Grmek, M. D., Maulitz, R. C., & Duffin, J. (1993). History of AIDS: Emergence and Origin of a Modern Pandemic: Princeton University Press. 2. Peter B, G. (2004). HIV and Islam: Is HIV prevalence lower among Muslims? Social Science & Medicine, 58(9), 1751-1756. 3. As quoted in Smith, R. (1994). AIDS, Gays, and the American Catholic Church: Pilgrim Pr. 4. Siker, J. S. (Ed.). (2007). Homosexuality and Religion: An Encyclopedia: Greenwood Press. 5. Hasan: Related by Ibn Maajah (no. 4019) and Abu Nu’aym in Hilyatul Awliyaa (8/333-334). It was authenticated by Shaykh al-Albani in as- Saheehah. 6. Esack, F., & Chiddy, S. (Eds.). (2009). Islam and AIDS: Between Scorn, Pity and Justice: Oxford: Oneworld. (Aishah Nasarruddin is a trainee lecturer in the Women’s Health Development Unit, Uni-

Islam in Europe

A Forgotten History Saulat Parvez When we study European history, it generally traces the roots of Western civilization to the Greeks and Romans, followed by a dark period called the Middle Ages in which Europe languished in gloom. We are told that this bleak era eventually gave way to the Renaissance after Europeans rediscovered their classical Greek and Roman scholarship. This movement became the precursor to the modern world as we know it today: progressive, technological, scientific – confirming the assertion that almost all great inventions have had their origins in the Western world. Yet, this narrative of history doesn’t answer many crucial questions: Was all of Europe covered with a dark cloud during the Middle Ages? How was the rest of the world faring at the same time – did any inventions take place in any other part of the world or Europe? How did the Europeans rediscover their classical roots? How did this regained scholarship enable Europe to emerge out of darkness and achieve all the greatness that it has? This is where another – seemingly disconnected – history steps in. It is an account that neatly fills in all the missing gaps and crevices in the history of Europe as it is taught – yet, sadly, this record is usually expunged from history books.

Europe: Re-Visiting History Europe itself is often thought of as Eastern and Western Europe, which goes back to the time of the Holy Roman (Western) Empire and the Byzantine (Eastern) Empire. The Eastern countries consist of Belarus, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Ukraine, among others, on its north side and the Balkans – such as Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, Hungary – as well as Turkey to its south. The Western nations include Spain, Italy, France, Germany, Austria, England, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. Russia is considered a Euro-Asiatic state. The Islamic empire had spread into Eastern Europe first through Turkey and then into the Balkans as well as eastern Russia; the fall of Constantinople in CE1453 established the Ottoman rule in Southeastern Europe. The fact that many of their counterparts today (such as Bosnia, Kosovo, Albania, Bulgaria, etc.) boast either an Islamic identity or a Muslim majority vouches for this reality. As for Western Europe, Muslims occupied Spain in CE711 and made inroads into France soon thereafter; however, they were decisively driven out of France in a series of battles by Charles Martel by CE800. Muslims also ruled southern Italy for about a 200 years between the ninth and eleventh centuries, although

it was sometime in the thirteenth century when all Muslims were expelled from Sicily, an island off the coast of Italy.

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Spain After a coup overturned the Umayyad rule in Damascus in 750 and the victors massacred the royal Umayyad family, Abdul Rahman, the lone surviving relative of the caliph, escaped. He traveled south to North Africa, narrowly missing his pursuers, and eventually entered Muslim Spain, a pro-Umayyad constituency which at the time was beset with infighting and rivalries. By 756, he had united the different factions under his leadership and re-established Umayyad rule in faraway Cordoba in Spain, also known as al-Andalus. This marked the beginning of a glorious era in which al-Andalus became known, on the one hand, for its architectural grandeur, aesthetic gardens, intellectual achievements, scientific inventions, and cultural advancements, and on the other, for a spirit of tolerance and mutual respect among people of differing faiths, also known as convivencia. At a time when Western Europe was, quite literally, plunged in darkness, there was street lighting and running water in Cordoba. The Great Mosque of Cordoba dazzled its visitors with its intricate calligraphy and imposing arches. Cordoba’s

sprawling gardens, and the later cities of Madina al-Zahra and al-Hamra, showcased the power, splendor, and luxury of Muslim Spain. The Umayyad rule lasted through the 11th century, followed by North African Muslim rulers reigning Spain until the 13th century. Infighting and rivalries had reduced their unity to individual kingdoms which enabled the northern Christian rulers to regain those territories. At this point, Cordoba was lost and Toledo became the next major Muslim city. However, Muslims soon lost Toledo as well, and the last Muslim stronghold in Spain was Granada where Muslims continued to rule for the next two centuries, until Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand conquered it in 1492 – incidentally, the same year when Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas. Sicily The Emirate of Sicily, located in the south of Italy, was a part of the larger Islamic Empire from the ninth to the eleventh centuries, under a variety of rulers. Under Muslim administration, Sicily flourished: its population doubled, people of different ethnic and religious backgrounds co-existed harmoniously, agriculture prospered, exports increased, and irrigation systems improve. The conquerors redistributed large estates into smaller holdings, spurring an end to the economic and social depression. Many new crops were introduced such as cotton, hemp, date palm, sugar cane, mulberries, and citrus fruits. Related industries grew, such as textiles, sugar, ropemaking, matting, and paper (which was later introduced to Europe via Sicily). Sicilian silks were also internationally known for their fine quality and beauty. Muslims lost Sicily to the Normans in the late eleventh century, but continued to live in the multicultural island peacefully. The Nor-

