Journal of Youth Development Bridging Research & Practice Volume 8, No. 3, 2013
Sponsored by: National Association of Extension 4-H Agents (NAE4-HA) ISSN 2325-4009 (Print) ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
2013 Volume 8 Number 3
Editor’s Comments: Readers will not be disappointed with the variety of youth program models, youth development strategies and research updates included in this issue of JYD. Highlights include “On a Pathway Towards Thriving” which examines the reliability and validity of tools aimed at promoting intentional self-regulation within mentoring programs utilizing the metaphor of a GPS navigational system. The increasingly important issue of developing healthy lifestyle programs is discussed in the article “4-Health: A Programmatic Evaluation of a Parent-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention Program” while the importance of STEM programming is addressed in “Training Teens to Teach Agricultural Biotechnology.” Additional articles examine sports participation, utilization of technology in program delivery, civic engagement outreach, and the impact of parental involvement in structured youth programs. Research strategies and resource reviews provide additional data to consider in youth program development. Enjoy. Manuscripts for the Fall and Winter 2014 issues are now being accepted in the following areas: • Feature Articles ~ informational, explanatory, or critical analysis and interpretation of major trends in the field or comprehensive reviews. Include clear implications for youth development research, practice and programming. 2,000-5,000 words • Program Articles ~ discuss programs and outcomes or describe promising programs and pilot projects that have clear implications for youth development research, practice and programming. 1,500-4,000 words • Research and Evaluation Strategies ~ describe innovative methodologies and strategies in the collection and analysis of quantitative or qualitative research and evaluation data. 1,500-4,500 words • Resource Reviews ~ present analyses of materials, such as books, curricula or videos. 300-800 words Publication Committee Patricia Dawson, Editor Oregon State University Publications Committee Chair: Suzanne LeMenestrel National 4-H Headquarters NAE4-HA Representative: Elijah Wilson University of Kentucky
Committee Members: Dale Blyth University of Minnesota Lynne Borden University of Arizona Hanh Coo Yu Social Policy Research Associates Michael Conn Girl Scouts of the USA Michelle Alberti Gambone Youth Development Strategies, Inc.
Kate Walker University of Minnesota Rich Lerner Tufts University Christine McCauley Ohannessian University of Delaware Alexandra Loukas The University of Texas at Austin Christina Theokas The Education Trust
Volume 8, Number 3 2013 Contents Feature Articles On a Pathway Towards Thriving: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tools to Promote Positive Development and Intentional Self Regulation in Youth [Article 130803FA001] ……………………………………………………………..……………………..…Page 4
Bowers, Edmond P.; Napolitano, Christopher M.; Arbeit, Miriam R.; Chase, Paul; Glickman, Samantha A.; Lerner, Richard M.; Lerner, Jacqueline V. This article provides initial data about the reliability and validity of tools aimed at promoting youth intentional self regulation (ISR) within mentoring programs. Based on the translation of the theory-based research about ISR and youth thriving conducted within the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development (PYD), the GPS to Success tools use the metaphor of a car’s GPS navigational system to enhance goal-directed behaviors among youth. The core GPS tools are “growth grids,” designed to help mentors appraise ISR skill development and to link these skills to other grids assessing the Five Cs of PYD and Contribution. Data from 152 mentor and youth pairs from 4-H program sites in Oregon and North Carolina indicated that the growth grids were generally reliable. Although validity evidence was mixed, rubrics for “G” and “P” and for a global GPS score were related to a well-validated measure of ISR. 4-Health: A Programmatic Evaluation of a Parent-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention Program [Article 130803FA002] ……………………………………..…………..…Page 32
Benke, Carrie; Bailey, Sandra; Eldridge, Galen; Lynch, Wesley; Martz, Jill; Paul, Lynn The 4-Health Project promotes healthy lifestyles for rural families with an overall goal of reducing or preventing childhood obesity. 4-Health is an integrated research and educational outreach program delivered by agents located in Montana State University Extension offices throughout the state. The collaborative project was developed to provide healthy living programs focusing on the areas of parenting and family communication, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity to rural parents of 8-12 year old children participating in Montana’s 4-H Youth Development programs. Evaluation outcomes of the 4-Health Educational (experimental) program and the Healthy Living Information (control) program both showed increases in participants’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to healthy living, with those participating in the 4-Health Educational program making greater gains. Training Teens to Teach Agricultural Biotechnology: A National 4-H Science Demonstration Project [Article 130803FA003] ………………………………………...…Page 46
Ripberger, Chad; Blalock, Lydia B. This article discusses a National 4-H Science agricultural biotechnology demonstration project and the impact of the pilot programs on the teenage leaders and teachers. A total of 82 teenagers were extensively trained, who in turn, engaged 620 youth participants with agricultural biotechnology education in afterschool and summer programs in five states. This article details the national and state level trainings for these teen teachers as well as the content rich partners from agribusinesses, agricultural commodity groups, and universities who 1
supported their involvement. The impact on the content knowledge, science process and life skills, and program development and implementation skills of the teen leaders and teachers was evaluated using multiple instruments over multiple administrations (pre-training, post-training, and post-teaching). Results indicate significant gains in most areas assessed. Project recommendations and future plans are also discussed. A Longitudinal Comparison of Parent and Child Influence on Sports Participation [Article 130803FA004] ……………………………………………………………………………………..…Page 67
Chang, Arena; Mahoney, Joseph L. Drawing on expectancy-value theory, this study examines children’s motivational attributes and parental influences on how children spend their leisure time in middle childhood and adolescence. Specifically, the study examined if parent encouragement and beliefs (i.e., perceived importance of sports and perceived child ability) and child motivation (expectancy and value for sports) are predictive of sports participation over the course of middle childhood and adolescence. Parent and child reports are compared using data from the Childhood and Beyond (CAB) longitudinal study. Findings reveal that parent beliefs and encouragement and child motivation were positively associated with sports participation in middle childhood. Both parental influences and children’s motivation measured in middle childhood were predictive of time spent participating in adolescence. However, only parent influences were predictive of whether the child continued to participate in sports in adolescence. Program Articles The Role of Youth Program Leaders in the Use of Technology: Challenges and Opportunities for Youth-Serving Organizations [Article 130803PA001]…..….…Page 82
Nichter, Mimi; Borden, Lynne; Przybyl, Veronica Youth-serving organizations offer young people an opportunity to gain skills and advance their knowledge of current and evolving technology through experiential learning. The key to ensuring that young people have meaningful learning experiences is directly related to the youth program leader who is responsible for designing and implementing these programs. Programs conducted by well-trained and well-prepared adults are an essential component of community-based interventions. To date, there is relatively limited research on how technology such as smart phones can be used in community-based programs and the success or failure of this as a strategy for delivering information and engaging young people in a program. In this paper, we discuss how technology was introduced into eight programs conducted by youthserving organizations in the Southwest. We discuss the training of youth program leaders and their experience using technology at their sites, highlighting what worked and what was problematic, how challenges were overcome, and lessons learned. Mitigating Barriers to Civic Engagement for Low-Income, Minority Youth Ages 13-18: Best Practices from Environmental Youth Conferences [Article 130803PA002] …………………………………………………………………………….……...…Page 94
Hoang, Haco Several studies indicate that there is a civic engagement gap for low-income, minority youth even though they reside in communities grappling with deteriorating social, environmental and economic conditions. Using the annual Environmental Youth Conference (EYC) in Los Angeles as a case study, this article offers best practices for identifying: 1) factors that foster civic engagement among low-income, minority youth ages 13-18, and 2) strategies to mobilize the targeted youth populations on environmental issues. Los Angeles is a useful case study because it is a large and demographically diverse city facing extreme environmental challenges due to its significant agricultural and industrial sectors.
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The Impact of Parental Involvement on a Structured Youth Program Experience: A Qualitative Inquiry [Article 130803RS001] ……………………………………………….…Page 105
Duerden, Mat D.; Witt, Peter A.; Harrist, Christopher J. Parental involvement is an often proposed, but rarely researched, key element of youth programs. Questions remain regarding the impact of parental involvement on program processes and outcomes. Qualitative data were collected over a one-year period with youth participants (n=46), parents (n=26), and teachers (n=5) associated with an international immersion/service learning program for adolescents. Three main research questions guided the data analysis: (1) what role does parental involvement play in the youths’ experience in the program; (2) how does parental involvement in the program influence the parent/child relationship; and (3) what role does parental involvement play in terms of the program’s longterm impact on the youth participants? Findings suggest a relationship between parental involvement in youth programs and improved parent/child communication, bonding, and perceptions of one another. Findings also suggest that having a common ground experience prolonged the experience’s positive post-participation effects. Lack of Parental Rules for Cell Phone Use among Low Income Mexican Descendent Adolescents [Article 130803RS002] ……………………………………………………………….…Page 123
Wiggs, Christine Bracamonte; Romero, Andrea J.; Orduña, Michele Youth have access to and utilize various types of technology at a growing rate. Cell phones are a portable way for adolescents to remain in constant contact with friends, parents, and others. While White youth are more likely to have a cell phone compared to Latino youth, the trends for cell phone use are similar among all teens with text messaging serving as the most popular means of communication. Despite their high volume of communication with others via cell phones, adolescents are likely to have little or no adult supervision while using technology. With a lack of parental supervision or awareness regarding youth technology use, adolescents may be especially vulnerable to cyberbullying and other negative health impacts. The current study investigates cell phone and texting use among a community sample of Latino adolescents and examines how parental rules regarding cell phone use influences adolescents’ cell phone and texting behaviors. Resource Review The First Eight Years ~ Giving Kids a Foundation for a Lifetime Success a Resource Review [Article 130803RR001] …….…………………………………………….….………….……Page 133
Dawson, Patricia “The First Eight Years: Giving Kids a Foundation for a Lifetime Success” is a recent KIDS COUNT policy report from the Annie E. Casey Foundation. The report discusses how a child’s early development from birth through age 8 is critical in one’s transition into elementary school as well as long-term academic success. The report also provides broad policy recommendations to help America’s children succeed and data on early childhood development for every state.
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On a Pathway Towards Thriving: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tools to Promote Positive Development and Intentional Self Regulation in Youth Edmond P. Bowers Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development Tufts University Medford, MA
[email protected] Christopher M. Napolitano Tufts University Medford, MA Miriam R. Arbeit Tufts University Medford, MA Paul Chase Tufts University Medford, MA Samantha A. Glickman Tufts University Medford, MA Richard M. Lerner Tufts University Medford, MA Jacqueline V. Lerner Boston College 4
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803FA001
On a Pathway Towards Thriving: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tools to Promote Positive Development and Intentional Self Regulation in Youth Edmond P. Bowers, Christopher M. Napolitano, Miriam R. Arbeit, Paul Chase, Samantha A. Glickman and Richard M. Lerner Tufts University Jacqueline V. Lerner Boston College Abstract: This article provides initial data about the reliability and validity of tools aimed at promoting youth intentional self regulation (ISR) within mentoring programs. Based on the translation of the theory-based research about ISR and youth thriving conducted within the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development (PYD), the GPS to Success tools use the metaphor of a car’s GPS navigational system to enhance goal-directed behaviors among youth. The core GPS tools are “growth grids,” designed to help mentors appraise ISR skill development and to link these skills to other grids assessing the Five Cs of PYD and Contribution. Data from 152 mentor and youth pairs from 4-H program sites in Oregon and North Carolina indicated that the growth grids were generally reliable. Although validity evidence was mixed, rubrics for “G” and “P” and for a global GPS score were related to a well-validated measure of ISR.
