Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

LECTURE 1 - INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY A CAPSULE VIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT Note: Slide numbers refer to the PowerPoint presentation which accompanies the lecture. Introduction, slide 1 here The environment has become a subject of increasing concern in recent years. Tony Blair, former British Prime Minister, has stated that the environment is the most important issue that we face. The effect of this increasing concern has resulted in a great increase of media coverage of environmental issues and a general raising of public concern about the environment. For the years 1992 and 1993, the issue rated most important by the public in a survey conducted by Money magazine of the best places to live in the United States was clean water. More recently, Al Gore, former Vice-President of the United States, has worked hard to increase public awareness of the effects of global climate change, and shared the Nobel Peace prize for his efforts. Introduction, slide 2 here Incidences of pollution, such as that which occurred at Love Canal, have been widely publicized. “Between 1942 through 1953 the Hooker Chemical Company dumped 21,800 tons of waste into an abandoned canal in New York. The canal's construction was halted in the mid 1800's due to a loss of financial backing and so when the Hooker Chemical Company needed a waste disposal site, the thick clay walls of the canal seemed to be a perfect place (Ray with Guzzo, 1993). Actually, it was in the 1890's. Eventually, the land was covered with more clay and dumping ceased. Unfortunately, the land was slowly developed into a small town, Love Canal. The "impermeable" clay walls of the canal were penetrated and weakened with the building of streets and plumbing. The start of the problems began back in 1953 when the Niagara Falls Board of Education bought the land at the dumping site for one dollar and built an elementary school on top of it. The rest of the town was built around the school and all the buried toxic chemicals. The architect who was hired to build the school questioned the safety of building on the land after finding a pit of chemicals but since he did not know what type of chemicals they were, he just mentioned that they may weaken the foundation of the building (Levine, 1982). The Board of Education ignored this and continued to build.” (Danis, 2001) Introduction, slide 3 here Love Canal video. Introduction, slide 4 here 1

Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

Rachel Carson published Silent Spring on September 27th, 1962, setting off a cascade of events that continues to today. What few people knew at the time was that she was suffering from metastasizing breast cancer for the last five years of her life, and died about 19 months after the book was published. Introduction, slide 5 here Despite her illness she testified before Congress, wearing a wig and using a cane, which few noticed. Introduction, slide 6 here She helped to get a number of agriculture pesticides banned, and eventually to get DDT banned in the United States in 1972, and later in much of the world. After her death, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award bestowed by the United States government. Her work helped push the National Environmental Policy Act in January1970, and establish the EPA in December, 1970. Introduction, slide 7 here Air pollution, originally of concern only in certain big cities (e.g., Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, etc.) is now affecting Grand Canyon National Park and several areas classified as wilderness. The London Smog event of 1952 is one example: “ The ‘pea-souper' that descended on London on the night of 4 December 1952 was a noxious cocktail of chemicals and damp that brought much of the capital to a standstill. Atmospheric conditions conspired to keep the choking haze in place for five days, during which time it claimed the lives of several thousand people. According to the Met Office, on each day during the foggy period, enormous quantities of pollutants were emitted: 1,000 tonnes of smoke particles, 2,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide, 140 tonnes of hydrochloric acid and 14 tonnes of fluorine compounds. 370 tonnes of sulphur dioxide were converted into 800 tonnes of sulphuric acid. Most of these chemicals were trapped at low level by the anticyclonic weather that had settled over the capital. Findings published in New Scientist suggest that, contrary to official statements at the time, the killer pollution was far from an inevitable event over which the government had no influence. Critical to the level of contaminants in the air was the decision to raise funds by exporting high-quality coal. Poorer, more sulphurous material was consigned for domestic use, and the smoke from a million open coal fires poured into London's lower atmosphere when there was no wind to disperse it.” (D’souza, 2002)

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Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