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mans preserved the Muslim heritage so much so that Arabic continued to be the lingua franca in Sicily for the next 100 years. King Roger II spoke Arabic and employed Muslim scientists and architects in his court; Muslim soldiers were also a part of his army. He continued to use the agricultural and industrial methodologies adopted by the former Muslim rulers of Sicily. Palermo, the Sicilian hub under Muslim rule, was maintained as the capital under the Normans. Roger II commissioned al-Idrisi to draw a world map; it proved to be the most advanced ancient map. Al-Idrisi also compiled the greatest geographical treatise of the Middle Ages, known as the Book of Roger. Ibn Jubair visited Sicily in the late 12th century after being shipwrecked on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. He was very surprised by the warm reception he encountered at the hands of the Normans. Of Palermo, ibn Jubair recounted, “The capital is endowed with two gifts, splendor and wealth. It contains all the real and imagined beauty that anyone could wish. Splendor and grace adorn the piazzas and the countryside; the streets and highways are wide, and the eye is dazzled by the beauty of its situation. It is a city full of marvels, with buildings similar to those of Cordoba, built of limestone… There are so many mosques that they are impossible to count. Most of them also serve as schools. The eye is dazzled by all this splendor.” Unfortunately, this spirit of convivencia did not last. As with Spain, all Muslims were evicted from Sicily and by the end of the thirteenth century, only the traces they left behind showed in Sicilian architecture, Arabized words in the nowLatinized language, and the Arabstyle outdoor marketplace, among others. Muslim presence in Spain and Sicily left indelible marks on the l

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architecture, sciences, philosophy, literature, and astronomy of Western Europe – even though, quite unfortunately, much of it has been forgotten. The Seeds of the Renaissance Islam encourages the gathering of knowledge and the use of reasoning. In the Qur’an, God repeatedly urges humans to use their intellect and thinking skills so that they may differentiate between truth and falsehood. Furthermore, Islam is a universal religion – not for a few chosen people or tribes, but for all people and for all times. With this collective and inclusive outlook, Muslims began to gather any and every scholarly work they could lay their hands on – be it Greek, Persian, or Indian – as the Islamic Empire grew. They, then, commenced the scrupulous task of translation and, afterwards, busied themselves in its study. Moreover, they initiated the procedure of verifying ancient beliefs and often postulated alternate theories regarding core issues, complete with extensive testing of their ideas. In fact, the scientific process of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and conclusion was first fully introduced by the Muslims. For instance, Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965-1039), who studied light and wrote The Book of Optics, believed that human beings are flawed and only God is perfect. To discover the truth about nature, Ibn al-Haytham, a devout Muslim, reasoned that one must eliminate human opinion and allow the universe to speak for itself through physical experiments. “The seeker after truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them,” he wrote. “But rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration.”

Spain and Sicily provided two major points of contact between Muslims and the rest of Europe. Interaction between Muslims of these two states and the rest of the Western European bloc took place as a result of Crusades and other battles, alliances, and intellectual pursuit. In fact, Spain became the prime channel through which advancements in a variety of fields from all over the Muslim world reached Western Europe. Some westerners visited Spain and were enthralled by its beauty, commitment to scholarship, and convivencia. They decided to stay, learned Arabic, and began translating Muslim scholarly works into Latin. Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187) was a prolific translator who translated some 87 Arabic books into Latin, including the texts of al-Khwarizmi, al-Farabi, ar-Razi, among others. Michael Scot (c. 1175 – 1232) was another such individual who went on to become the librarian for King Frederick II’s vast collection of Arabic works in Sicily. European depiction of the arRazi, in Gerard of Cremona’s “Recueil des traités de medecine” 1250-1260. Gerard de Cremona translated numerous works by Arab scholars. Such exchange facilitated the transfer of knowledge from Spain into the rest of Western Europe. Many Muslim scholars were given Latin names such as Avicenna (Ibn Sina, c. 980 – 1037), Rhazes (ar-Razi, c. 841-926), and Averroes (ibn Rushd, c. 1126-1198); their works, as translated in Latin, became widely available. For instance, Ibn Sina’s Canon of Medicine set the standard for medicine and was in use in Europe for 700 years. Ar-Razi, the greatest physician of all times, accurately differentiated between smallpox and measles and prescribed treatments; in addition, he discovered numerous compounds and chemicals