Introduction Evidence from several fields suggests that intentional self-regulatory, or goal-directed, skills become especially important to healthy development during adolescence (e.g., Cunha, Heckman, & Schennach, 2010; Geldhof, Little, & Columbo, 2010; Gestsdóttir, & Lerner, 2008; Lerner, Lerner, Bowers, Lewin-Bizan, Gestsdottir, & Urban, 2011). The salience of intentional self-regulation (ISR) during adolescence is grounded in the multifaceted changes that mark the second decade of life, and the need to regulate, or control, adaptively one’s behavior in the face of changes involving: the brain (Moshman, 2013; Paus, 2009); new motivational states (Freud, 1969; Susman, & Dorn, 2009); cognitive changes (Kuhn, 2009); and the refinement of longterm planning skills (Brandtstädter, 1989; McClelland, Ponitz, Messersmith, & Tominey, 2010). 5
Philosophers, philanthropists, and practitioners share with developmental scientists the belief in the salience of ISR for positive youth development (PYD). For instance, Sir John Templeton (2012) explained that the key to character development is the control of one’s mind, noting that “If one rules one’s mind, one rules one’s world” (2012, p. 3). In turn, practitioners have great interest in integrating ISR skills into youth development programs (e.g., Kurtines, et al., 2008b; J. Lerner, et al., 2012). Indeed, not only are youth development programs key ecological assets in promoting ISR, PYD, and youth Contribution to their communities but, as well, the adults in the lives of youth – and particularly the presence of competent, reliable, and devoted adults – are the key features of effective youth development programs (see, for reviews, J. Lerner, et al., 2012; Lerner, 2004; Rhodes, & Lowe, 2009). However, there are few evidence-based tools available to help practitioners discuss and build ISR skills with the youth in their care. The purpose of this report is to provide initial data about the use and validity of research-based tools aimed at promoting ISR in the context of mentoring programs. These materials – GPS to Success – are a translation of the theory-predicated research conducted within the 4-H Study of PYD (Lerner, et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011b) about the links between youth ISR and positive development. Designing the GPS to Success tools The core components of the GPS to Success project are based on a translation of theory and research pertinent to the Selection (S), Optimization (O), and Compensation (C; SOC) model of ISR (Baltes, & Baltes, 1990; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Freund, & Baltes, 2002; Freund, Li, & Baltes, 1999). The project uses the metaphor of a car’s GPS navigation system – you “choose your destination” and the GPS (your SOC skills in this case) provides “strategies” to arrive at your destination (in this case, achieving a goal). In Project GPS, “G” stands for “Goal Selection,” and reflects Selection skills. “P” stands for “Pursuit of Strategies,” and reflects Optimization skills. “S” stands for “Shifting Gears,” and reflects Compensation skills. The definitions of these concepts are: Goal Selection: A young person who has positive purpose is also one who is on a thriving path. Therefore, young people need to understand the importance of selecting positive goals and of having the skills to make good choices; Pursuit of Strategies: Adolescents need to develop strategies to attain their goals. They need to be able to make goal-specific plans and to develop appropriately the resources – from practicing a skill to recruiting the help of others – to achieve their goals; and Shifting Gears: Youth must be able to switch to a new strategy when their initial strategy fails to help achieve their goal. In these circumstances, they need to judge when it is reasonable to stay with their original goals and when it is prudent to select a new goal, for instance, when the chance to attain the initial goal is lost. The core tools for GPS to Success are rubrics or “growth grids.” The growth grids provide a standardized way for youth and mentors to discuss GPS skills and the Five Cs of Positive Youth Development (PYD); i.e., Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, and Caring; (Lerner, et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011b) and the “6th C” of youth, Contribution. Growth grids were also designed to give mentors a snapshot on how youth in their programs were doing, and what the goal-management skills of youth look like. The growth grids also helped mentors appraise skill development. This tool enables mentors to assess how well youth in a program have benefitted from their involvement with mentors. The growth grids, however, are not just measurement tools. They can also serve as powerful motivators for change in youth (Andrade, 2000; Goodrich,1997; Marzano, & Haystead, 2008; Moskal, 2003; Popham, 1997). An essential feature 6
of GPS to Success is having both mentor-scored growth grids, in which the mentors assess the youth, as well as youth-scored growth grids, in which the youth do a self-assessment. With the growth grids as a guide, the mentor and youth can compare their assessments of the youth’s GPS Skills and PYD – and discuss where they share opinions or where they differ. Youth can see where their greatest strengths lie, and where their biggest challenges exist as they move on a path towards thriving. In other words, the growth grids were developed for use by both mentors in diverse youth programs and, as well, by the young people they serve. The growth grids were created based upon four design criteria: 1.
2.
3.
4.
The use of research evidence for content. Substantive material for the cells of (the vocabulary used in) the growth grids was drawn from findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development (Lerner, et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011) and the work of Paul Baltes, Alexandra Freund, and their colleagues (e.g., Baltes, 1997; Baltes, & Baltes, 1990; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Freund, & Baltes, 2002; Freund, Li, & Baltes, 1999). Aligning terminology with the language of the Thrive Foundation for Youth. When supported by research evidence, variations in terminology were introduced to align wording with the phrasing used by the Thrive Foundation (http://www.thrivefoundation.org/), which drew their content from both the sources noted in Point 1, above, and Point 3, below. The use of cross-validating evidence. The content of the cells of the growth grids were modified to incorporate relevant findings of researchers other than those associated with the 4-H Study or the Baltes, Baltes, and Freund group. Specifically, the work of Peter Benson (2008), William Damon (2008), Carol Dweck (2006), Jacquelynne Eccles (2004), and Reed Larson (2000, 2006) was used. Measurement equivalence across age and phases of program implementation. To reach a large number of diverse youth, the tools that were developed had to be applicable to diverse young people across the adolescent years and, as well, to diverse youth-serving programs at all points in the process of program implementation (from program initiation to termination). Accordingly, we aimed to develop tools that would have validity at any point in time at which they are used (with “time” referring to both age of adolescent and phase of the program he or she is in).
Each growth grid was designed based upon, first, Design Criterion 1 noted above. Accordingly, the language used in the research was transformed into the language within the cells of each rubric. As such, we made changes in this language only if we found through pretesting and research team consensus that Design Criteria 2 or 3 made the tool more useful. Following this procedure helped ensure that we had clearly stated terms for each growth grid. In regards to pretesting, initial reviews of the tools were conducted with youth-serving professionals and the research team. Youth-serving professionals were asked to evaluate the growth grids in terms of 1. the relevance of the included dimensions to the construct of Goal Selection, Pursuit of Strategies, or Shifting Gears 2. the clarity of the columns of each rubric 3. the distinction between and logical progression of the performance levels 4. how reliably they can envision each dimension being scored by mentors 5. the usefulness of the rubrics for youth development and in their organizations 6. how to adjust the language of the rubrics to make them more appropriate for adolescents to score themselves. 7
This series of conversations resulted in a set of growth grids which were then empirically examined with a sample of mentors and youth from 4-H program sites in Oregon and North Carolina. These assessments constituted an initial evaluation of the psychometric usefulness of the GPS to Success tools. That is, this work involved validation procedures that assessed the presence within youth of relations between scores derived from the tools that are pertinent to goal-related behavior and scores derived from the tools pertinent to the Cs. We report here the results of this examination.
Method Sample There were 152 unique mentor/mentee pairs that participated. Of these participants, 69 of these pairs included youth older than 14 years of age (older adolescents; Mean age = 15.84, SD = 1.21), and 83 included youth younger than 14 years of age (younger adolescents; Mean age = 12.00, SD = 1.20). This evaluation was conducted in the fall of 2010 with mentors and mentees at eight 4-H sites in North Carolina and ten 4-H sites in Oregon. Participants from the former state constituted 30.9% of the sample. Of the 69 older adolescents who participated in the study, 30.4% were male, 52.2% were female, and 17.4% did not report their gender. Older adolescents’ grade in school ranged from “8th Grade” to “12th Grade.” Of these 69 participants, 2.9% of participants were in 8th Grade, 24.6% of participants were in 9th Grade, 15.9% of participants were in 10th Grade, 15.9% of participants were in 11th Grade, 14.5% of participants were in 12th Grade, and 26.1% of participants did not report their grade in school. A large proportion of the older adolescent sample reported being White or Caucasian (72.5%), whereas 10.1% reported being AfricanAmerican or Latino/a, and 17.4% of youth did not report their race or ethnicity. Of the 83 younger adolescents who participated in the study, 36.1% were male, 51.8% were female, and 12.0% did not report their gender. Younger adolescents’ grade in school ranged from “3rd Grade” to “8th Grade.” Of these 83 participants, 1.2% of participants were in 3rd Grade, 3.6% of participants were in 4th Grade, 20.5% of participants were in 5th Grade, 24.1% of participants were in 6th Grade, 18.1% of participants were in 7th Grade, 20.5% of participants were in 8th Grade, and 12.0% of participants did not report their grade in school. A large proportion of the younger adolescent sample also reported being White or Caucasian (73.5%), whereas 8.4% reported being African-American, 8.4 % reported Other races/ethnicities (Latino/a, Asian American, Native-American), and 12.0% of youth did not report their race or ethnicity. In total 45 mentors reported on these 152 youth. Mentors reported on youth indices for a range of one to seven youth (15.5% reported on one youth, 24.4% reported on two youth, 13.3% reported on three youth, 15.5% reported on four youth, 20.0% reported on five youth, and 11.1% reported on 6 or 7 youth). A substantial majority of mentors were female (80%) and ranged in age from 25 to 68 (M = 46.95, SD = 9.18). A majority of mentors also reported being White or Caucasian (82.2%), with 8.9% reported being, African-American, Latino/a, or Native American, and 8.9% not reporting their race or ethnicity.
