Kevin Orpen. University of Prince Edward Island

Genetically Modified C rops; A Review By Kevin Orpen University of Prince Edward Island A Thesis Submitted to the University of Prince Edward Island,...
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Genetically Modified C rops; A Review By Kevin Orpen University of Prince Edward Island

A Thesis Submitted to the University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, P.E.I. in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Masters in Business Administration

April, 2012, Charlottetown, P.E.I.

©Kevin Orpen

Advisor:

Dr. Juergen Krause University of Prince Edward Island School of Business

Second Reader:

Dr. Don Wagner University of Prince Edward Island School of Business

P E R M ISSI O N T O USE SI G N A T U R E PR O J E C T R E P O R T

T itle of Signature Project: Genetically Modified Crops: A Review Name of A uthor: Kevin Orpen Department: School of Business Degree: Master of Business Administration

Y ear: 2012

Name of Supervisor(s): Juergen Krause

In presenting this signature project report in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Master of Business Administration degree from the University of Prince Edward Island, the author has agreed that the Robertson Library, University of Prince Edward Island, may make this signature project freely available for inspection and gives permission to add an electronic version of the signature project to the Digital Repository at the University of Prince Edward Island. Moreover the author further agrees that permission for extensive copying of this signature project report for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor !"# $"!%&''!"'# ()!# '*$&"+,'&-# .)&# /*.)!"0' project work, or, in their absence, by the Dean of the School of Business. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this signature project report or parts thereof for financial gain ')/11#2!.#3&#/11!(&-#(,.)!*.#.)&#/*.)!"0' written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to the author and to the University of Prince Edward Island in any scholarly use which may 3/-&#!%#/25#4/.&",/1#,2#.)&#/*.)!"0' report.

Address: UPEI School of Business 550 University Avenue Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3

A bstract

Genetically Modified Crops; A Review

By: Kevin Orpen

Genetically Modified (GM) crops represent both an opportunity and a controversial risk for many farmers. Public perceptions have been shaped by a handful of high profile studies which were circulated by various media groups and activists in the early days of commercialization. While some regions have opted to heavily restrict the production and use of GM crops, others have embraced them openly. As a region heavily invested in agriculture, Prince Edward Island regulators, producers, and consumers need to have a solid understanding of both genetic modification technology and the ramifications of its implementation for a variety of stakeholders. This paper is intended to provide the historical and evidentiary context necessary to make informed choices regarding policy development, implementation, and managing economic opportunities.

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Acknowledgements

Many thanks to my advisor, Juergen Krause, for his assistance and support during this project, !"#$%&'()!*$&+,$-!&%%$.%$!"#$/012$345$67.87&9:$9*$%7;#+,-$&+,$'.))#&8(#-$;+$?:$&+,$9*$ family for supporting me through the last 3 years. Dedicated to my son Alexander Orpen and fiancé Penilee Wilson. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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Contents Abstract!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!""! Acknowledgements!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!"""! Introduction!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!%! &'(')"*+,,-!./0"1"'0!234+("565!!!"#$%&'%()*#+,-'.,!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!7! Creating a Genetically Modified Plant!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!8! Why create a genetically modified organism in the first place?!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!9! The Questions and Concerns around Genetically Modified Organisms!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!:! ;5A)+"!B11+"3!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!%C! D"5E5!/1!F(1/3'5''(!B,,'34"*!D'+*)"/(5!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!%%! ;'5!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!%:! Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser (Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser, 2004)!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!%:! Hoffman and Beaudoin v. Monsanto Canada (Hoffman v. Monsanto Canada Inc., 2007)!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!%M! Increased resistance in pests!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!GC! B3'!&.25!5+1'N!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!G%! International GMO Regulations!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!GH! ;JJ/3)"(4!L(0>5)3"'5!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!8:! ?/(*,>5"/(!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!8M! Abbreviations Used!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!H%! Figures!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!HG! Appendix A: Genetically Engineered crop varieties by US State, 2000-2011!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!H9! Appendix B: Global plantings of biotech crops (millions of hectares)!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!9G! Bibliography!$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$!97!