including alcohol and kerosene, among others. Ibn Rushd provided a line-by-line commentary of Aristotle, convincing his readers that belief in both faith and reasoning is possible – leading to a rift between the powerful clergy and the intellectuals in Western Europe, which in many ways became the basis for the Renaissance. The crankshaft was invented by al-Jazari (c. 1136-1206) of Anatolia, an essential component of machines enabling modern life, and it began showing up in Europe soon thereafter. The great works of Jabir ibn Haiyan (c. 721-815) brought new concepts of chemistry to Europe and ibn Haiyan was known as the father of chemistry and alchemy. Al-Zahrawi (c. 936-1013), the father of modern surgery, designed and invented surgical tools still in use today. The Muslims also bequeathed a perfected astrolabe to the Europeans which became the chief navigational tool in Europe until the 18th century. Muslims made further astronomical achievements by venturing to show how lunar and solar eclipses take place and calculating the earth’s diameter and circumference to a remarkable degree of accuracy – at a time when Europeans thought the Earth was flat. Al Khwarizmi’s findings introduced the most advanced mathematics to Europeans, who in turn called him the father of algebra and coined the term “algorithm” after him; he lived from about 780 to 850 A.D. Ibn al-Haytham’s research in light and optics resulted in the invention of the camera obscura – a phrase which incidentally is derived from the Arabic ‘kamra,’ referring to a room. He determined that light travels in straight lines and thus is able to project it onto a wall in a darkened room through a hole. “Five hundred years before Leonardo da Vinci, he delves into things that will later be attributed to

the great Italian and to Kepler and Descartes, when in fact they, like some Renaissance and post-Renaissance thinkers, are really replicating or building on what the great Muslim scientists had established long ago,” remarks Michael Hamilton Morgan in Lost History. Together, this compendium of Muslim scholarship provided the seeds of the coming Renaissance in medieval Europe. However, when it did come, followed by the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific and industrial revolutions, much of the acknowledgement and credit was forgotten and what remained was the belief that Europe had miraculously reawakened to its classical Greek roots after a long sleep.

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Contemporary Choices: Confrontation or Convivencia? Sadly, today, the world is rife with a different kind of environment, one of confrontation than of convivencia and Muslims today are too often seen more in the light of terrorism than illuminated by their glorious past. Rather than acknowledging and crediting Muslims for their great service to the rebirth of Europe, its countries are at present busy with either lampooning Muslim beliefs and their Prophet (peace be upon him), or banning minarets and Islamic-style dress. Instead of reestablishing the Andalusian and Sicilian models of convivencia, they are set to marginalizing a significant minority in their midst. It can only be hoped that today’s Europe will reawaken to the reality of its past and recognize the immense debt it owes to Muslim erudition – and enfranchise its European Muslim population rather than alienating them. (The Message International)

Israel, Iran

Troublemakers in M-E Region Prince Turki Al-Faisal (Text of Prince Turki Al-Faisal’s speech at the World Affairs Council of Washington, DC, at the National Press Club, on 15 November 2011) Ladies and gentlemen, Thank you for inviting me to speak to you today. I present to you a tour d’horizon, as sailors have called it for centuries. To conduct a tour d’horizon is to simply take a 360 degree look around to assess the current weather conditions. Where there is calm, and where there are storms? And then, once the tour d’horizon has been taken, the sailor turns his eyes to his ship itself – what is the condition of the vessel as it prepares to set to sea? Through this assessment the sailor can then determine the best way to guide his vessel safely to port. As you well know, the Middle East has entered a phase of profound transition, with governments crumbling, new social forces emerging, partnerships re-aligning, and international tensions – some quite old, some fairly recent – mounting and requiring re-assessments from all policy angles. However, while the general picture of Saudi Arabia’s surroundings is predominated by this great turmoil, at the center of these many storms basks the Kingdom, which, I am glad to report, remains stable and secure thanks to the wise leadership of King Abdullah, evolutionary social and

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political reforms, a rising nationalism among the people, the continual investment of our government in infrastructure and security, and economic policies that have blessed our land with economic growth, budget surpluses and over $600 billion in foreign reserves. This is not to say that the Kingdom is without its challenges, both from within and outside its borders, but as I outline for you the various storms that mount upon our horizon, I also encourage you to keep in mind that the vantage point from which I view these tumults is safe and sound and has every intention of using its vast resources to help its neighbors weather the current difficult conditions. First and foremost among these storms are the political changes occurring in a host of Arab nations. While Saudi Arabia recognizes the wills of all people to determine their nation’s leadership and accepts and in many cases supports the developments in its neighboring countries, the Kingdom must remain focused on the difficult realities that almost always follow social upheaval based on popular uprisings. Egypt, Libya and Tunisia, the lands from which the so-

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called Arab Spring, which I prefer to call Arab troubles, first sprang, have now entered stages of dangerous and difficult reorganization. All three countries’ economies and social orders are under threat and opportunistic politicians and groups are poised to significantly increase their power through upcoming elections. Strife in Yemen remains highly problematic. The situation in Bahrain seems to have stabilized for the time being, but problems could flare up again, as indicated by a recent discovery of an Iranian-supported plan to bomb installations including the Saudi embassy as well as the King Fahd Causeway. In Syria, a society now sits on the edge of an abyss of nightmarish internecine warfare, which could spill into Lebanon, Turkey and Iraq. In response to the atrocities committed by Assad, the Arab League has proven itself to be capable of bold action through its decision to suspend Syria’s membership and put strong political and economic sanctions against Damascus. While these tenuous conditions are of relatively recent emergence, several older problems – storms that have been brewing for some