Rubrics/Growth Grids The growth grids involve the different aspects and skills of GPS and PYD to help both youth and their mentors reflect on the youth's strengths and areas for improvement. The grids provide a standard of performance needed to attain a specific score. Each growth grid in the GPS to 8
Success suite has a comparable structure. This structure expedites responding and minimizes scoring error, regardless of the age of the youth or the skill being assessed. Each of the growth grids shares the same “1 to 5” scoring scale. The youth moves up in the scoring scale as they improve along two axes: skill initiative and skill competence. In other words, youth need to have both the initiative to try to use a skill and the competence to implement that skill effectively. For example, a youth at a Level 5 on the rubric is showing consistent initiative to use a particular skill and has mastered the skill. At the opposite end of the spectrum is a youth at Level 1; a youth at Level 1 shows so little initiative or skill, that the youth is disengaged from the process. In between these extremes, a youth at a Level 3 has the initiative to use a particular skill, but needs a lot of help to actually use the skill. At the onset of the GPS to Success project, we expected that we were not likely to find many young people at a Level 5 or a Level 1; however, we expected that many youth would fall between these extremes. Figure 1 presents an example of a Growth Grid. Assessments of an adolescent’s GPS skills and levels of PYD through the growth grids were completed by both youth and mentors. Youth self-assess their abilities, and mentors assess the behavior of youth as well. Having multiple reporters of these intentional self-regulation skills addresses a limitation in the research, in which assessments of an adolescent’s SOC were only comprised of self-reported data. The language is different in the mentor versus youthcompleted growth grids to reflect who is scoring them; that is, the youth-completed growth grids are phrased as “I statements” and contain simpler language than the mentor-completed grids. Regardless of these language differences, the content of the rubrics, as well as the overall structure, is shared across the sets of rubrics. The rubrics also differ by the age of the youth who is the focus of the rubrics. It is important to note that youth ages 10-13 have a single GPS rubric, while youth ages 14-18 have three rubrics assessing G, P, and S skills separately. The reason for this difference is based on research which indicated that while it is important for younger adolescents to have goal-directed skills, the G, P, and S scores of these adolescents do not differentiate into the tripartite SOC structure identified in older adolescents and adults (Gestsdottir, & Lerner, 2007). Younger adolescents with high G also have high P and also have high S. These younger adolescents also have a difficult time with certain questions on the GPS survey as young people from ages 10-13 often display less-refined and a smaller number of GPS skills. Therefore, the concepts related to those questions were removed, and the single rubric was developed. Based upon the theoretical and empirical literature and the iterative process with both colleagues at the Thrive Foundation for Youth and youth-serving professionals, we identified 13 skills that were indicative of SOC and related to successful goal attainment. As indicated, we translated these skills into a more practitioner- and youth friendly acronym – GPS – using the metaphor of a car’s GPS navigation system: •
The four Goal Selection skills were o Choosing your destination, o Choosing goals that help others, o Breaking down long-term goals, and o Identifying relations among goals.
•
The five Pursuit of Strategies skills were o Sticking to a plan, o Seizing the moment, o Developing strategies, o Showing persistent effort, and o Checking your progress. 9
•
The four Shifting Gears skills were o Substituting strategies, o Seeking different help, o Adopting strategies of others, and o Changing goals without feeling bad.
An example of one of the growth grids, indexing an older adolescent’s self-assessed “Goal Selection,” is presented here, in Figure 1.
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We also identified attributes indicative of each of the Cs of PYD and Contribution (see Appendix 1). The five Competence dimensions were Academic competence, Cognitive competence, Social competence, Emotional competence, and Healthy habits; the five Confidence dimensions were Overall Confidence, Confidence in School, Confidence in Physical Appearance, Confidence in Peer Acceptance, and Confidence in an Area of Interest; the three Connection dimensions were Connection with family, Connection with friends and peer groups, and Connection with community; the three Character dimensions were Moral compass, Integrity; and the four Caring dimensions were Sympathy, Empathy, Caring actions, and Promoting social justice. The four Contribution dimensions were Service to community, Leadership roles, Mentoring peers, and Sense of positive purpose.
Positive Youth Development. Youth also completed measures of PYD. As noted, we utilized the approach to PYD used by Lerner and colleagues (2005) that employs several measures to index PYD, which is operationalized through the assessment of the Five Cs—Competence, Confidence, Character, Connection, and Caring. Each “C” comprises a number of well-validated scales designed to assess the essential elements of the definition of the construct. Detailed information regarding the measurement of each of the Cs is presented below. The Five Cs comprising the PYD construct are operationalized as follows: Competence is a positive view of one’s action in domain-specific areas including the social and academic domains and is indexed by 11 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was .85. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .82. Confidence is an internal sense of overall positive self-worth, identity, and feelings about one’s physical appearance and was indexed by 16 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was .90. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .80.
Character involves respect for societal and cultural rules, possession of standards for correct behaviors, a sense of right and wrong, and integrity and was indexed by 20 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was .87 Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .87. Connection involves a positive bond with people and institutions that are reflected in healthy, bidirectional exchanges between the individual and peers, family, school, and community in which both parties contribute to the relationship. Connection is indexed by 22 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was .89. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .91.
Caring is the degree of sympathy and empathy, that is, the degree to which participants feel sorry for the distress of others and was indexed by 9 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was .79. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .63. Full details about these measures, their construction, and validity and reliability can be found in Lerner and colleagues (2005) and Bowers and colleagues (2010).
Contribution. Participants responded to twelve items which were weighted and summed to create a composite score of contribution. These items were from four subsets: leadership, service, helping, and ideology. Items from the leadership, service, and helping scales measured the frequency of time youth spent helping others (e.g., friends or neighbors), providing service to their communities, and acting in leadership roles; together, the leadership, service, and helping subsets comprise an action component of Contribution. The ideology scale measured the extent to which contribution was an important facet of their identities (e.g., “It is important to me to contribute to my community and society”). These items are derived from existing instruments with known psychometric properties and used in large-scales studies of adolescents, that is, the Profiles of Student Life-Attitudes and
Behaviors Survey (PSL-AB; Benson, Leffert, Scales, & Blyth, 1998) and the Teen Assessment Project Survey Question Bank (TAP; Small, & Rodgers, 1995). The action and ideology components are weighted equally to calculate the Contribution scores. As with the PYD scores, in the present study the Contribution scores range from 0 to 100. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was .75. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .79.
Intentional self regulation. We used the Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) questionnaire (Freund, & Baltes, 2002) to measure self regulation, that is, the individual component of the process of individual-context relations. The original SOC measure, which was created in Germany for use with adult populations, includes 48 items (12 items in each subscale of Elective Selection, Loss-based Selection, Optimization, and Compensation). Freund and Baltes (2002) created a shorter version of this measure, which included six items per scale and had acceptable psychometric characteristics (Freund, & Baltes, 2002). Each of the subscales has six items with a forced-choice format. Each item consists of two statements, one describing behavior reflecting Elective Selection, Loss-based Selection, Optimization, or Compensation and the other describing a non-SOC related behavior. An example of an Optimization scale item is: “When I do not succeed right away at what I want to do, I don’t try other possibilities for very long OR I keep trying as many different possibilities as are necessary to succeed at my goal.” The latter option reflects goal-optimization. Participants are asked to decide which of the statements is more similar to how they would behave. Affirmative responses are summed to provide a score for each individual on each subscale. Higher scores on each subscale indicate higher levels of self-regulatory skills. Past research using data from the 4-H Study of PYD has identified the structure of the SOC measure among adolescents ranging, to date, from fifth to tenth grades (e.g., Gestsdottir, & Lerner, 2007; Gestsdottir, et al. 2009, 2010). In Grades 5 through 7, the SOC construct exists globally (Gestsdottir, & Lerner, 2007; Zimmerman, Phelps, & Lerner, 2007), as opposed to the adult-like structure of three distinct processes. However, reflective of the orthogenetic principle (Werner, 1957), evidence was found for a tripartite, differentiated structure of SOC beginning in the eighth grade as the individual S, O, and C components identified in older populations (Freund, & Baltes, 2002) were found in these younger people (Gestsdottir, et al., 2009). However, this work has been “unable to provide [conclusive] evidence against or in support of… differentiation,” (Gestsdottir, et al., 2009, p. 591), and other research has modeled the SOC processes using a nine-item subset of the SOC questionnaire across adolescence displaying adequate reliability in both middle and late adolescence (Bowers, et al., 2011). The most recent work on the structure of SOC in adolescence reinforces the utility of the nine-item composite (Geldhof, et al., in press). To be consistent with these findings we calculated a global 9-item SOC for all adolescents, and we calculated separate S, O, and C composite scores for older adolescents. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was .45 for Selection, .57 for Optimization, and .26 for Compensation. Cronbach’s alpha for the 9-item SOC composite was .74 for the younger adolescents and .61 for the older adolescents in the present sample. While these alpha coefficients appear low, low internal consistency is not unexpected as the SOC questionnaire includes heterogeneous facets of each factor (e.g., optimization: investing effort, planning, modeling successful others). There are also several additional reasons why concern over these values is unwarranted. First, Cronbach’s alpha is a lower bound estimate of reliability based on Monte Carlo estimates (Cortina, 1993). In addition, some psychometricians have argued that low alphas, even at 0.1 to 0.2, are sufficient indices on complex constructs (Cattell, 1978). Finally, and most importantly, the reliability data for SOC components has been coupled with concurrent and 13
predictive validity data involving PYD and risk/problem behaviors (Gestsdottir, & Lerner, 2007; Gestsdottir, et al., 2009; Zimmerman, et al., 2008). Taken this evidence together, the SOC measure is regarded as a useful index of intentional self regulation among adolescents. Mentoring relationship duration, intensity, and structure. For each youth, mentors were also asked to report on how long they had known the youth (We have just met, A few weeks, Several months, About a year, Several years); how often they met the youth (Less than one time per month, Once per month, Several times per month, Once per week, Several times per week); the duration of each meeting (Less than one hour, About one hour, several hours); and the structure of those meetings (individual, group). Procedure The GPS to Success evaluation involved recruiting and training 4-H staff and agents in North Carolina and Oregon to use the growth grids. This training consisted of an hour and a half interactive webinar conducted by the research team in which the GPS to Success Project was described to mentors, each column of the growth grids was detailed, videos of exemplary models of the skills were shown and discussed, and mentors engaged in guided scoring of vignettes of young people who used the GPS skills and exhibiting the PYD attributes to varying degrees. In order to enhance the reliability and accuracy of reporting on such a diverse set of attributes, we worked to recruit mentor-mentee pairs that were established (> six months duration of relationships) and saw each other on a regular basis (> 1 time per month). Mentors received login information for themselves and their mentees to complete an online version of the survey via the Internet. In most cases, the programs allocated computers for participants to take the survey online. Mentors and mentees completed the surveys separately. The questionnaires took approximately forty-five minutes to complete, and participants were encouraged to take short breaks if needed. In order to assess whether the GPS and PYD growth grids were reliable and valid measures of intentional self regulation and PYD, we calculated Cronbach’s alphas for each subscale. We also conducted validity assessments that involved point-in-time assessments of covariation of scores derived from: (1) mentor ratings of youth (growth grids); (2) youth self-ratings (growth grids); and (3) youth responses to items from the 4-H Study Student Questionnaire (short version) that involved scores for (a) the Five Cs of PYD; (b) Contribution; and (c) SOC.