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Introduction Genetic modification of living organisms is a hotbed of controversy around the world. Rapid advances in biotechnology and understanding of the genetic code that makes up all forms of life has allowed scientists, chemists, and farmers to develop ever more complex technologies designed to improve crop and livestock yields, reduce the need for pesticides, antibiotics, and hormones, and to improve the nutritional value of the food produced. Agriculture, and for that matter, human civilization itself, has progressed in no small part through a variety of revolutionary phases which have allowed humans to exploit new food sources and expand into new habitats. The first revolution, coined the Neolithic Revolution, occurred over ten thousand years ago when humans began to domesticate wild plants and animals rather than simply hunt and gather them. This simple act allowed groups of humans to settle in permanent colonies with a steady food supply. Around the world various cultures took local flora and fauna and harnessed them, selectively breeding them for size, hardiness, ease of cultivation, and countless other traits. With greater sources of food available, these groups prospered, forming the first true civilizations, exchanging knowledge, crops, livestock, and customs around the world (A Timeline of Agricultural Developments, 2011). The western renaissance ushered in the second great revolution, moving beyond simple cultivation to the rapid development of enhanced tools and processes to improve yields and robustness of crops and livestock. Reduction of labour was the key defining trait during this phase, reducing the need for people to manually plant seeds, separate fibers, till fields, and harvest crops. These developments went hand in hand with the industrial revolution which emphasized factory processes and burgeoning chemical industries. The development of mass

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produced chemical fertilizers sparked the next great wave of agricultural expansion, drastically increasing crop yields and opening up the way for the massive farms that developed during the 20th century. With the expansion of transportation and communications systems around the world, farmers at all scales were able to quickly and easily exchange seed varieties, cross breed new strains, and exchange knowledge to improve yields through better disease control measures, breeding practices, and better overall nutrition, creating what many people call the Green Revolution (A Timeline of Agricultural Developments, 2011). The development of the double-helix model of DNA ushered in massive leaps in molecular biology, allowing scientists to study the mechanisms of heredity directly for the first time. The implications of biotechnology were massive for agricultural and pharmaceutical industries. With advances progressing steadily, it has become possible to take traits from one organism and incorporate them into another, effectively creating a type of Lamarkian heredity rather than Darwinian in crops and livestock. The implications of such technologies, as well as advances in the associated fields, often outpace public understanding, acceptance, and adoption of products with a biotechnological origin. The first genetically modified (GM) crops were introduced commercially in 1996 and now represent over 365 million acres of cropland in 29 countries and are cultivated by over 15 million producers (Nayak, Pandey, Ammayappan, & Ray, 2011; Stuart, 2011). The implications of genetic modification technology are staggering and not without dangers. Questions of long term safety, human and environmental health, and sustainability typically accompany the development and deployment of any new genetically modified organism (GMO). Prince Edward Island (PEI), like most agricultural regions in Canada and the United States, lacks a firm policy on the cultivation of GMOs. It has been argued by some that PEI should take a

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similar approach as Ireland, which announced plans to declare itself a GMO-Free zone in 2009 (Cowen & Gormley, 2009). Conversely, there are significant benefits in adopting GMO products, not just from an agricultural standpoint but also in the development of new industries and economic opportunities. This paper will seek to address the various questions raised about the use of GMOs and provide a balanced, unbiased source of information about the pros and cons of genetically modified products and their potential roles in the fu!(7#$.%$012?-$&87;'()!(7&)$ and aquaculture industries. !"#"$%&'(()*+,-%.%"-*/01'#%232*!*"#$%&'%()*#+,-'.,*