time, as it were – exist, and their outcomes appear equally difficult to determine. First among these, and intimately linked with the difficulties many Arab nations are now facing, is the case of the ambitions of Iran’s leaders. From our perspective, there are two overwhelming issues with them–their ambition to acquire nuclear weapons and their persistent meddling in the affairs of other nations. As for the issue of nuclear weapons, Saudi Arabia continues to insist that Iran’s leaders should give up their goal of acquiring nuclear weapons and support, by deed, the creation of a zone free of weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East. This is clearly what is best for the future of the people of Iran and the region. And to convince Iran of this path, we fully support the tightening of sanctions, assertive diplomacy, and concerted action via the United Nations. The NPT review conference held last year in the UN called for a conference in 2012 to initiate action on the zone, which must be inclusive of all countries in the Middle East. The zone must include an incentives regime for countries that join composed, not only of technical and economic support for member countries to develop civilian uses of nuclear energy, but also a nuclear security umbrella for the zone’s member countries guaranteed by the five permanent members of the Security Council. It should also have a sanctions regime for countries that refuse to join which should not only be economic and diplomatic sanctions but also military action against those countries seen to be developing weapons of mass destruction, also guaranteed by the five permanent members of the Security Council.

Of the second issue – Iranian leaders’ meddling in the affairs of sovereign Arab nations – we have seen ample and heinous evidence in the uncovering of an assassination plot against the Saudi Ambassador to the United States, Adel al-Jubeir. The web of connections that were uncovered between the would-be assassins, elements of the Iranian government, especially senior members of the Quds force, and Mexican drug cartels indicates the depths of depravity and unreason to which the Ahmadinejad regime has sunk. Fortunately, this plot was foiled and we can only hope that those responsible are brought to justice and that those who are not will come to realize that such actions are entirely counter-productive to peace. But this is just the tip of the iceberg. All over the Arab world, the current leadership in Iran consistently and covertly meddles in the affairs of other governments by funding non-state entities like Hezbollah, and various other groups. I mentioned the discovery by Qatar of Iranian surrogates planning terrorist acts in Bahrain. In Iraq, Iranian interference has deprived the Iraqi people of an inclusive government. As Saudi Arabia looks out at Iran and considers what is to come in the next decade, it can only hope that the people of that nation will encourage their leaders to take a wiser and safer route than the one they now seem bent upon traveling, much to the detriment of themselves and others. Another storm of far longer gestation than the recent uprisings – a situation that lies at the center of so many difficulties faced by our region – is the plight of the Palestinian people. As former US President Jimmy Carter recently

said, “the persecution of the Palestinians under the occupation forces is one of the worst examples of human rights deprivation.” And while many similar claims and counterclaims have been expressed on this issue the path to peace is clear. King Abdullah’s forthright Arab Peace Initiative of 2002 laid the groundwork for an end to hostilities: if the Israelis withdraw from occupied lands, including East Jerusalem, to their pre-4 June 1967 boundaries and address the refugee situation through mutual agreement, Saudi Arabia and the Arab League and the Organization of the Islamic Conference will commence normal and peaceful relations with the State of Israel. And on the allimportant issue of statehood, Saudi Arabia stands with those UN member nations who support a Palestinian state gaining recognition in that international body. Not only will this be a major moral victory, it will be a much-needed step in pushing forth substantive peace talks. Without statehood, the Palestinians cannot go to the negotiation table with Israel on an equal footing. It has been tried, and it has failed. Let us blaze a new path to solve this most urgent issue. When it comes to difficulties facing our region, one must still admit that terrorism remains an important threat. But it is not just Al Qaeda that continues to plot against us. There are also various emerging and re-emerging non-state actors who are moving in to take advantage of power vacuums created by shifting political dynamics. With governance in so many MENA nations in such tenuous states, the perfect conditions for terrorist cells to take root and conduct desperate, evil and anarchical acts are created. This is why Saudi Arabia continues

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to work with its allies, wherever it can find them, to stamp out this scourge of individuals who feel it is their right to visit heinous violence upon others in the name of false and destructive ends. All of these storms – Arab nations facing turmoil and violence, Iranian leaders’ regional aggressiveness, the continuing IsraeliPalestinian conflict, and the creation and exploitation of terrorist enclaves – share a common thread in that they deeply influence the general state of security and stability in the region, and when one is discussing security and stability in the Middle East, one inevitably comes to the issue of global energy. This is primarily due to the importance of Saudi Arabia to the planet’s energy supply and other factors. Iran, the UAE, Iraq, and Kuwait remain important suppliers of oil. Pipelines and shipping lines run throughout the region, crossing areas of great contention and conflict. The perceived stability of the region plays an ever more important role in oil markets and their influence on pricing, which inevitably affects almost every economy in the world. So, as we look out onto the wider horizon of the global energy market through the storm clouds of the Middle East, what do we see? Again, we see transition. As most of you well know, Europe and the United States remain important energy consumers, but Asia is coming to play an ever larger role in global demand. Also, almost every nation is looking to diversify its energy mix to take advantage of alternative fuel sources, both to foster what you call here, “energy independence” and to prevent negative environmental effects. But from the Saudi perspective, it