In 2008, air quality in Beijing during the Olympic games caused great concern prior to the games. The Chinese government instituted strict controls, including allowing only half the normal number of automobiles on the road, in order to temporarily improve air quality. There efforts were partially successful. Concern about the environment is hardly a new topic. During the 1960's, concern was widespread among many people, especially in the leading edge of the baby boom generation. Introduction, slide 8 here The first "Earth Day" in 1970 was one result of this concern. Even that was not the start of environmental movement. The National Park System, the Antiquities Act of 1906, and many other evidences of early environmental awareness may be cited. Pollution in large cities at the start of the industrial revolution (approximately 1850) has been widely cited. The literature of the time reflects the awareness of pollution, as evidenced by novels by Charles Dickens and others. Increasing recent concern about the environment has been reflected in the political and economic arenas of our society, at the Federal, State, and local levels. The creation of the Federal "superfund" has spurred a growth industry in environmental cleanups. Various states have created their own funds. In addition environmental regulation has been growing rapidly, at the Federal, State, and local levels. Social and political costs of environmental problems can no longer be ignored, and are currently receiving scrutiny at both federal and state levels. Overseas, "green" parties, first seen in the Federal Republic of Germany, have spread across much of Europe and into some other areas of the world. The election, and reelection, of the Clinton/Gore ticket in the United States may be partially interpreted as a concern for the environment, although many other important issues were involved. More recent changes in the makeup of Congress have led to the introduction of much anti-environmental legislation.

Introduction, slide 9 here A considerable backlash to the environmental movement exists. Conflict between various environmental regulatory bodies is often a major impediment to industry and has been blamed for loss of jobs and income in several areas. The state of Alaska has been one major battleground between environmentalists and economic interests. The 1959 legislation that granted statehood to Alaska allowed the state to choose vast areas of Federal lands. Native Americans in Alaska were also given rights to some Federal lands. The 1980 Alaska Lands Bill, passed during the waning days of the Carter administration, set aside tremendous areas of the state of Alaska as National Parks, National preserves, and wilderness areas. Economic development is forbidden on many of these lands and is stalled in other areas awaiting the settlement of various court cases and the enactment of rules allowing certain developments. Many people in Alaska feel they have been hurt economically by these rules. In the Pacific northwest, environmental laws have shut down or curtailed many timber operations. This has resulted in loss of jobs, economic stagnation, and great discontent in some communities. It also raises the price of lumber, which increases homebuilding 3

Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

costs, etc. So the effects of environmental regulation often ripple through much of the economy. In Florida, disputes between the Federal government, the State of Florida, and the South Florida Water Management District led to a lawsuit by the Federal government against the state for failure to provide enough water to sustain Everglades National Park as a viable ecosystem. Settlement of the suit has changed water distribution in southeast Florida and may affect future development. Introduction, slide 10 here The foregoing discussion is not intended as a real summary of the state of environmental problems today. Rather, it is an attempt to point out the tremendous complexity that environmental issues involve. As scientists, we play many roles in the environmental problems faced by society. Scientists are often asked to provide data of various sorts to assess changes to the environment caused by man (anthropogenic changes), by nature, and by a combination of the two. Scientists may be involved in assessing the changes caused by certain proposed actions (environmental impact statements). Scientists may be involved in cleanup of existing pollution, and may work with engineers in this area. Scientists may also be asked to play a role in formulating governmental policy or in helping to write environmental law. In this very brief summary, we then need to discuss the role of geochemistry in terms of the environment. In recent years a new term, environmental geochemistry, has evolved. Originally, this was at least in part a response to increased funding opportunities for any subject with the word "environmental" in the title. More recently, environmental geochemistry has started to evolve as a legitimate subspecialty of geochemistry.

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY? Introduction, slide 11 here V.M. Goldschmidt is often called the father of geochemistry. He defined geochemistry as the study of the distribution and amounts of the chemical elements in minerals, ores, rocks, soil, water, and the atmosphere, and the study of the circulation of the elements in nature, based on their properties and ions (Goldschmidt, 1954). He goes on to mention that geochemistry also concerns itself with the distribution and abundance of isotopes of the various elements. This was a good working definition of geochemistry at the beginning of the science. These areas are still very important. Today, we add the study of the amounts and distribution of various chemical compounds, of either natural or anthropogenic origin, and the circulation and transformation of these chemical compounds. This may involve the circulation of these compounds into and out of living systems, leading to the sub-specialty of biogeochemistry. Traditionally, geochemistry has been divided into two areas, high and low-temperature geochemistry. Introduction, slide 12 here

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Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