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When genetically modified crops first came into use in 1996 there were still a great many unanswered questions about the technology and even less public understanding. There were concerns about the potential health impacts of consuming plants which expressed the Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) toxin and questions about environmental impact. In 1999 several papers were published which brought the GMO controversy into the main stream 9#,;&H$ L"#*$ "&C#$ "&,$ -;8+;%;'&+!$ )&-!;+8$ ;96&'!$ .+$ !"#$ 8#+#7&)$ 6#7'#6!;.+$ .%$ =3M?-:$ international policy, and the structure of GMO research. One of the most visible of these from a public perception standpoint was a paper published in Nature by Cornell researcher John E. Losey regarding the interaction between Monarch butterflies and the pollen released by GMO maize which expressed the Bt toxin (Losey, Raynor, & Carter, 1999). The paper described a lab study which indicated that Monarch larvae which consumed pollen from Bt maize that had been dusted on milkweed leaves subsequently died. Although Losey had urged caution in the interpretation of his results in subsequent press conferences, the media

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latched on to the notion of a charismatic species such as the Monarch Butterfly being potentially wiped out by GM crops. What ensued was no less than a public relations nightmare for companies producing GMOs (specifically Monsanto, who produced the specific maize crop in question) with protests, boycotts, and calls for embargoes of these crops around the world. The scientific community scrambled to respond but to perform the necessary studies to verify or refute the results required !;9#$&+,$;!$D&-+?!$(+!;)$NOOP$!"&!$9()!;6)#$6&6#7-$D#7#$6(E);-"#,$!.$'.+!7&,;'!$Q.-#*?-$7#-()!-H The main stated drawbacks, acknowledged by Losey, were that the samples sizes were small and performed in the lab, not in !"#$+&!(7&)$#+C;7.+9#+!H$1%%#'!;C#)*:$Q.-#*?-$-!(,*$-;96)*$-".D#,$ that Bt toxin, a known insecticide, was toxic to specific by-stander insect species when expressed in pollen. Other studies (Wraight, Zangeri, Carroll, & Berenbaum, 2000; Shelton & Sears, 2001; Trewavas & Leaver, 2001) showed that though the result was not unexpected, it was also not likely to occur in the field. Several key points were brought up demonstrating the weaknesses in Q.-#*?- methodology including the following: !

The pollen density necessary to negatively affect Monarch larvae is rarely ever achieved in the open environment. This was confirmed both in studies of natural environments and in the laboratory as well

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The period in which Monarch larvae occur and are feeding on milkweed leaves has very little overlap with the period in which Bt maize is actively shedding pollen, reducing the exposure time frame

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Milkweed is not a preferred food supply of Monarch larvae and only a portion of the larvae is consuming this species in, or near, active maize cultivation

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Other butterfly and moth species showed no evidence of elevated toxicity or mortality in real-world experiments

These studies, along with several others, showed that laboratory testing for these effects failed to take into account the complex interactions of real-D.7),$ &87;'()!(7&)$ &'!;C;!*$ &+,$ !"&!$ Q.-#*?-$ 6&6#7$7#67#-#+!#,$&$*,.*!"#"$%&*8,#$'3%#'$%,#*

Genetic modification technology poses a single fundamental threat via its most significant risk; Genetic contamination is utterly irreversible (Ali Brac de la Perriere & Seuret, 2000). This single, simple statement sums up one of the most pervasive fears about genetically modified organisms and their use in modern agriculture. Critics see the potential, unintended release of

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novel genes into wild varieties of crop species as the initial step in the creation of super weeds capable of outcompeting domestic crops and forcing farmers to use increasing amounts of pesticides and herbicides. The flow of genetic material between crop varieties also has ;96);'&!;.+$ ;+$ !"#$
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another great turning point for agriculture, which represents just as much controversy: biotechnology. The emergence of DNA manipulation technologies introduced a whole new agronomic ecosystem in which agribusinesses can compete. It is from this new landscape that we must address the issues at hand and explore our potential paths. It is not about the specific strain of GMO, it is about the technology and how we adapt to the new ecosystem.