Results Preliminary analyses Of the 69 older adolescents, 7.2% (n = 5) were reported to have known their mentor about a year; and 76.8% (n = 53) were reported to having known their mentor for several years. Eleven youth (15.9%) were missing information about relationship duration. Based on the prevailing view in the field of mentoring (Rhodes & Lowe, 2009), these results indicate that almost 85% of mentors reported relationships with older adolescents long enough in duration to report youth attributes accurately. In regard to dosage, the frequency of mentor-reported contact with youth in general was relatively frequent as almost 75% of youth were reported to meet with their mentor at least several times per month. Only one youth (1.4%) was reported to see their mentor less than one time per month; 24.6% (n = 17) were reported to see their mentors one time per month; 26.1% (n = 18) were reported to see their mentor several times per month; 11.6% (n = 8) were reported to see their 14
mentor once per week; and 20.3% (n = 14) were reported to see their mentor several times per week or more. Again, 11 youth (15.9%) were missing information about relationship frequency. Only 2.9% of the older adolescents (n = 2) were reported to average less than one hour of time together in a typical meeting. Most youth were reported to meet with their mentors about one hour (31.9%, n = 22) or for several hours during a typical meeting (47.8%, n = 33). Twelve youth did not have length of visit information reported (17.4%). Mentors also reported differences their mentoring practices, such that some mentors met with their youth individually, whereas others met in groups. In our study, 69.6% of youth (n =48) met with their mentors in groups, and 14.5% (n = 10) met with their mentors individually. Eleven youth (15.9%) did not have this information available. While there may be some concern with the large proportion of older adolescents meeting with their “mentors” in group settings, we believe that the reported length of relationships, the frequency of contact, and the duration of a typical meeting between mentors and youth provide evidence that the mentors would be accurate reporters of older adolescents GPS skills and PYD attributes. In addition, a recent meta-analysis of mentoring programs for youth reported no differences in effects between group and one-to-one programs, and the effects for both were positive (DuBois, Portillo, Rhodes, Silverthorn, & Valentine, 2011). Of the 83 younger adolescents, 1.2% (n = 1) were reported to have known their mentor across a range of time from a few weeks to about a year; 1.2% (n =1) were reported to have known their mentor for several months; 24.1% (n = 20) were reported to have known their mentors for about a year; and 66.3% (n = 55) were reported to having known their mentor for several years. Six youth (7.2%) were missing information about relationship duration. Again, these results indicate that over 90% of mentors reported relationships with younger adolescents long enough in duration to report youth attributes accurately. In regard to dosage, 2.4% (n = 2) of youth were reported to see their mentor less than one time per month; 36.1% (n = 30) were reported to see their mentors one time per month; 27.7% (n = 23) were reported to see their mentor several times per month; 9.6% (n = 8) were reported to see their mentor once per week; and 16.9% (n = 14) were reported to see their mentor several times per week or more. Again, 6 youth (15.9%) were missing information about relationship frequency. A larger proportion of the younger adolescents (9.6%, n = 8) were reported to average less than one hour of time together in a typical meeting. However, most youth were reported to meet with their mentors about one hour (25.3%, n = 21) or for several hours during a typical meeting (56.6%, n = 47). Seven youth did not have length of visit information reported (8.4%). The type of program structure experienced by younger adolescents mirrored that of older adolescents. Thirteen youth (15.7%) met with their mentors individually, whereas 77.1% (n=64) met with their mentors individually. Six youth (7.2%) did not have this information available. As with our older adolescent sample, we believe that any concerns about the structure of the mentoring relationships (i.e., group) for reporting accuracy and validity is offset by the length and intensity of the relationships that were reported. Main Analyses: The Psychometric Characteristics of the GPS to Success Tools In general, the results indicated that the GPS, the Five Cs of PYD, and Contribution growth grids were reliable measures (see Table 1). Mentors rated youth in a more reliable manner, that is, with high levels of consistency, while youth displayed greater variability in their responses. Cronbach’s alphas for the mentor-reported growth grids ranged from a low of .76 for Connection in both younger and 15
older adolescents to a high of .92 for young adolescents’ global GPS. Conversely, Cronbach’s alphas for the youth-reported growth grids ranged from a low of .42 for older adolescent Competence to a high of .80 for younger adolescent Character and older adolescent Pursuit of Strategies.
Table 1 Reliabilities (αs) for mentor- and youth-reported GPS, PYD, and Contribution growth grids for Younger and older adolescents
Growth Grid Competence
Older adolescents, Mentorreported .85
Older adolescents, Self-reported .42
Younger adolescents, Mentorreported .85
Younger adolescents, Self-reported .66
Confidence
.87
.62
.86
.73
Connection
.76
.45
.76
.45
Character
.91
.56
.86
.80
Caring
.90
.43
.85
.49
Contribution
.90
.78
.86
.63
GPS - Global
.93
.68
.92
.63
Goal Selection
.88
.65
NA
NA
Pursuit of Strategies
.91
.80
NA
NA
Shifting Gears
.85
.59
NA
NA
The G, P, and S growth grids for older youth did not exhibit good validity when youth scores on the growth grids were correlated with analogous scores on youth-reported 4-H Study questionnaire items pertaining to Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (See Table 2). However, the growth grids for Goal Selection and Pursuit of Strategies were significantly related to the global nine-item measure of SOC that has been found to be a reliable and valid index of ISR (e.g., Geldhof, et al., in press; Gestsdottir, et al., 2007). The six-item global GPS score was also significantly correlated to the nineitem global SOC measure for both older and younger adolescents.
16
Table 2 Correlations for Youth-Reported BPS and SOC Dimensions Goal
Pursuit of
Shifting
Selection - YR
Strategies
Gears -
Selection
Optimization
- YR
YR
- YR
- YR
Global
Global
Compensation
GPS -
SOC
-YR
YR
- YR
Goal Selection YR
-
Pursuit of Strategies - YR
.56**
-
Shifting Gears YR
.58**
.43**
-
Selection - YR
-.04
-.06
-.24
Optimization YR
-.07
-.03
-.01
.26**
-
Compensation YR
.05
.11
-.06
.15
-.15
-
Global GPS YR
.80**
.85**
.65**
-.07
.02
.09
-
Global SOC
.31*
.36**
.22
.40**
.43**
.28**
.35a**
-
-
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
When turning to the Five Cs of PYD, and youth Contribution, the scores on growth grids were significantly related to the relevant dimension of PYD or Contribution reported through the 4-H Study questionnaire (See Table 3). The correlations across the measures were often higher than the correlations for the scales within each measure (growth grid versus 4-H questionnaire scale). The results suggest that the growth grids are valid indicators of the Five Cs of PYD and youth Contribution.
17
Table 3 Correlations for Youth-Reported PYD via Growth Grids and Five Cs Questionnaire (SQ)
Table 3 Correlations for Youth-Reported PYD via Growth Grids and Five Cs Questionnaire (SQ) PYD Dimension Competence - YR
Competence - YR
Confidence - YR
Caring - YR
Character - YR
Connection - YR
Contribution - YR
Competence - SQ
Confidence - SQ
Caring - SQ
Character - SQ
Connection - SQ
.474**
-
Caring - YR
.51**
.39**
-
Character - YR
.54**
.34**
.55**
-
Connection - YR
.43**
.50**
.41**
.34**
-
Contribution - YR
.45**
.52**
.53**
.49**
.48**
-
Competence - SQ
.48**
.49**
.24**
.34**
.23**
.43**
-
Confidence - SQ
.30**
.42**
0.16
.25**
.34**
.30**
.45**
-
Caring - SQ
.30**
.25**
.40**
.39**
.32**
.35**
.30**
.30**
-
Character - SQ
.52**
.41**
.54**
.56**
.48**
.52**
.38**
.35**
.61**
-
Connection - SQ
.32**
.41**
.32**
.33**
.56**
.39**
.34**
.55**
.43**
.57**
-
Contribution - SQ
.54**
.51**
.50**
.39**
.47**
.67**
.39**
.22*
.39**
.47**
.47**
Confidence - YR
Contribution - SQ
18
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
-
Within-rater mentor and youth growth grid scores for GPS and the Five Cs of PYD and Contribution were significantly positively correlated for both older and younger adolescents (Tables 4 and 5, respectively). The strength of these correlations varied across rater, age group, and dimension pairing. However, there were some surprisingly results. For older youth, self-reported Connection was not related to youth Pursuit of strategies nor the global GPS score. Connection was also not related to youth Competence and Character as would be expected in the older youth sample. This lack of a significant relation may be due to a lack of power from a small sample size. Finally, while youth selfreported Character was related to Goal Selection in older youth, Character was not related to the other two dimensions of intentional self regulation. The correlations for the self-reported younger adolescent growth grids also indicated that youth connection was the most weakly related to the global GPS score.
Table 4 Correlations for GPS and PYD Growth Grids for Older Adolescents Youth-Reported Dimension Goal
Goal
Pursuit of
Shifting
Global
Selection
Strategies
Gears
GPS
Competence
Confidence
Caring
Character
Connection
Contribution
-
Selection Pursuit of
.56**
-
Strategies Shifting
.58**
.43**
-
Global GPS
.80**
.85**
.65**
-
Competence
.53**
.52**
.38**
.54**
-
Confidence
.42**
.18
.32*
.40**
.38**
-
Caring
.58**
.45**
.45**
.58**
.45**
.29*
-
Character
.31*
.26
.17
.28*
.36**
.15
.33*
Connection
.46**
.07
.39**
.25
.25
.43**
.32*
.24
Contribution
.66**
.44**
.47**
.54**
.44**
.41**
.53**
.37**
Gears
.52**
-
Mentor Reported Goal
-
Selection Pursuit of
.88**
-
.83**
.84**
-
Global GPS
.91**
.96**
.91**
-
Competence
.82**
.84**
.80**
.86**
-
Confidence
.72**
.78**
.78**
.81**
.88**
-
Caring
.73**
.72**
.70**
.74**
.77**
.66**
-
Character
.69**
.67**
.63**
.70**
.79**
.65**
.76**
-
Connection
.75**
.76**
.77**
.80**
.89**
.81**
.76**
.84**
-
Contribution
.82**
.84**
.78**
.87**
88**
.79**
.82**
.83**
.86**
Strategies Shifting Gears
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
19
-
Table 5 Correlations for GPS and PYD Growth Grids for Younger Adolescents Youth-Reported Dimension
Global GPS
Global GPS
-
Competence
Confidence
Caring
Character
Connection
Competence
.46**
-
Confidence
.35**
.53**
-
Caring
.47**
.56**
.47**
-
Character
.38**
.61**
.44**
.69**
-
Connection
.25*
.55**
.55**
.47**
.42**
-
Contribution
.35**
.47**
.61**
.55**
.60**
.45**
Contribution
-
Mentor Reported Global GPS
-
Competence
.85**
-
Confidence
.70**
.82**
-
Caring
.75**
.78**
.63**
-
Character
.71**
.81**
.68**
.84**
-
Connection
.74**
.85**
.79**
.73**
.79**
-
Contribution
.83**
.79**
.78**
.71**
.73**
.82**
-
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
When turning to the mentor-reported growth grid scores, the results indicate that all of the dimensions were strongly related to each other for both younger and older adolescents. The smallest correlation for the mentor-reported growth grids was between Shifting Gears and Character in older youth, r(55) = .63, p < .01. This value is greater than most of the correlations found for the selfreported indices. Taken together with the reliability results (Table 1), these results suggest that mentors perceive youth as well-functioning in a global manner. The final set of analyses examined the correlations across raters (youth versus mentor) in order to investigate cross-rater reliability (Tables 6 and 7). The results show that for the G, P, and S dimensions in older youth, mentor and youth reports were only significantly correlated for Shifting Gears, r(43)=.43, p < .0 (See Table 6). However, youth reports of Shifting Gears were also significantly correlated with mentor-reported Goal Selection and Pursuit of Strategies. The results also lend support to the use of the global GPS growth grid as a valid measure of intentional self regulation for both younger and older youth as the mentor-reported global measure was significantly related to older youth Goal Selection and Pursuit of Strategies, the youth-reported global GPS measure was related to mentor-reported Pursuit of strategies and Shifting Gears, and the global measure of GPS was significantly correlated across-raters.