is not about energy independence, but energy inter-dependence, both for the good of our economies and our environment. So what we see, if only through the eyes of hope, are the wiser voices in each nation winning out and encouraging their governments to work together to guarantee an energy mix that comes from a variety of stable sources. Saudi Arabia, ladies and gentlemen, means to play a major role in helping them achieve that. This leads me to my final topic – Saudi Arabia itself – for inevitably every tour d’horizon must be followed by an assessment of the ship’s conditions so that the sailor may know of what it is capable, given the current weather patterns. I am happy to report that the Saudi “ship of state” is in quite good sailing condition. With 25 percent of the world’s oil reserves and over 70 percent of global spare capacity, current projections for the next five years estimate that the Kingdom will earn on average of about $250 billion in oil revenue per year (for 2011, the projection is almost $300 billion). To maintain current oil export levels while at the same time fulfilling its growing domestic energy needs, the government is investing heavily in solar technology, and will spend more than $100 billion to build at least 16 nuclear power plants across the Kingdom. Solar energy will fill the gap in the short term, satisfying some incremental domestic energy needs, and within a decade, plans call for nuclear power to play the leading role in augmenting oil as a source of domestic energy. Thus, Saudi Arabia will be able to fuel the growth of its burgeoning economy without significantly reducing its oil exporting capability.

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I am also glad to report that Saudi Arabia’s oil producing infrastructure has proven, and will continue to prove, safe from attack. This is not only due to the money spent on security and surveillance, but also due to the creation of a 35,000 strong facilities security force. These troops come from across the Kingdom and receive extensive training through a U.S. technical training program. This specialized force, which did not exist before 2005, has the exclusive responsibility of guarding all energy installations against both internal and external threats. In relation to the political storms addressed above, Saudi Arabia, as the birthplace of Islam and a leader of the Muslim and Arab worlds, has a unique responsibility to become involved in whatever way is prudent, fair and beneficial to help those states now experiencing ill weather to arrive to safer shores. We have every intention of carrying out that responsibility for the good of all. Not only through diplomacy, advisory missions and financial gifts, but also through a more robust foreign policy directed toward fulfilling our role as a contributor to regional stability. None of Saudi Arabia’s efforts would bear fruit were they not emanating from a nation that has made great efforts, and I am proud to say has largely succeeded in those efforts, to create a nation that is stable and secure. The reasons for this are many. Over the last couple of decades our government has undertaken a series of reform measures – in education, in citizen participation, in security, in economic policy – that have born bountiful fruit. We now find among our population a rising tide of nationalist sentiment that is binding

us together ever more firmly. Three particular examples of late show the mix of progressiveness, security, and stability that can be found in Saudi Arabia. In terms of progressiveness, last September, King Abdallah confirmed the right of women to vote and be elected in our electoral process as well as to be appointed to the Shura Council. On the issue of security, one only need look at what happened recently in the Kingdom – the Muslim Pilgrimage, or Hajj. Three million Muslims from around the world came to Mecca to fulfill the fifth pillar of Islam. I’m sure that those of you here who deal in the logistics of setting up outposts for large numbers of personnel can appreciate the massive administrative and security issues that arise from a city of three million people suddenly emerging. Fortunately, and this is a credit to the Saudi officials involved as well as those pilgrims who made the journey, the entire massive event went off without a single hitch. Finally, on the issue of stability, with the passing of Crown Prince Sultan, who served us nobly as our Defense and Aviation Minister for nearly five decades, Crown Prince Nayef has been named the heir successor to the throne, proving the effectiveness of the succession process now in place. Those familiar with Crown Prince Nayef know that he is a staunch and loyal advocate for progress in the Kingdom, despite some reports in the Western press that have painted him as overly conservative and liable to undo many of the reforms started by King Abdallah. Indeed, Jihad El-Khazen, the well respected and versed journalist in Saudi affairs and who has personally interviewed Prince Nayef several

times, when writing for al-Hayat newspaper in London put it well recently when he wrote, and I quote: “Prince Nayef will not abolish any decision made by King Abdallah; the rule in Saudi Arabia is not individual. Rather, it reflects the consensus of its leadership.” In short, the forward-looking reforms that we have seen in Saudi Arabia under King Abdallah, that have so well positioned the country to become a global leader in so many areas in the 21st century, will continue under any new leadership, for these reforms have been done for the overall good of the nation, not through the temporary whim of one leader. And now it is time to conclude my tour d’horizon in order that I may get back to my position as a crew-member of the Saudi ship of state. As is often the case, my analysis has emphasized the storms, and perhaps given too little attention to the calm. Yes, Saudi Arabia remains an eye at the center of these storms, serene and consistent in its leadership position in the Arab and Muslim worlds. I also believe that among the storms taking place in other countries there are major glimmers of a coming calm. I believe that the people in those nations that have seen so much turmoil, God willing, and certainly with the assistance of Saudi Arabia, will work out their differences and arrive at safe shores. I believe that the terrorists will have a difficult time remaining hidden and that anti-terrorist measures – much like those taken in Saudi Arabia so aggressively over the last two decades – will guide the way for other nations’ efforts to root out cells of destruction wherever they may be. I believe that sanctions, diplomacy, and common decen-

cy, if not internal instability and a change of leadership, will return Iran’s leaders to their senses and encourage them to pursue a more peaceful path. I believe that the Palestinians will see the longawaited appearance of their own state, sooner rather than later, if the United States can shed the Israeli shackles that prevent it from supporting the just and unalienable quest of the Palestinian people for their freedom and independence from Israeli occupation and colonization. And I believe that our goal of energy interdependence is already being realized, and that we will work together, because we must, to arrive at the ideal energy mix from global sources. But most of all I believe that Saudi Arabia has an important and pivotal role to play in navigating these storms in order to show the way to all nations seeking to safely steer their ships of state. And with that I say, safe sailing to us all, and may we soon find ourselves tied securely to the shore, if only to conduct repairs and gain provisions for our next great voyage. Thank you.