High temperature geochemistry included areas such as volcanic processes, and igneous and metamorphic rocks. Introduction, slide 13 here Low temperature geochemistry involved chemical weathering, chemical diagenetic changes, aqueous and most atmospheric chemistry. Today the distinction between high and low-temperature geochemistry has begun to blur. This is most especially true of environmental geochemistry. Introduction, slide 14 here Environmental geochemists often study problems that may combine natural pollution, such as volcanic emissions, with anthropogenic pollution, such as weathering reactions involving acidic mine waste. The volcanic processes are high-temperature, while the mine discharge and subsequent weathering are low-temperature. Environmental geochemists are not concerned with the study of the distribution and amounts of the chemical elements in minerals, ores, rocks, soil, water, and the atmosphere, from an economic or exploration standpoint. Their concern with these areas is limited to the effects that natural distributions, and exploitation of natural resources, may cause adverse impacts on the environment. Environmental geochemists may study the fate of potentially dangerous substances in the environment, and may attempt to find safe disposal methods for dangerous substances. Introduction, slide 15 here Much of environmental geochemistry involves interactions with living organisms, which is a biogeochemical input to the system. Thus, the ability to work across several disciplines is important. Most especially, the ability to understand another discipline well enough to carry on a conversation with an expert in the field, to find relevant literature in the discipline and read it with sufficient comprehension to understand the significance for one's only area of study, is necessary. Introduction, slide 16 here A sub-specialty of chemistry is known as environmental chemistry. Manahan (1990) defines this as, "science of chemical phenomena in the environment." One essential difference between an environmental chemist and an environmental geochemist is the geochemist's knowledge of natural phenomena, gained via a good knowledge of geology in its broadest science. Geology is literally the study of the earth. A geologist must be familiar with a broad range of natural processes involving chemistry, physics, and biology. Many environmental chemists lack this knowledge of the natural setting. Chemists are trained to work in laboratory settings where they can control most of the factors important to the process they are studying. Typically, they study simple systems with only a few components. Geochemists do not enjoy this luxury. Natural systems are complex. Many factors cannot be controlled. Thus, an environmental geochemist may work with environmental 5

Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

chemists, but the two sub-specialties are distinct. The interdisciplinary nature of environmental work can be noted in early studies involving chemical interactions with the environment. Introduction, slide 17 here The use of detergents caused problems in the aeration tanks of sewage treatment plants. Introduction, slide 18 here These same detergents could cause the sudden appearance of algae in lakes or plants like water hyacinths in canals. Introduction, slide 19 - 20 here These facts were noted by sanitary engineers, limnologists and biologists, respectively. The deleterious effects of pesticide use were first noted by biologists. Gradually chemists began to be aware of the environmental consequences of the very chemicals they help produce. Introduction, slide 20 here It has been estimated that 20,000 new chemical compounds are produced and introduced into the environment every year. While a few of these, such as new pharmaceutical products, are extensively tested, most are tested very little or not at all. Even prescription drugs can have serious unforeseen consequences (e.g., thalidomide, many cases of drug interactions, etc.). Introduction, slide 21 here As Manahan (1990, p.4) says, "The ecologically illiterate chemist can be a very dangerous species. Chemists must be aware of the possible effects their products and processes might have upon the environment. Furthermore, any serious attempt to solve environmental problems must involve the extensive use of chemicals and chemical processes." The use of computers has made it possible to “design” new molecules at an incredibly rapid rate. For example, Roche Canada describes the production of variants of substances identified as potentially interesting from a pharmaceutical perspective as follows: Introduction, slide 22 here “ The chemical structure of these substances is then optimized by computer-assisted drug design and combinatorial chemistry. This technique permits the production of a large number of variants of the substances within a short time. Previously, a chemist could produce 50 to 100 variants of a substance per year. Now, thanks to new techniques, scientists can produce 6

Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

around 50,000 in the same time.” (Roche Canada, 2005) While many of these substances will not be produced and introduced into the environment, the shear speed at which new substances can be produced should give us pause. Agardy and Nemerow (2005) have discussed the “chemical dependence” of the United States. They say, “In the United States, population growth begets economic growth which begets chemical industry growth which begets pollution. Modern society is dependent on chemicals and their products. This dependence manifests itself globally today. This dependence will continue to cause an increase in the magnitude and diversity of pollution that is beyond the current government policies to control; regardless of the national wealth, control is a matter of degree. To put this in further perspective, in 2001, the American Chemical Society registry included over 30 million chemical substances. One can only wonder at the number of new chemical compounds our advanced science and technology will produce over the next 50 years, particularly when we are presently developing approximately 2000 new chemicals each year. This is a very serious condition, particularly since the vast majority of the existing chemical compounds remain, untested, unregulated, and untreated.” (Page 442) Introduction, slide 23 here Chemists are not alone in spoiling the environment. All species alter the environment. Each species attempts to live and reproduce its own kind. Each species, within the limits of its individual capabilities, alters the environment to suit itself. Historical geology documents many drastic changes seen in the geologic record. Often these drastic changes correspond to changes in eras or periods. Sometimes they may be due to external forces, such as the impact of a large meteorite. Other substantial, if more gradual, changes are due to various living species. Cyanobacteria (formerly called blue-green algae) have the ability to photosynthesize. This process releases oxygen. The photo synthetic release of oxygen has produced perhaps the most profound environmental change the earth has ever seen. Often what is good for one species is bad for others. The introduction of free oxygen in the atmosphere forced anaerobic organisms into very limited environments because, for them, oxygen is a deadly poison. In other cases the changing environments may present targets of opportunity for existing or evolving species. The presence of oxygen in the atmosphere allows many large, complex organisms to exist with high energy use per unit time. Anaerobic organisms do not appear capable of matching this high rate of energy output. Humans also alter their environment for their own purposes. We heat and cool our houses, generate energy to run machines, grow plant and animal species for food, etc. Man appears unique among all species because of the magnitude and rate at which we can alter the environment. Introduction, slide 24 here

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Our early concern with the earth was strictly with exploitation of the environment. How could we find gold, silver, and other precious metals? Later, as the ability to use more common metals developed, we began to use large quantities of common metals like iron and aluminum. The only objective of man's early efforts in this area was to find, extract, and use these metals. Later, as the need for energy to run machinery and generate electricity expanded exponentially, the search was extended to energy resources such as coal, petroleum, and finally nuclear fuels. Extraction of the metals and energy resources is now known to have caused, and to be causing, tremendous changes in the environment of the earth. At first these changes were limited to local areas. Later regional and global changes occurred. It was only after these large scale changes began, that we became aware of them. Now we know such changes are harmful to other species and often to our own species. Introduction, slide 25 here Horne (1978, p. 1), while discussing man, stated: "He did not discover his environment until the unregulated growth of his numbers threatened to exhaust its resources. He did not appreciate the delicate ecological processes of which he is a part until he had grossly damaged many of them. He has been like a spoiled child, pampered and nurtured in a comfortable home called Earth. He did not care, he did not even realize that the rent was not free, that bills must be paid, the roof kept in repair, the drains not clogged. But now at last he has grown up. The house has become overcrowded. The wear and tear and neglect of its fabric has become intolerable. He realizes now that repairs must be made, care taken, that he must become a husband in the older and more responsible sense of that term." Many people are still anxious only to exploit the earth for a fast profit. Many others inadvertently hurt the environment through ignorance. It is the job of the environmental scientist to discover new facts, to publish and disseminate this knowledge as widely as possible, and to work with the proper social and political authorities to make exploitation unprofitable.

EXAMPLES OF THE TYPE AND SCOPE OF PROBLEMS FACING ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTS Some environmental problems are of global extent. Introduction, slide 26 here Two very familiar examples of this type are global warming and the "hole" in the ozone layer of the atmosphere. Such problems ultimately affect everyone on earth, in both direct and indirect ways. Other problems are of more regional scope. Introduction, slide 27 here

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Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