20
Table 6 Mentor and Youth Correlations for GPS Growth Grid Dimensions Growth Grid Dimension
Goal Selection - YR
Goal Selection YR
Pursuit of Strategies YR
Shifting Gears YR
Goal Selection MR
Pursuit of Strategies MR
Shifting Gears MR
Global GPS MR
-
Pursuit of Strategies-YR
.56**
Shifting Gears - YR
.58**
.43**
Goal Selection -MR
.27
.22
.37*
Pursuit of Strategies-MR
.37*
.25
.45**
.88**
-
Shifting Gears -MR
.28
.14
.43**
.83**
.84**
-
-
.30*
.35*
.22
-
Global GPS -YR Global GPS -MR
Global GPS YR
.33*
.19
-
.31a**
.41**
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). a Value is reported for entire sample of younger and older adolescents (n=152). All other values are for older youth only (n=69).
21
Table 7 Mentor and Youth Correlations for PYD Growth Grid Dimensions PYD Dimension
Competence - YR
Confidence - YR
Caring - YR
Character - YR
Connection - YR
Contribution - YR
Competence - MR
Competence - YR
-
Confidence - YR
.47**
-
Caring - YR
.51**
.39**
-
Character - YR
.54**
.34**
.55**
-
Connection - YR
.43**
.45**
.41**
.34**
-
Contribution - YR
.45**
.52**
.53**
.49**
.48**
-
Competence - MR
.29**
.35**
.12
.22*
.25**
.25**
-
Confidence - MR
Confidence - MR
Caring - MR
Character - MR
Connection - MR
.26**
.34**
.07
.18
.24*
.28**
.85**
-
Caring - MR
.24*
.30**
.14
.17
.19*
.16
.78**
.65**
-
Character - MR
.21*
.27**
.04
.15
.17
.17
.80**
.67**
.81**
-
Connection - MR
.22*
.32**
.14
.21*
.21*
.21*
.87**
.81**
.75**
.81**
-
Contribution - MR
.25**
.30**
.10
.17
.20*
.25**
.83**
.79**
.76**
.76**
.84**
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Across-rater correlations for the Five Cs of PYD and youth Contribution were more problematic (See Table 7). For all pairs, correlations between analogous C growth grid scores were significant for Competence, Confidence, Connection, and Contribution, but these values were low (ranging from r = .21 to r = .34). Correlations between youth and mentors on Caring and Character were in the right direction, but quite low. The discussion details possible reasons for these low levels of reliability. However, these initial evaluation findings pertinent to the psychometric quality of the GPS to Success tools suggested that the growth grids were suitable for larger-scale use.
Discussion Intentional self regulation (ISR) has been linked consistently across the adolescent years to positive youth development (PYD) and youth contribution (e.g., J. Lerner, et al., 2012). ISR, as a key individual strength of youth, results in these features of youth thriving when enacted in the context of key ecological developmental assets, such as youth development programs having competent, reliable, and devoted adults serving as mentors to youth (e.g., Benson, Scales, & Syvertsen, 2011; Rhodes, & Lowe, 2009; Theokas, & Lerner, 2006. The 4-H Study uses a model of ISR that operationalizes this construct as involving the selection of positive goals, optimizing ones chances of attaining ones goals through using effective strategies of resource recruitment and/or the cognitive and behavioral skills reflected in executive functioning, and compensating when goals are blocked or when strategies fail (Baltes, & Baltes, 1990; Freund, & Baltes, 2002; Lerner, at al., 2011a). The 4-H Study of PYD (e.g., Lerner, et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011b) has provided longitudinal data documenting the links among ISR, PYD, and youth Contribution. The study verifies that covariation 22
Contribution - MR
-
exists as well among these links and youth development programs, and the mentoring occurring within them. The goal of the 4-H Study was to not only describe and explain these patterns of association among youth strengths, such as ISR; ecological assets, such as mentors within youth development programs; and youth thriving (as indexed by scores for PYD and youth Contribution) but, as well, the intent was to use this research base to devise means to optimize positive development among youth (Lerner, Lerner, & Benson, 2011). Because there are few tools derived from theory-predicated developmental research that can be used by mentors to enhance the links among ISR and PYD or youth Contribution, we sought to develop a set of tools derived from the findings of the 4-H Study for potential use by the practitioners involved in mentoring youth in community-based programs. The present article presented initial information about the psychometric quality of the tools we have developed, that is the GPS to Success growth grids (rubrics), which – as we have explained – use the metaphor of a GPS navigational system (“G” standing for goal selection, “P” standing for pursuit of strategies, and “S” standing for shifting gears, or compensatory skills needed when goals are blocked or when strategies fail). We also developed growth grids assessing the Five Cs of PYD (competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring) and youth Contribution. We believe that our results are promising in regard to the reliability and validity of these growth grid tools, at least among the younger and older adolescents and their mentors who were involved in 4-H program sites in Oregon and North Carolina. This research is limited to assessing these psychometric characteristics at one point in time within the program experiences of youth and mentors. There are nevertheless indications of modest to high levels of reliability in both younger and older youth scoring of the growth grids, somewhat higher levels of reliability in regard to the scores on the rubrics provided by the mentors and, as well, scores indicative of validity. For instance, validity was evidenced by the findings that rubric scores for “G” and “P” and for the global GPS score were significantly related to the measure of ISR developed by Freund and Baltes (2002). Validity was evidenced also by findings that within-pair mentor and youth growth grid scores for GPS, the Five Cs, and Contribution were significantly positively correlated. We are therefore encouraged that there is sufficient evidence of the psychometric quality of the tools to promote their further use in longitudinal assessments of their usefulness and measurement quality. We intend to conduct such research in a manner mindful of the several limitations of the present research. Our further plans for developing the measurement quality of these tools involves not only longitudinal assessments but, as well, use of samples that extend beyond the two geographic areas assessed in the present research and, as well, that include more racially and ethnically diverse youth than involved in the present research. In addition, we will study youth involved in programs other than 4-H and, in this context, explore as well how program dosage and program type may moderate the psychometric quality of the growth grids. For instance, we would expect that youth involved in programs of greater intensity and duration might – within the context of the mentoring they experience – show not only growth in their ISR skills and in the links between ISR and indices of thriving but, in addition, they might evidence increasing convergence between their self appraisals on the rubrics and the appraisals of their mentors. Here, it will be interesting to see whether, if such relations exist, they vary in relation to participation in different youth development programs. Again, the testing of these ideas awaits further longitudinal research. Nevertheless, we can conclude that the present research has provided encouraging evidence that the research developed within the 4-H Study of PYD can be translated into tools useful for mentors to employ in their efforts to enhance a key individual strength among youth – ISR. Thus, mentors can use the “GPS to Success” tools to catalyze the use of this strength among youth. Mentors can help 23
youth engage their context to effectively pursue goals and to access the ecological resources associated with them, developmental assets that enable young people to thrive (Benson, et al., 2011). If the quality of these tools can be enhanced through further tool-development research, we believe that the importance of applied longitudinal research, such as the 4-H Study, will be underscored. Most important, there will be a documentation of the importance of evidence-based tools in facilitating mentors enacting their vital contributions to promote youth strengths and thriving. Acknowledgment: This research was supported in part by grants from the Thrive Foundation for Youth and the John Templeton Foundation.
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Appendix 1 Descriptions of GPS and the Cs of PYD (G) Goal Selection
Before an adolescent can achieve a goal, he or she must choose that goal and understand the steps needed for goal achievement. In the GPS framework, these behaviors are called “Goal Selection” (or G) behaviors. Choosing Your Destination – This behavior is the ability for a youth to select one or a small number of meaningful, realistic and demanding long-term goals, for example, getting into college or joining an athletic team. Goals That Help Others – Long-term goals, goals that are the destination of youth, should help themselves and also help the community, whether it be family, school, neighborhood, or the environment. Breaking Down Long Term Goals (Vertical Coherence) – Thriving adolescents are able to select long-term goals that can be broken into short-term steps along the way. Having logical and achievable short-term goals within a long-term goal improves the likelihood of attaining that goal. Identifying Relations Among Goals (Horizontal Coherence) – The best kinds of goals help youth out in many different parts of life, and can even help youth to achieve other goals. For example, the goal of joining a sports team helps youth become both physically fit and make friends. (P) Pursuit of Strategies
After selecting a goal, an adolescent must then use and/or develop the strategies needed to achieve that goal. In the GPS framework, these behaviors are called “Pursuit of Strategies”, (or P) behaviors. Sticking to a Plan – Making a detailed, step-by-step plan – and sticking to it by staying focused – increases the likelihood that an individual will successfully achieve a goal. Seizing the Moment – In order to achieve their goals, youth often have to know when and how to act. To seize the moment, youth must be aware of their environment, and know when and how to use their strategies most appropriately. For example, a youth may wait to ask his parents for help when they are in a good mood. Developing Strategies – In order to achieve their goals, youth must develop strategies that will help them along the way. Sometimes, these may be strategies they already possess, such as studying to prepare for a test. Other times, it might mean looking for new strategies in the environment such as joining a study group to prepare for a test. It might also mean that youth refine, or practice, the strategies that they are already using. Showing Persistent Effort – Just having the right strategies in place isn’t enough for a youth to achieve his or her goals. They must stay focused and show persistent effort with their strategies, resisting the temptation (at least most of the time) to be distracted by other things that may lead them off the path to goal achievement. Checking Your Progress – An important – and often-overlooked – strategy for achieving goals is keeping track of goal progress, and specifically, which strategies are working and which are not. Some youth may do this primarily mentally, keeping track “in their head” about how things are going and what is working and what isn’t. Other youth might need more structure to check up on their progress. (S) Shifting Gears
Sometimes the strategies that we use don’t work as well we planned. However, “roadblocks” don’t necessarily mean that the goal is wrong; rather, there might be something not working with our strategies. In other words, with some adjustments, there is still hope to achieve the goal. In the GPS model, these are called “Shifting Gears” (or S) behaviors. 29
Substituting Strategies – Sometimes, a youth’s first choice of strategies won’t work quite as well as they had planned for a particular goal. Keeping that long-term goal a reality requires some adjustment or substitution of strategies. Youth might have to change their plans, but the goal remains the same. Seeking Different Help – When youth run into trouble or their original plans do not work out, they often need to seek help from new and familiar people and resources to reach their goals. Adopting the Strategies of Others – One of the most important ways that youth can find new strategies is by modeling or emulating the successful behavior of others. Society is full of success stories, and often these individuals provide excellent advice for youth who are struggling to achieve their goals. Changing Goals Without Feeling Bad, or Loss-Based Selection (LBS) – LBS is all about changing goals when things aren’t working as planned. Recognizing the need to move to a new, more appropriate goal, LBS is about accepting loss as part of the learning process, analyzing options and keeping an overall long-term goal in perspective.