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(Prince Turki is Chairman of the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies and is one of the founders of the King Faisal Foundation. He served as the Ambassador of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the United States of America from September 13, 2005 until February 2, 2007. He also serves as a member of the Boards of Trustees of the International Crisis Group and the Oxford Center for Islamic Studies and is co-chair of the C100 Group, which has been affiliated with the World Economic Forum since 2003.)

Hills are alive with the sound of ants talking

Miracle from Qur’an

[These findings were just reported in the journal Science, and covered by Lewis Smith, Environment Reporter for the “Times”. The Qur’an says: “At length, when they came to a (lowly) valley of ants, one of the ants said: “O ye ants, get into your habitations, lest Solomon and his hosts crush you (under foot) without knowing it. So he smiled, amused at her speech; and he said: “O my Lord! so order me that I may be grateful for Thy favours, which thou hast bestowed on me and on my parents, and that I may work the righteousness that will please Thee: And admit me, by Thy Grace, to the ranks of Thy righteous Servants.” (Qur’an, 27:18-19). “If you truly put your trust on Allah, He would provide you sustenance as He provides the birds; where they leave in the morning with an empty stomach and return back with a full stomach” Hadith. Ant vocabulary is much larger than previously thought Advances in audio technology have enabled scientists to discover that ants routinely talk to each other in their nests. Most ants have a natural washboard and plectrum built into their abdomens that they can rub together to communicate using sound. Using miniaturised microphones and speakers that can be inserted unobtrusively into nests, researchers established that the queens can issue instructions to their workers. The astonished researchers, who managed to make the first recordings of queen ants “speaking”, also discovered that other insects can mimic the ants to make them slaves. Rebel’s large blue butterfly is one

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of about 10,000 creatures that have a parasitic relationship with ants and has now been found to have learnt to imitate the sounds as well as using chemical signals. The butterfly’s caterpillars are carried by ants into the nests where they beg for food and are fed by the workers. When a colony is disturbed the ants will rescue the caterpillars before their own broods. Research several decades ago had shown that ants were able to make alarm calls using sounds, but only now has it been shown that their vocabulary may be much bigger and that they can “talk” to each other. Professor Jeremy Thomas, of the University of Oxford, said improvements in technology had made the discoveries possible because it meant the ants could be recorded and subjected to playbacks without becoming alarmed. By placing miniature speakers into the nest and playing back sounds made by a queen, the researchers were able to persuade ants to stand to attention. “When we played the queen sounds they did ‘en garde’ behaviour. They would stand motionless with their antennae held out and their jaws apart for hours - the moment anyone goes near they will attack,” he said. He described how the ants would press their antennae to the speaker just as they would seek to greet another ant in the nest. Professor Thomas said it re-

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Lewis Smith mained unclear how much the ants relied on sound for language but he suspected that further analysis would reveal a wider vocabulary than had been seen yet. “The most important discovery is that within the ant colony different sounds can provoke different reactions,” he said. “I would be very surprised if we didn’t get different types of sound. “It’s within the power of the ant to play different tunes by changing the rhythm with which they rub.” He added that the detection of the role of sounds provided the “final piece of the jigsaw” to explain how Rebel’s large blue caterpillars survive in ants’ nests and should help to guide conservationists in trying to save the endangered European mountain species. Francesca Barbero, of the University of Turin, said: “Our new work shows that the role of sound in information exchange within ant colonies has been greatly underestimated.” Karsten Schönrogge, of the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology in Oxfordshire, said the mimicry by the caterpillars was so convincing that the ants afforded them higher status than their own young. They will even slaughter their own young to feed the interlopers when food is scarce. The findings were reported in the journal Science. (Courtesy: MuslimBridges.org)

The Prophet

of Islam and his Western Admirers Book Review, Prophet of Islam and his Western Admirers - By Muhammad Mojlum Khan

About Muhammad: The Other Western Perspective on the Prophet of Islam,

edited with an Introduction by Abdelwahab El-Affendi, Surrey: Legacy Publishing, pp107, 2010, HB, £12.99

The rise of Islam in the seventh century Arabia changed the course of human history – politically, economically and culturally. Inspired by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the tribes of Arabia became united for the first time in their history under the banner of Islam, thus carving out an empire which extended from Spain in the West to the Indus Valley in the East. As expected, the rapid expansion of the new Arab empire as well as Islam, the religion of this extraordinary empire, evoked considerable fear, worry and hostility in the hearts and minds of many

non-Arabs especially the people of Western Christendom who felt that the new Muslim faith and its expanding empire posed a great threat to their existence. “The demonization of the prophet…was to become the very instrument of the making of Christian Europe. Such fear and hostility was reinforced by the “Arab control of what we call the Middle East and their naval command of the Mediterranean [which] imposed a blockade on Europe, which destroyed the commercial and urban society left behind by the Romans. During

five centuries, from the seventh to the twelfth, Europe was deprived of all overseas commerce by the long Arab barrier extending from the Atlantic to Central Asia north of Tibet…Europe, shut off from the rest of the world, was obliged to become self-supporting, and produced only its own food and home-made clothing…Throughout these five hundred years, Christendom lived in constant fear of Muslim conquest…throughout the Renaissance period in Europe, fear of the Muslims was still strong and hostility, political and commercial as well as religious, was intense.