One example is acid rain. This problem directly affects the area receiving the acid rain. It may indirectly affect much larger areas. In time, regional problems may become global problems, particularly if left untreated. Many problems are local problems. Innumerable examples exist. Three examples taken from newspaper articles during July 1993 will be used as examples. Tyson (1993, page 7A) discussed the effect of a target range on the area around Cortlandt, New York. Eight thousand public and private shooting ranges exist in the United States, so the problems seen at Sportsman Center in Westchester County, New York will also be seen in many other areas. The area around the shooting range is heavily contaminated with lead. The lead comes from bullets and shot used in target practice and sheet shooting. Lead is leaching into groundwater and then emerging into surface waters. It is said to have saturated a stream and to be threatening the Hudson River. Tyson cites other examples. Chicago closed the Lincoln Park Gun Club after 79 years because of lead pollution leaking into Lake Michigan. Milwaukee shut down a lakefront gun club because of complaints about lead pollution and noise. Each of these examples constitutes what is generally known as a "point source" of pollution. Point sources are usually far easier to clean up than regional or diffuse sources. Nevertheless, the cleanup of these sites could each run into the millions of dollars. Chicago cleaned up the Lincoln Park site by removing eight thousand cubic yards of lead-tainted soil, which must then be disposed of as hazardous waste. Beamish (1993, P. F-1) discusses poisons emanating from abandoned mines. Each of these mines is a point source of pollution. Each might release acid waste and/or heavy metals in nearby surface or ground water. Beamish says that the Minerals Policy Board, a private lobby and research group headed by former Secretary of the Interior Stuart Udall, estimates there are more than 500,000 abandoned mines on public and private property. Introduction, slide 28 here Specific examples cited in the article include the entire town of Leadville, Colorado that is on the Environmental Protection Agencies Superfund list of the nations most hazardous waste cites. Cleanup may run as high as $60,000,000. Introduction, slide 29 here “The Milltown Dam, built at the confluence of the Clark Fork and Blackfoot Rivers in 1907, acts as a repository for sediment and mining wastes. Sediment from upstream mining activities accumulated in the reservoir and caused the formation of a groundwater arsenic plume that impacted Milltown's drinking water supply. EPA added the site to its National Priorities List (NPL) in September 1983. The site is being addressed through the combined actions of federal and state agencies and the Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs), primarily the Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO) and the Northwestern Energy Corporation.” (US EPA, 2005) Introduction, slide 30 here

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Clark Fork is the EPA's biggest site, stretching for 120 miles. Cleanup costs will probably exceed one billion dollars. (USGS, date unknown). On Tuesday, August 2, 2005, EPA and the US Department of Justice announced at a press conference held at the Milltown Dam that the Atlantic Richfield Company and NorthWestern Corporation have agreed to complete a $100 million-plus cleanup of the Milltown Reservoir. This agreement or Consent Decree is the result of over three years of negotiations among EPA, DOJ, the State of Montana, the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, Atlantic Richfield and NorthWestern. “EPA will convene a Design Review Team to begin work on the remedial design in early 2005. The cleanup will remove the Milltown Dam, excavate approximately 2.6 million cubic yards of the most highly contaminated sediments in the Milltown Reservoir, restore the Milltown drinking water supply in as little as a decade, allow unrestricted fish passage, and return the Clark Fork and Blackfoot Rivers to their natural, free-flowing state.” (US EPA, 2005) Introduction, slide 31 here Another site in Summitville, Colorado, where the EPA is spending $40,000 per day to prevent catastrophic spillage of water containing heavy metals and acid. The Alamosa River has already been strongly affected by spillage from this site. The river’s problems began in 1970, when heavy rain blew out an upstream dam that was under repair, filling the river with a cascade of channel-clogging silt. That winter, ice dams created floods that inundated Capulin. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers responded by channelizing the river. Flooding subsided, but new problems arose. The channelized river carved into the alluvial soils, slicing 10 feet down in places. The water table dropped, drying up the stream side riparian areas and adjacent fields. As the river ate into the earth, dozens of ditch companies that drew from the Alamosa found their headgates high above the river channel. Headgates direct river water into irrigation ditches. Later, the Summitville holding ponds, which were full of heavy metals and cyanide used in the heap-leach gold mine, failed. The mining company declared bankruptcy in 1992, and the area became a Superfund site. (Clifford, 2003) Introduction, slide 32 here Joyce (1993, P. A-1) discusses an unusual case of air pollution. Oxygenated gasoline is used in many areas to help cut pollutants emitted into the atmosphere during the winter months in many areas. Methyl tertiary butyl ether, or MTBE, is introduced into the gasoline to reduce vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide. As temperatures decrease, fuel combustion is less efficient and the amount of CO released rises sharply. MTBE is added to increase the burning efficiency and cut CO emissions. Studies indicate that this additive does not work properly in the extreme cold of a central Alaskan winter, where temperatures below -50EF are routine. MTBE appears to itself be emitted from automobiles and has been linked to complaints of headaches, dizziness, and nausea. In two samples of about 50 people taken during December 1992 and February 1993, people reporting the most severe symptoms had the highest concentrations of MTBE in their blood. MTBE additives were banned in Fairbanks by Alaskan Governor Walter J. Hickel in December 1992. In the February 1993 sampling of blood, MTBE levels were down by a factor of ten. Additional work is needed. However, this might be a case where an attempt to cure one environmental problem not only did not work, but actually caused 10

Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

another problem. MTBE has also proven to be a pollutant in many water supplies. This is due to several factors: 1. Low soil sorption 2. High solubility in water 3. Resistance to biodegradation under conditions of low oxygen MTBE spreads much more rapidly (3-15 times faster) than other gas constituents, which are more hydrophobic. (Scow, 2002). Introduction, slide 33 here Minerals have been recognized as health hazards. Asbestos has caused and continues to cause cancer in exposed individuals. Some forms of asbestos are more hazardous than others. Other mineral substances, such as silica dust, have also been recognized as hazardous. This has led to useful new regulations that serve to protect society. Concern for human health has also led to, “extreme overreaction, which is fueled by perceptions of a hazard’s magnitude” (Ross and Skinner, 1994, p. 10). It is the job of environmental scientists to put these perceptions into the proper context for the public. An example of overreaction occurred when the International Agency for Research on Cancer designated quartz as probably carcinogenic to humans (Skinner and Ross, 1994). According to existing regulation, this triggered the Occupational Safety and Health Agency (OSHA) Communication Standard of 1983, which requires that any product in the United States that contains more than 0.1 % “free silica” must display hazardous material’s warnings. As a result, truck drivers carrying crushed stone to construction sites in Delaware were cited for failure to display warning signs (Skinner and Ross, 1994). Introduction, slide 34 here Most beaches, unpaved roads, and unpaved children’s playgrounds containing sand would fall under this classification. Should we close the beaches, or at least post warning signs? The economic implications of such regulations are staggering. As scientists, we must strive to educate the public to true hazards. We must also attempt to insure that regulations written as the result of these warnings are reasonable responses to the hazards. It has been suggested that courses in “Geology and Public Policy” be added to geologic curricula (Evans, 1994). Introduction, slide 35 here “Improvements” can also be a problem in some circumstances. Pavement sealcoat, a black liquid sprayed or painted on asphalt parking lots and driveways, may have either a coal-tar pitch or an asphalt base. Asphalt is used mainly in the western United States, while coal-tar pitch is used in the central, southern, and eastern United States. Introduction, slide 36 here 11

Environmental Geochemistry, GLY 4241/5243, © David Warburton, 2016

Coal-tar pitch often contains more than 50 percent by weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, often known as PAH. These compounds are known to be powerful carcinogens. The sealcoat products may be 20 to 35% coal-tar pitch. Coal-tar based sealcoat products contain about one thousand times as much PAH as do asphalt based products. (USGS, Texas Water Center, 2010) Coal-tar based sealcoat products produce dust with hundreds to thousands of times more PAH than asphalt-based sealcoats. This dust reaches streams and lakes as runoff from pavement. It is the primary cause of upward trends of PAH concentrations in urban lake sediment. This is of particular concern for benthic invertebrate. They are also transmitted up the food chain by organisms associated with aquatic environments, such as insects and small animals living in or neat streams and lakes. House dust in residences near locations where coal-tar sealcoat has been used have elevated PAH levels. (USGS, Texas Water Center, 2010) In terms of concern for the environment, the United States still has a long way to go, although progress is being made.. A rating of twenty-one industrialized nations by the New Economic Foundation, a London-based think tank, rated the United States last in terms of environmental performance (Anonymous, Science, 1993). The Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy annually publishes the Environmental Sustainability Index. Introduction, slide 37 here Within this report, it ranks 146 countries on the basis the ability of nations to protect the environment over the next several decades. In the 2005 report, the United States ranked 45th. The leading nations were Finland and Norway. (Esty et al., 2005). Introduction, slide 38 here More recently, the report has been retitled the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) (Esty et al., 2008) The diagram shows the way in which the index is derived, with equal weight given to Environmental health and Ecosystem Vitality. In the 2010 revision, the United States has moved down to 61st out of 163 countries. Iceland and Switzerland are now the leading countries. In the 2008 report, the authors say, “The 2008 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) ranks 149 countries on 25 indicators tracked across six established policy categories: Environmental Health, Air Pollution, Water Resources, Biodiversity and Habitat, Productive Natural Resources, and Climate Change. The EPI identifies broadly-accepted targets for environmental performance and measures how close each country comes to these goals. As a quantitative gauge of pollution control and natural resource management results, the Index provides a powerful tool for improving policymaking and shifting environmental decision making onto firmer analytic foundations.” In the 2010 report, the rankings were redone. The authors state, “The 2010 Environmental Performance Index (EPI) ranks 163 countries on 25 performance indicators tracked across ten well-established policy categories covering both environmental public health and ecosystem vitality. These indicators provide a gauge at a national government scale of how close countries are to established environmental policy goals. This proximity-to-target methodology facilitates cross-country comparisons as well as analysis of how the global community performs collectively 12