What is PYD? Positive Youth Development (PYD) is the capacity for all young people to Thrive. Whether it is through their own actions and abilities, or through the support of caring adults and youth-serving organizations, ALL young people can lead healthy, happy lives. Studies from Tufts University and other research centers show that PYD is made up of Five Cs that are linked to youths’ positive development: Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, and Caring. When youth are developing positively and reach the highest level of the Five Cs, they are more likely to become active citizens and develop a sense of Contribution, a sixth C. Competence
Competence is defined as a young person’s ability to perform successfully in a number of different areas, such as social, academic, cognitive, and self-care skills. Academic Competence – Youth’s ability to develop academic skills, participates in school activities, and uses personal and academic resources for success in school. Cognitive Competence – Youth’s ability to display curiosity and initiative to learn outside of school settings, which leads to skills in these areas. Social Competence – Youth’s ability to interact successfully in different situations with people of various ages and cultures. Emotional Competence – Youth’s ability to identify, control and adapt emotions in different situations. Healthy Habits – Youth’s ability to make healthy life choices by taking care of self with good diet, rest, and exercise, while avoiding unsafe behaviors. Confidence
Confidence is defined as a young person’s beliefs in his or her abilities to achieve in a variety of domains. Overall Confidence – Youth’s internal sense of overall positive self-worth and efficacy. Confidence in School – Youth’s confidence in ability to succeed in an academic setting. Confidence in Physical Appearance – Youth’s confidence in dress, hygiene, and features. Confidence in Peer Acceptance – Youth’s confidence in ability to make and keep friendships. Confidence in an Area of Interest – Youth’s personal belief for success in a valued area.
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Caring
Caring is defined by the sense of sympathy and empathy that a young person has for others, as well as a dedication to social justice. A caring young person is not satisfied with just having his or her own needs met, but is also concerned with the needs of others. Caring includes the expectation that everyone should have equal opportunities and be free from discrimination. Sympathy – Youth’s support and concern for the emotions of others. Empathy – Youth’s ability to relate to others’ emotions and experiences, and ability to place one’s self “in the other person’s shoes.” Caring Actions – How kind and helpful youth’s behaviors are towards other people. Promoting Social Justice – Youth’s willingness to help a community in need by working for fairness and equality. Connection
Connection is measured by the quality of relationships that a young person has with other people and social groups. Connection with Family – How well youth maintains healthy relationships with family members, uses open communication skills, and deals with problems. Connection with Friends – How well youth maintains strong, healthy relationships with friends and is able to connect with many peers. Connection with Community – How well youth creates successful relationships with community members and institutions, and is able to improve and expand these ties. Character
Character is defined as having a sense of morality – beliefs in standards for the behavior of oneself and others – and the belief that integrity is an important part of a thriving life. Character can also be described as doing what’s best for yourself and society. Moral Compass – Youth’s sense of right and wrong that guides them in situations and whether youth uses moral emotions (empathy, sympathy, admiration, shame, guilt, anger, self-esteem) rather than snap judgments to make decisions. Integrity – Youth’s ability to show sense of right and wrong in actions and ability to monitor self to see if actions are consistent with beliefs. Equal Treatment of Others – Youth’s equal and fair treatment of others, regardless of who the others are and youth’s ability to stand up for the fair treatment of everyone. Contribution
When the Five Cs are present in a young person, then a sixth C, Contribution, can emerge. Contribution describes a person’s ability and desire to give back and contribute to his family, community, and society. Service to Community – Youth’s level of service to the community, such as getting involved in service projects. Leadership Roles – Youth’s ability and initiative to lead in a positive way. Mentoring Peers – Youth’s willingness to mentor peers who need help. Sense of Positive Purpose – Youth’s sense of purpose and desire to contribute now and in the future.
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4-Health: A Programmatic Evaluation of a Parent-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention Program Carrie Benke 4-Health Project Montana State University Extension
[email protected] Sandra Bailey Department of Health and Human Development Montana State University
[email protected] Galen Eldridge 4-Health Research Montana State University Extension
[email protected] Wesley Lynch Department of Psychology Montana State University
[email protected] Jill Martz Montana State University Extension
[email protected] Lynn Paul Department of Health and Human Development Montana State University
[email protected]
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Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803FA002
4-Health: A Programmatic Evaluation of a Parent-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention Program Carrie Benke, Sandra Bailey, Galen Eldridge, Wesley Lynch, Jill Martz and Lynn Paul Montana State University Abstract: The 4-Health Project promotes healthy lifestyles for rural families with an overall goal of reducing or preventing childhood obesity. 4-Health is an integrated research and educational outreach program delivered by agents located in Montana State University Extension offices throughout the state. The collaborative project was developed to provide healthy living programs focusing on the areas of parenting and family communication, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity to rural parents of 8-12 year old children participating in Montana’s 4-H Youth Development programs. Evaluation outcomes of the 4-Health Educational (experimental) program and the Healthy Living Information (control) program both showed increases in participants’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to healthy living, with those participating in the 4-Health Educational program making greater gains.
Introduction Childhood obesity continues to be a nationwide concern, as approximately one in three children is overweight or obese (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Kit, & Flegal, 2012). Recent studies indicate that obesity rates for children in rural settings are as high as or higher than that of their urban counterparts (Davis, Bennett, Befort, & Nollen, 2011). During the preteen years, parents have the ability to greatly impact food and nutrition choices, physical activity levels, and socio-emotional development of their children, giving them an important role in the development of their children’s behavior related to healthy living and the prevention of weight-related problems (Golan, & Crow, 2004; Rhee, 2008). Because parents play such an important role in the lives of their preteen children, the focus of this research and educational outreach program was to develop an evidence-based educational program to improve the health and quality of life of rural children and families. A review of existing programs was done to assist in program development. Current research suggests that effective family-based 33
interventions include modifications for the home environment, parental role modeling of healthy behaviors, parental encouragement and support for healthy behaviors in children, and using goal setting as a means to create behavior change (Bauer, Berge, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2011; Golley, Hendrie, Slater, & Corsini, 2011). To address childhood obesity from a family influence perspective, the Montana State University 4Health Project was created by an interdisciplinary team including a Professor of Psychology, the Extension Food and Nutrition Specialist, the State 4-H Director, and the Extension Family and Human Development Specialist. A project director, hired to oversee the 4-year project, and a research assistant rounded out the team after funding was acquired from the United States Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture. The 4-Health Project aims to promote healthy lifestyles for rural families and was developed to meet the specific needs of rural parents of 8-12 year old 4-H members. The 4-Health Project consists of integrated research and outreach components delivered by agents located in Extension Offices in rural Montana counties. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of 4-Health, a pre-test/post-test design with an intervention and control group was developed. The 4-Health Educational program was the intervention program aimed at promoting healthy lifestyles among rural Montana families through participation in 10, ninety-minute, face-to-face sessions taught by a Montana State University Extension Agent in each participating county. The Healthy Living Information program was delivered to participants in other counties and consisted of mailed packets of information corresponding to topics similar to those in the experimental program. The evaluation research hypothesis stated that parents in the 4-Health Educational program would show significantly greater improvements in reported knowledge, attitudes, and family health-related behavior changes pre- to post-intervention than parents in the Healthy Living Information program. The 4-Health Project had three overarching research goals: • • •
Develop an effective parent-centered obesity prevention educational program that changes the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of rural families in order to promote health and wellbeing while preventing or reducing childhood obesity. Implement the 4-Health Educational program (and a Healthy Living Information program) over an 8-month period by offering it to parents of 8-12 year old children who are currently participating in Montana’s 4-H Youth Development programs. Evaluate participants’ self-reported knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors before and after the programs in order to determine effectiveness of the 4-Health Educational program on family healthy living habits versus the Healthy Living Information program.
Methodology The 4-Health Project was developed over several phases. Prior to implementing the project, focus groups (Phase 1) were conducted and a pilot study was carried out in three experimental and three control counties located across the state (Phase 2). These components assisted the team in the development of the final version of the 4-Health curriculum and the identification of written materials for the Healthy Living information program. In Phase 3 the program was implemented in 21 counties (11 experimental, 10 control). Program sites for Phase 3 were selected in a semi-random, regional cluster design process in which county Extension Agents were recruited to host a program and were assigned to a group based on both their preference to be in either the experimental or control group, if needed, and their 34
geographic location. This assignment strategy allowed for some regional matching of experimental and control groups to ensure statewide participation in both treatment conditions. A true random assignment was not possible because we did not have the authority to require Extension Agents to participate in the study. The 4-Health Educational program was delivered during face-to-face meetings over an 8-month period between September 2011 and April 2012 to the experimental group. Packets of information that made up the Healthy Living Information program were mailed to the control group participants at specific intervals during the same time frame. Participants’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors were assessed through a retrospective pre- and post-program evaluation for the experimental and control groups. Nineteen quantitative questions and four open-ended qualitative questions were used that focused on specific knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors relating to the four program focus areas: parenting and family communication, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity. Quantitative data were managed using the SPSS statistical package (v.20). Confirmatory factor analysis and repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to analyze the quantitative data. Qualitative data were managed using MS Word processing and were independently hand coded by four team members. The codes were entered into SPSS and an interrater reliability check was conducted. Sample The sample was drawn from 4-H families in Montana. Participants were parent and youth dyads, with the youth being a 4-H between the ages of 8 and 12 at the start of the study. There were 194 parent-child dyads that began the program during the pilot and full year combined. Of the 169 parents who completed the evaluation, 91 were participants from the experimental group and 78 were participants from the control group. The average age of parent participants was 41.0 years. The average age of youth participants was 10.7 years. Further participant demographics of dyads that completed the project are shown in Table 1.