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Doubtless as a result of these factors, the indebtedness of Western Christendom to Arab civilization was systematically played down, if not completely denied. A tradition was built up, by censorship and propaganda, that the Muslim imperialists had been mere barbarians and that the rebirth of learning in the West was derived directly from Roman and Greek sources alone, without any Arab intervention.” (Sir John B Glubb, A Short History of the Arab Peoples, 1978, pp288-289) The demonisation, censorship and propaganda peddled in medieval and modern Europe was, as expected, aimed primary at the Prophet of Islam. “The demonization of the prophet…was to become the very instrument of the making of Christian Europe. Psychologically and physically Islam was regarded as Christianity’s worst enemy, threatening Christian identity and its very sense of superiority. The Crusades, which extended from 1095 to 1207, were only one expression of this great Christian resurgence.” (Minou Reeves, Muhammad in Europe, 2000, pp7374) If the Crusades represented Western Europe’s desperate political and military response to the Islamic threat, then its intellectual and literary propaganda against the Muslim faith was no less venomous in its tone and content. Not surprisingly, books like Mahomet Unmasked. Or a Discoverie of the manifold Forgeries, Falsehoods, and Impieties of the Blasphemous Seducer Mahomet by William Bedwell (1563-1632) and The True Nature of Imposture Fully Displayed in the Life of Mahomet by Humphrey Prideaux (16481724) became popular works on the life of the Prophet of Islam at

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the time. Although the authors of these intensely polemical works were illinformed and misguided, however it would be unfair and equally inaccurate to suggest that the European perception and interpretation of Islam and its Prophet was entirely biased and one-dimensional; on the contrary, the brave and relatively sympathetic views of scholars like Henry Stubbe (1632-1676), Godfrey Higgins (1771-1833) and John Davenport (1789-1877), among others, should not be overlooked. The full title of Stubbe’s book was An Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahometanism with the Life of Mahomet and a Vindication of Him and His Religion from the Calumnies of the Christians, while Higgins’sApology for Mohamed was published in 1829. Four decades later, Davenport’s Apology for Mohammed and the Koran was published privately in London. The authors of these books tried to repudiate medieval European attacks on Islam on the one hand and develop a more sympathetic and accurate picture of the Arabian Prophet and his message on the other. In the book under review, the editor has collected excerpts from the works of twelve Western writers, focusing primarily on the life and teachings of the Prophet of Islam. In the book under review, the editor has collected excerpts from the works of twelve Western writers, focusing primarily on the life and teachings of the Prophet of Islam. Although this short anthology of Western writings on the Prophet only covers the period from the eighteenth century to the present, for some unknown reason, it does not include or even mention the l

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works of scholars like Higgins and Davenport. Apart from the contributions of George Sale (eighteenth century), Thomas Carlyle (nineteenth century), Alphonse de Lamartine (nineteenth century), Bayard Taylor (nineteenth century) and Tor Andrae (early twentieth century), all the remaining excerpts have been taken from the works of contemporary scholars and writers like W M Watt, P K Hitti, John Esposito, Annemarie Schimmel, Clinton Bennett, Barnaby Rogerson and Karen Armstrong (I should point out that the writings of these contemporary authors are readily available unlike the works of the earlier writers). Also, for some unknown reason, the editor has included an excerpt from Philip K Hitti’s History of the Arabs even thought he is not a Westerner by origin; he hailed from an Arab Maronite (Christian) family in Lebanon. By contrast, the important and equally sympathetic contributions of eminent Westerners like Sir John Bagot Glubb (The Life and Times of Muhammad and The Great Arab Conquests), Sir

H A R Gibb (Mohammedanism: A Historical Survey), Sir T W Arnold (The Preaching of Islam), Alfred Guillaume (Islam) and R V C Bodley (The Messenger: The Life of Mohammed), among others, are not even mentioned. In the Introduction to his biography of the Prophet, R V C Bodley wrote, “While we have no contemporary records of Moses or Confucius or Buddha, while we know some fragments of a fragment of Christ’s life, but nothing of the thirty years which prepared the way for the culminating three, the story of Mohammed is extremely clear.” Inclusion of excerpts from the works of the above Western scholars and writers would have certainly enriched this anthology, thus making it an indispensable source of reference. For example, in the Introduction to his biography of the Prophet, R V C Bodley wrote, “While we have no contemporary records of Moses or Confucius or Buddha, while we know some fragments of a fragment of Christ’s life, but nothing of the thirty years which