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on each particular policy issue.” They also caution that 2010 results cannot be directly compared to earlier results due to changes in methodology. (Emerson et al., 2010) The 2016 EPI ranks the U.S. 26th out of 180 countries, showing significant progress over the past few years (Hsu et al., 2016) Finland, Iceland, and Sweden now rank first through third.

REFERENCES Franklin J Agardy, Nelson Leonard Nemerow, Environmental Solutions: A Comprehensive Guide to Environmental Problems and the Technology, Regulatory and Resource Issues to Solve Them, Academic Press, 2005. Anonymous, How Rich Countries Stack Up Environmentally, Science, 262, 1815, 1993. Rita Beamish, Old mines brimming in poisons, Anchorage Daily News, F-1, F-5, July 22, 1993. Hal Clifford, High Country News, Reweaving the river, September 29, 2003, http://www.hcn.org/servlets/hcn.Article?article_id=14273, last seen August 11, 2014. Karen Danis, The History of Superfund: Love Canal, December 01, 2001, http://biology.kenyon.edu/slonc/bio3/2001projects/Superfundkdanis/historylovecanal.ht ml, last seen August 11, 2014. Jackson D'souza, The fog and filthy air, December 16, 2002, available online from Higher Education and Research Opportunities (HERO) in the UK at http://www.hero.ac.uk/uk/research/archives/2002/the_fog_and_filthy_air3240.cfm, last seen August 25, 2005. (No longer available) Daniel C. Esty, Marc Levy, Tanja Srebotnjak, and Alexander de Sherbinin (2005). 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index: Benchmarking National Environmental Stewardship. New Haven: Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy. Available at http://www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005_Main_Report.pdf (Last seen August 11, 2014) Daniel C. Esty, M.A. Levy, C.H. Kim, A. de Sherbinin, T. Srebotnjak, and V. Mara. 2008. 2008 Environmental Performance Index. New Haven: Yale Center for EnvironmentalLaw and Policy. January 28, 2008. Available at http://www.yale.edu/epi/files/2008EPI_Text.pdf (Last seen August 11, 2014). J. Emerson, J., D. C. Esty, M.A. Levy, C.H. Kim, V. Mara, A. de Sherbinin, and T. Srebotnjak., 2010 Environmental Performance Index. Last modified June 15, 2010 New Haven: Yale Center forEnvironmental Law and Policy, http://www.ciesin.org/documents/EPI_2010_report.pdf, (last seen August 11, 2014).

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United States Geologic Survey, Texas Water Science Center, PAHs and Coal-Tar-Based Pavement Sealcoat, last updated December 1, 2010, http://tx.usgs.gov/coring/allthingssealcoat.html , last seen August 11, 2014. United States Geological Survey, Water Resource Investigations in Montana: Long-term Monitoring of Trace Elements in the Water, Bed Sediment, and Aquatic Biota of the Upper Clark Fork Basin, Montana, date unknown, http://mt.water.usgs.gov/cgi-bin/projects?14800, last seen August 23, 2005. No longer available, but links to updated information may be found at http://wy-mt.water.usgs.gov/projects/clarkfork/project_description.html 4241/LN.01_PP_F16.pdf August 18, 2016

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