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Table 1 Sample demographics N = 169 Parents/169 Youth Variable Parent Gender Male Female Child Gender Male Female Parent Ethnicity or Race White or Caucasian American Indian or Alaskan Native Other Child Ethnicity or Race White or Caucasian American Indian or Alaskan Native Other Family Income Less than $14999 $15000 to $24999 $25000 to $34999 $35000 to $49999 $50000 to $74999 $75000 to $99999 $100000 or more
% 3.4% 96.6% 34.6% 65.4% 97.8% 0.6% 1.7% 98.3% 0.6% 1.1% 2.8% 4.5% 7.4% 23.3% 31.8% 18.8% 11.4%
Quantitative Results Data were collected retrospectively from all parent participants following completion of the postintervention sessions of the pilot and full study. The 4-Health Final Participant Evaluation form included 17 questions in the pilot study and 19 questions in the full study. The two questions that were added concerned the focus area of physical activity. The two new questions addressed family communication related to physical activity and taking advantage of community sites for physical activity. The evaluation form covered the four program areas of being an active parent (AP), body image (BI), food and nutrition (FN), and physical activity (PA). Parents were asked to rate each item twice, once for the period prior to the program (pre) and once for the period following the program (post). Ratings in both cases were on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). During preliminary analysis of individual items in the quantitative questionnaire a consistent pattern emerged for each group of questions, suggesting a high degree of correlation among items within each of the four focus areas covered. As a result, a factor analysis of all items (using pre-intervention data for all participants) was carried out prior to further analysis. This analysis confirmed the existence of four factors (Eigenvalues > 1.0) corresponding to the four topic areas. Using mean scores for each of the four areas, separate mixed-model ANOVAs were carried out, with group (experimental versus control) as the between-subjects factor and pre- and post-program evaluations as the within-subjects factor. For all composite scores, the pre- to post- program improvement was greater in the 4-Health Educational (experimental) program than in the Healthy Living Information (control) program,
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demonstrating greater reported increases in knowledge and healthy behaviors among participants in the face-to-face 4-Health Educational (experimental) program. Being an Active Parent The mean factor score for being an active parent, using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements: •
I could use good communication skills when interacting with my family.
•
I could provide high levels of love and warmth.
•
I could provide appropriate boundaries based on my child's age.
•
I could advocate for my preteen when needed.
•
I could provide opportunities for my preteen to grow and develop his/her own identity.
Figure 1 Mean response to active parenting statements
Results, as shown in Figure 1, indicated a significant pre- to post-program change in parents’ reports of practicing active parenting (p < .001), showing that both groups reported an increase. There was a significant pre- to post-program change x experimental/control interaction (p < .001), showing that the experimental group reported greater pre- to post-program change than the control group. Body Image The body image factor score consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements: •
Our family could focus on each individual's positive traits and capabilities. 37
•
Our family could encourage size and body acceptance of self and others.
•
Our family could understand media and the environmental influences on the development of body image.
•
Our family could teach and model healthy self-esteem, respect, and confidence.
Figure 2 Mean response to body image statements
As can be seen in Figure 2, there was a significant pre- to post-program change in parents’ reported enhancing of positive body image (p < .001), showing that both groups increased. There was a significant pre- to post-program change x experimental/control interaction (p < .001), showing that the experimental group reported greater pre- to post-program change than the control group. Food and Nutrition The food and nutrition factor score consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements: •
Our family could choose foods and beverages packed with nutrients.
•
Our family could eat meals and snacks regularly.
•
Our family could choose food portions appropriate for our activity level.
•
Our family could eat together regularly.
•
Our family could practice the principles of normal, healthy eating.
•
Our family could avoid unhealthy weight control practices. 38
Figure 3 Mean response to food and nutrition statements
Similar to the findings for active parenting and body image, Figure 3 shows, there was a significant pre- to post-program change in parents’ reported enhancing of healthy food and nutrition behaviors (p < .001), showing that both groups reported increases. There was again a significant pre- to postprogram change x experimental/control interaction (p < .001), showing that the experimental group reported greater pre- to post-program change than the control group. Physical Activity The physical activity factor score consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements: •
Our family could work to create an accessible environment that promotes an active lifestyle.
•
Our family could work to reduce sedentary time.
•
Our family could promote physical activity through family communication.
•
Our family could take advantage of community sites that provide places for physical activity.
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Figure 4 Mean response to physical activity statements
The results shown in Figure 4 for physical activity showed there was a significant pre- to postprogram change in engaging in a physically active lifestyle (p < .001), showing that both groups reported increases. There was a significant pre- to post-program change x experimental/control interaction (p < .001), showing that the experimental group reported greater pre- to post-program change than the control group. Qualitative Results In addition to the quantitative portion of the evaluation, four open-ended evaluation statements were posed about potential changes that parents had made after participating in either program. The four statements addressed the areas of focus: parenting, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity. •
As a result of this program, describe what you have done to become a more active parent.
•
As a result of this program, describe how your family has worked to enhance positive body image.
•
As a result of this program, describe how your family has changed their food and nutrition behavior.
•
As a result of this program, describe how your family has made changes to engage in a more physically active lifestyle. 40
The qualitative responses from the parents were analyzed using an analytic induction approach. According to Patton (2002), qualitative research can be deductive in nature, where the researcher analyzes data to confirm or verify an existing theoretical framework. As Patton notes, qualitative analysis can first be deductive followed by (or alongside) an inductive process. In this way, a researcher begins by examining the data in terms of “theory-derived sensitizing concepts” or applying an existing framework (p. 454). During this deductive phase, the researcher can simultaneously search for emergent patterns by using an inductive process. The 4-Health Team selected knowledge, attitude, and behavior (KAB) to apply in the analysis. The KAB has been used in nutrition and health related studies and evaluations (Baranowski, Cullen, Nicklas, Thompson, & Baranowski, 2003; Brown, & Kiernan, 1998; Lin, Yang, Hang, & Pan, 2007). The KAB model was operationalized using the following: K – (Knowledge) Understanding of information A – (Attitude) Belief about the value of the information B – (Behavior) Application of knowledge gained from the information; action taken Four members of the 4-Health team coded the responses using the KAB model to explore possible changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors that participants reported. After the independent coding was completed two of the team members compiled the responses. It was noted that the way in which the open-ended questions were worded did not prompt responses related to attitude as was assessed by the Likert scale questions, therefore no ‘A’s were coded. Next, team members found that numerous participant responses used the term “trying” or “tried.” For example, in response to the question about changes in being more physically active after participating in the program one parent responded, “As a result of this program, we try to individually and as a family get out and get moving more often. We each have our own exercise program but we also like to do things as a family.” In responses that used the terms “trying” or “tried,” it was difficult for the team to determine if the respondents had actually moved to making a change in behavior. Therefore, responses referencing “trying” or “tried” were coded as KB, meaning that the participant had gained knowledge but it was not clear whether or not the participant had changed his/her behavior. As a result of these adaptations most responses were coded as KB (trying to make a change) or B (behavior change). After the two changes were made in the coding the inter-rater reliability was computed. Inter-rater reliability was .87 for the experimental group and .86 for the control group. This inter-rater reliability was very conservative. If only one of the four team members had a different rating on an item, the item was marked as inconsistent. Table 2 below provides a sample of participant responses to each of the evaluation statements. As can be seen, the responses to the open-ended statements supported the quantitative results of the evaluation.
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Table 2 Examples of participant qualitative responses Evaluation Statement As a result of this program, describe what you have done to become a more active parent.
Example Participant Responses “We do things with the children instead of telling them to do physical activity, realizing that we are their most important role models.” “I’m involving my kids more in cooking and making some of the choices, offering healthier snack options and discussing why we need to make these changes.”
As a result of this program, describe how your family has worked to enhance positive body image.
“I am way more conscious of it [body image] and do way more to promote positive body image – we really try to watch what we say and what we expose ourselves to.” “I am more aware of the way I listen to/respond to my daughter’s comments about her body. It’s more of a conversation now.”
As a result of this program, describe how your family has changed their food and nutrition behavior choices.
“My family is now very aware of the importance of having a plate full of color. We now use whole wheat pasta and try to eat some sort of fresh vegetable or fruit daily.” “We are eating more and a larger variety of vegetables and fruit, now everyone eats cauliflower and broccoli. The course and the discussion taught me new ways to incorporate vegetables into our meals.”
As a result of this program, describe how your family has made changes to engage in a more physically active lifestyle.
“We have made time to walk, ride bikes, or play ball together. We also found that a fun, good way to be active together [inside] was to play Wii.” “I have decided to start dinner 30 minutes later so I can play outside with the kids. We are doing things we all enjoy together – and compromising on what we do. If I feel tired, I try to go for a walk or bike ride with the kids.”
When participants responses were categorized using the KAB model, both the experimental and control groups showed increases in knowledge (K), attempts to change behavior (KB), and actual behavior changes (B) as a result of the program, but the experimental group consistently showed greater levels of behavior change than the control group; the control group more frequently answered that they were “trying” to change their behavior, as opposed to having actually made a change. Table 3 below provides a comparison of the percentage of participants from the experimental and control group that reported no changes, acquired knowledge, attempts to change behaviors, and actual changes in behavior.
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Table 3 Percentage of responses from participants in the experimental and control groups As a result of this program describe…
Reported no change
Acquired knowledge
Are trying to change behavior
Made behavior changes
…what you have done to become a more active parent. Experimental Group Control Group
2.6% 40.6%
9.0% 4.3%
11.5% 17.4%
76.9% 37.7%
10.1% 40.0%
7.6% 6.2%
8.9% 13.8%
73.4% 40.0%
0% 17.6%
2.3% 5.9%
3.5% 20.6%
94.2% 55.9%
2.8% 32.1%
4.3% 5.4%
20.0% 23.2%
72.9% 39.3%
…how your family has worked to enhance positive body image. Experimental Group Control Group …how your family has changed their food and nutrition behavior choices. Experimental Group Control Group … how your family has made changes to engage in a more physically active lifestyle. Experimental Group Control Group
The 4-Health Team followed up with participants from the full study with final evaluations 6 months after the post program evaluation. Although only two-thirds of the participants from the full study year were able to complete the follow up evaluation, 92.8% of respondents in the 4-Health Educational program group reported having continued with changes they made in the areas of parenting, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity. In contrast, only 57% of parents in the Healthy Living Information group reported continuing with changes they made in the same areas.