prepared the way for the culminating three, the story of Mohammed is extremely clear. Here, instead of the shadowy and the mysterious, we have history. We know as much of Mohammed as we do of men who lived much closer to our epoch. His external record, his youth, his relatives, his habits are neither legendary nor hearsay. His internal record, after his mission had been proclaimed, is no hazy tradition of some obscure or perplexed preacher. We have a contemporaneous book, absolutely unique in its origin and in its preservation, on the authenticity of which no one ever been able to cast a serious doubt. This book, known as the Koran, is available today as it was first written under Mohammed’s supervision.” (The Messenger: The Life of Mohammed, 1946, pp1-2) Likewise, referring to the life of the Prophet of Islam, Professor Alfred Guillaume wrote, “At the outset let it be said that Muhammad was one of the great figures of history whose overmastering conviction was that there was one God alone and that there should be one community of believers. His ability as a statesman faced with problems of extraordinary complexity is truly amazing. With all the power of armies, police, and civil service no Arab has ever succeeded in holding his countrymen together as he did. If it is objected that the Muslim territory and population at his death was vastly less than that of the empire of the Caliphs, it may be replied that all the elements of disunion were present in his lifetime but dared not show themselves until his death became known.” (Islam, 1956, p23) The inclusion of such sympathetic and scholarly contributions would have clearly enhanced the value of this

volume and made it more representative. This short anthology of Western writings on the Prophet of Islam is a useful addition to the literature on the subject. This short anthology of Western writings on the Prophet of Islam is a useful addition to the literature on the subject. By compiling this anthology, the editor hoped to “… further the dialogue between the adherents of Islam and other faiths by showing Muslims that not all Westerners harbour implacable hostility to Islam, and by offering others a different perspective on the life of the man who is still the “most talked-of person in the whole range of human history,” as one author recently put it.” (pp. xviii-xix) If this anthology is reprinted in the future, I would recommend that the publishers include short biographical sketches of all the twelve contributors which will enable the readers to understand the historical significance and context of each entry. The editor deserves credit for his efforts and contribution. M M Khan is an internationally acclaimed author, literary critic and research scholar. He is a Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland and a Member of English Pen. His books include THE MUSLIM 100 (reprinted 2010) and THE MUSLIM HERITAGE OF BENGAL (forthcoming). The Kindle version of THE MUSLIM 100 has been recently released (available from Amazon). He is a Founding Director of Bengal Muslim Research Institute UK and editor of its website. See www. bmri.org.uk

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(The Muslim Post)

Rabita Round Up Compiled by Muhammad Zakir Hossain MWL receives deputy ambassador of Netherlands

Dr. Turki meets media official

Riyadh: The MWL Secretary General, Dr. Abdullah bin Abdulmohsen Al-Turki, received here on 1 April Deputy Ambassador of the Kingdom of the Netherlands to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Willem Van Rossem. The meeting dealt with discussions on a number of issues of common concern, particularly the issue of dialogue among followers of religions, cultures and world civilizations. Dr. Al-Turki presented an explanation of the humanitarian objectives of the initiative of Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud for the dialogue.

Holy City of Makkah: Dr. Abdullah bin Abdulmohsen Al-Turki, Secretary General of Muslim World League, met here on 11 March with Mohamed Salem Walad Boke, Director of Islamic Broadcasting Union. During the meeting, they discussed issues of common interest.

MWL chief receives Libya’s Religious Affairs Minister Holy City of Makkah: The Secretary General of the Muslim World League, Dr Abdullah bin AbdulMohsin Al-Turki, received here on 21 March Libya’s Minister of Endowments and Islamic Affairs Sheikh Dr. Hamza Abu Fares. During the meeting, they discussed issues of common interest between the Muslim World League and the Libyan Ministry (of Endowments and Islamic Affairs), particularly the existing cooperation in the fields of Islamic education and memorization of the Holy Quran. Dr Al-Turki stressed the importance of cooperation between Ministries of Islamic affairs in the Islamic world in guiding young Muslims about Islam and introducing them its noble principles MWL chief meets Palestinian Religious Affairs Minister Holy City of Makkah: The Muslim World League Secretary General, Dr. Abdullah bin Abdul-Mohsen Al-Turki, received here on 18 March Palestinian Minister of Endowments and Religious Affairs Mahmoud Sidky Al-Habash. During the meeting, they discussed issues of common interest between the Muslim World League and the Palestinian Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs. The Palestinian minister hailed Saudi support for the Palestinian people.

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Sudanese varsity rector visits MWL Holy City of Makkah: The Secretary General of Muslim World League (MWL) Dr. Abdullah bin Abdulmohsen Al-Turki, received here on 7 March the Rector of International University of Africa in the Sudan, Dr Hassan Makki Mohammed, and his accompanying delegation. During the meeting, Dr. Al-Turki expressed the League’s readiness for cooperation with international and cultural institutions in the Sudan to achieve their Islamic objectives in African countries. Union of African Scholars chief visits MWL Holy City of Makkah: Secretary General of Muslim World League (MWL) Dr. Abdullah Al-Turki met at his office here on 27 February with the Secretary General of Union of African Scholars Sheikh Dr. Saeed Sila. During the meeting, they discussed issues of advocacy, education and ways to solve the problems facing education of new Muslim generations in Africa Indonesian parliament speaker visits MWL Holy City of Makkah: Dr. Abdullah bin AbdulMohsen Al-Turki received here on 27 February the Speaker of Indonesia’s House of Representatives, Dr. Marzouqi Ali, who is the Chairman of the current session of the Federation of Parliaments of the OIC. During the meeting, they discussed a range of issues of common interest between the League and Indonesia. Dr. Marzouqi hailed the efforts of the League to spread the true image of Islam and praised the results of the Second World Conference for the Islamic Information, hosted by the MWL in Jakarta.

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