:0%#&"*@-H'0-*B2('#-)**6%,$"&5*I7$70"* As a technology, DNA manipulation is still in its infancy, representing huge potential but with limited understanding of the long term implications and consequences. It can be argued that selective breeding is little more than a time consuming, sloppy method of bioengineering, selecting traits desirable to humans and incorporating them in other life forms. However, the critical difference between selective breeding and DNA manipulation is the source of the trait. With DNA manipulation we can now take a gene-trait from an unrelated species, sometimes belonging to entirely different kingdoms of life, and incorporate those traits directly into a host species. This has a huge benefit for agricultural researchers looking to incorporate specific traits. Traditionally, they would have to identify a related species with the desired trait and backcross it into the cultivar line, wait for a spontaneous mutation, or attempt to stimulate the appearance of mutations by stressing the cultivar with UV radiation, viral and bacterial vectors, or other treatments which could have mutagenic effects on the genome. Unfortunately, these methods may yield the generation of negative traits as well as positive. While people look at the end products of biotechnology, the GMO for instance, there is a huge amount of background work which must be done first to create such a product. Identifying, isolating, and extracting the genetrait, then incorporating it into a new host in a stable, consistent way requires years of research,

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testing, and refinement. These secondary economic environments are also an important consideration when looking at GMO policy. Throughout this paper we have examined the known risks of GMOs and associated biotechnologies, and the impact that activist groups have had on public mass perception. We have examined the literature published by both pro- and anti-GMO groups which present evidence to support their respective causes. The purpose of this paper is to present a comprehensive background and understanding not just of the technology and inherent benefits and risks, but of the wide variety of factors both domestic and international which affect overall GMO policy. Before examining the role of GMOs on Prince Edward Island, it is key to summarize the core elements presented thus far: !

Transgenes will escape into the wild and genetic contamination is irreversible. This is not a disputed or surprising fact to any researcher developing genetically modified crops. Unless a crop can be 100% sterilized before growing to maturity, there is a risk that genes will spread to related species. However, there are accepted methods already in place to reduce the occurrence of transgenic contamination events with wild relatives and the vast majority of existing documented occurrences have been the result of poor crop management. Further, the genetic dangers of GM plants on the environment at large are significantly lower than those posed by invasive species, botanic gardens, and ornamental plants which act as reservoirs for thousands of potentially undesirable gene-traits.

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GM derived food products are safe to eat. This statement, thought bold in nature, is fundamentally true. Though there are still serious concerns about the long term and cumulative impact on the human food chain of GM crop production and consumption,

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particularly those that express pesticides, there is no conclusive, indisputable evidence that GM products currently approved for commercialization are substantially different from their conventional counterparts. There are no documented accounts of new, unknown allergens, no documented accounts of new diseases, or any documented cases .%$ ,)>3'Y*)5! a'3"#'0!13/6!&'(')"*+,,-!./0"1"'0!?3/J5!"(!O+>0"!B3+Q"+$!;0"?@!V%XW! G:_77$! B(0'35/(W!c$W!Z!d+*E5/(W!P$!B$!VGCC7X$!U+30"+(R! +,,-! ;3+(56"))'0!B,,'34"*!D'+*)"/(!)/!=3+A",!\>)5$!=).,(0'")*"J(2&4/$+0/$)(0'"!''&,+)')+F"0(9"K'$($-0'" J%%.()')+F!>"?L!V7XW!%:M_%M%$! =+3)5*)3+,!J,+()!*/66>(")"'5N!L(!I$!D$!O*,+)"/($!Q.,)3&0("=).,(0'")*";)'$/$-0'"R&4&0,-M!>"SIW! 987_9:7$! =/3*55'(W!=$!VGCCCX$!B(!+(+,-)"*+,!+JJ3/+*"?GW!8:8_8:9$! 67-?@#AB#CB@#4*%D.>@#CB#CB@#+,-D-?@#EB#FB@#G.H.>-?@#CB#IB@#/7D=%@#GB#IB@#J#K7L.8@#MB#NB#OPQRQSB#"**.**-(T# I*/,/4"*+,!D"5E5!+(0!='('1")5!/1!&'(')"*+,,-!./0"1"'0!?3/J5$!=).,(0'")*"!+,$-.'/.,0'"8-$&(-&4!>"PP!V%XW!:M_ %C%$!

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