Discussion, Conclusions, and Implications for Practice The evaluation findings show that although participants in both groups improved their knowledge and behaviors related to parenting, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity within their families, the participants in the 4-Health Educational (experimental) program reported a significantly greater level of learning and behavior change than the participants in the Healthy Living Information (control) program. In other words, participants who were given the opportunity for face-to-face facilitated sessions with peer interaction reported greater improvements in knowledge and behaviors than participants who only received healthy living written materials. These findings contribute to the body of knowledge that suggests even though health information is widely available through many media sources, Extension’s facilitated programming efforts, especially in rural areas, are a more 43
effective method of providing education that has a significantly greater impact on participants than educational materials alone. Feedback from program participants and facilitators of the 4-Health Educational program on components of the program that had the most impact on them was provided to the 4-Health Team. The following suggestions may be helpful to Extension educators and those providing face-to-face healthy living programs to 4-H families or other parents: •
Provide Time for Interaction - In addition to finding the content of the program valuable, participants found great value in having time, as parents, to talk about what was going on with their families, in their homes, and in their communities. Most participants mentioned the social support of the other parents in their group as one of the highlights of the 4-Health Educational program, especially during discussions on topics that were newer to them, such as body image.
•
Provide Healthy Snacks - Participants appreciated when healthy snacks were provided by facilitators, especially when new foods were introduced, such as quinoa, couscous, or seasonal fruits and vegetables. The introduction of these foods during sessions increased participant confidence in serving them at home.
•
Provide Family Friendly Recipes with Take-Home Ingredients - Participants enjoyed take-home recipes and simple, healthy ingredients provided by facilitators for engaging their preteen in the kitchen. It encouraged them to try new foods at home and spend time with their families discussing healthy living topics.
•
Provide Physical Activity Breaks Mid-Session - Participants appreciated an activity break midsession, especially when activities that were new to them were incorporated, such as strength training exercises or yoga poses. They also enjoyed sharing ideas for activities that they could use with their families at home during the cold winter months, such as having at home “dance parties” or sharing local community opportunities for family fun and fitness.
The 4-Health Educational Program will continue to be facilitated across Montana in 2013-2014. The program materials are currently being disseminated statewide and are available for download at www.4health.org.
References Baranowski, T., Cullen, K.W., Nicklas, T., Thompson, D., & Baranowski, J. (2003). Are current health behavioral change models helpful in guiding prevention of weight gain efforts? Obesity Research, 11, 23S-43S. Bauer, K.W., Berge, J.M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2011). The importance of families to adolescents’ physical activity and dietary intake. Adolescent Medicine, 22(3). 601-613. Brown, J.L., & Kiernan, N.E. (1998). A model for inegrating program development and evaluation.
Journal of Extension, [On-line], 36(3), Article 3RIB5. Available at http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/index.php. Davis, A.M., Bennett, K.J., Befort, C., Nollen, N. (2011). Obesity and related health behaviors among urbank and rural children in the United States: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2004 and 2005-2006. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36(6), 669-676. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsq117. 44
Golan, M., & Crow, S. (2004). Parents are key players in the prevention and treatment of weightrelated problems. Nutrition Reviews, 62, 39-50. Golley, R.K., Hendrie, G.A., Slater, A., & Corsini, N. (2011). Interventions that involve parents to improve children's weight-related nutrition intake and activity patterns - what nutrition and activity targets and behaviour change techniques are associated with intervention effectiveness? Obesity Reviews, 12(2), 114-130. Lin, W., Yang, H., Hang, C. & Pan, W. (2007). Nutrition knowledge, attitude, and behavior of Taiwanese elementary school children. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 16(2), 534-546. Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Curtin, L.R., Kit, B.K., & Flegal, K.M. (2012). Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in Body Mass Index Among US Children and Adolescents. Journal of the American Medical Association, 307(5), 483-490. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.40. Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Rhee, K. (2008). Childhood overweight and the relationship between parent behaviors, parenting style, and family functioning. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 615, 12-37.
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact Editor at:
[email protected] for details. However, users may print, download or email articles for individual use. ISSN 2325-4009 (Print); ISSN 2325-4017 (Online) 45
Training Teens to Teach Agricultural Biotechnology: A National 4-H Science Demonstration Project
Chad Ripberger Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Mercer County Trenton, New Jersey
[email protected]
Lydia B. Blalock Project Consultant
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Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803FA003
Training Teens to Teach Agricultural Biotechnology: A National 4-H Science Demonstration Project Chad Ripberger Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Mercer County Lydia B. Blalock Project Consultant Abstract: This article discusses a National 4-H Science agricultural biotechnology demonstration project and the impact of the pilot programs on the teenage leaders and teachers. A total of 82 teenagers were extensively trained, who in turn, engaged 620 youth participants with agricultural biotechnology education in afterschool and summer programs in five states. This article details the national and state level trainings for these teen teachers as well as the content rich partners from agribusinesses, agricultural commodity groups, and universities who supported their involvement. The impact on the content knowledge, science process and life skills, and program development and implementation skills of the teen leaders and teachers was evaluated using multiple instruments over multiple administrations (pre-training, post-training, and post-teaching). Results indicate significant gains in most areas assessed. Project recommendations and future plans are also discussed.
Introduction Today, many young people are generationally and geographically removed from farming and agriculture. Yet, it is vital that these young leaders and future decision makers understand the critical role of agricultural science innovation in addressing the world’s most pressing problems. In 2012, National 4-H Council in partnership with the United Soybean Board (USB) and five Land Grant Universities conducted four, teen led agricultural biotechnology demonstration programs in ten urban areas of Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, and Ohio. These programs are part of the larger 4-H Science in Urban Communities Initiative, and were designed using the 4-H Science in Urban
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Communities Promising Practices Guide available at http://urban4hscience.rutgers.edu (Ripberger, & Blalock, 2011).
Teens as Teachers The 4-H Youth Development Program has a long history of training and supporting teenagers to teach or co-facilitate youth programs for their peers and/or younger youth. The teens as cross-age teachers delivery model has been implemented with a variety of curricula, including healthy living (Emil, Dworkin, & Skelly, 2007; Ripberger, Devitt, & Gore, 2009), job readiness (Ripberger, Bovitz, Cole, & Lyons, 2008), and science (Bird, & Subramaniam, 2011; Smith & Enfield, 2002; Utah State University Cooperative Extension, 2011). Lee and Murdock (2002) studied 14 teens as teachers programs, and identified ten essential elements of programs that lead to positive outcomes for the teen teachers and those they teach: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j)
dedicated adults who support teens, active teen recruitment, strong curriculum, initial training, ongoing training and support, attention to details, recognition and reward, team building, setting teens up for success, and feedback and evaluation.
Based on their work, several resources have been created to support 4-H professionals developing teens as teachers programs. These resources include a 4-H Afterschool resource guide to help practitioners recruit and train teenagers to work with younger youth in afterschool settings (Junge, 2005) and a more concise 4-H Science fact sheet, Engaging Teens as Teachers through Youth-Adult Partnerships in 4-H Science (Schmitt-McQuitty, 2012). The agricultural biotechnology project discussed in this article is based on the work of Lee and Murdock and the practices outlined in the Staffing with Teenagers and Teens as Cross-Age Teachers chapter of the 4-H Science in Urban Communities Promising Practices Guide (Ripberger, & Blalock, 2011). Ripberger and Blalock worked with six 4-H professionals with extensive experience in “teens as teachers” programs to identify “teens as teachers” promising practices in four areas: a) program planning and evaluation, b) recruitment, c) training, and d) resources and support (see Table 1).
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Table 1 Staffing with Teenagers and Teens as Cross-Age Teachers Promising Practices (Ripberger & Blalock, 2011) Program Planning and Evaluation Read the chapter 4-H Science Program Design – 4-H Science Checklist. Offer authentic, meaningful teaching and/or leadership roles. Make their role special. Provide meaningful recognition. Provide incentives to teens for their time and dedication. Partner with other agencies or organizations that provide youth incentives. Use flexible scheduling practices. Extend service-learning beyond one program. Evaluate teen program performance. Recruitment Recruit teens from a variety of sources. Assess teens interested in becoming program partners. Emphasize the employment process. Training Read the chapter Training Others to Deliver High Quality Science Programming. Provide quality training for teens and their adult partners. Create opportunities to practice. Group youth into teaching teams. Ask youth to visualize the teaching process. Resources and Support Provide research-based curricula and materials. Supportive adult partners are a critical factor in great teen teaching. Ensure that adults working with teens are trained and prepared. Assist teens in reflecting on their teaching experience. A full description of the practices along with a short video featuring the contributors, brief case studies, and suggested resources is available at http://urban4hscience.rutgers.edu/practices/staffing/teens.html. In addition, a 60-minute webinar about this chapter is available in the 4-H Online Learning Center at http://4h.interactyx.com/login.aspx (Ripberger, Francis, & Wagoner, 2012).
Need for Agricultural Biotechnology Programming Agricultural biotechnology is a “range of tools, including traditional breeding techniques, that alter living organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or modify products; improve plants or animals; or develop microorganisms for specific agricultural uses. Modern biotechnology today includes the tools of genetic engineering” (USDA, n.d., p. 1). To date, agricultural biotechnology has primarily been used to increase crop yields through the development of a variety of transgenic crops that are herbicide tolerant, insect resistant, and/or disease resistant. However, a variety of agricultural biotechnology products are in various stages of research, development, and commercialization that have the potential of addressing some of our most pressing issues related to global food security, nutrition, energy, and sustainability (USDA; National Research Council, 2008; Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology, 2001).
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Through 2015, it is estimated that there will be 54,400 annual job openings for those with agricultural college degrees (Goecker, Smith, Smith, & Goetz, 2010). While the percentage of these opportunities in production agriculture (farming) has declined, 27% of these jobs will be in science and engineering and 47% will be in management and business. A shortfall of graduates for these science and business positions is projected as we approach 2015, especially for the anticipated demand for plant geneticists and plant breeders. The 4-H Teens Teaching Youth Agricultural Biotechnology project was designed to help youth increase their knowledge of agricultural biotechnology and to increase their awareness of career opportunities available in this growing field. This project is consistent with the recommendations for K-12 and youth outreach from Transforming Agricultural Education for a Changing World, a report from the National Research Council (2009), Many of the messages in the report about the changing nature of agriculture also apply to the way that it is portrayed in youth-focused programs. These activities have the same responsibility as agriculture faculty to ensure that the treatment of agriculture in courses and curricula reflects the cutting edge and the increasing focus on issues such as sustainability and concern for the environment. (p. 83) As a pilot project, 4-H Teens Teaching Youth Agricultural Biotechnology was designed to serve as a foundation for an increased focus on AgriScience programming by 4-H.
Project Design In 2011 National 4-H Council, with support from the United Soybean Board (USB), solicited interest from 4-H professionals to participate in a year-long “teens as teachers” project focused on agricultural biotechnology. Through a competitive proposal process, four grants of $25,000 were awarded to 4-H programs in Delaware, Illinois/Missouri (a partnership), Indiana, and Ohio. Each of these 4-H programs agreed to the overall project objectives and outcome objectives.
Project Objectives 1. Each demonstration program will include a leadership team composed of four Teen Leaders, at least one 4‐H Program professional, and at least one agricultural biotechnology partner from their state soybean board, industry, and/or their Land Grant University. 2. All leadership team members will attend the project kickoff/grantee training, January 11‐14, 2012 in Indianapolis, Indiana. 3. The project will engage a total of 80 urban teens and 400 younger youth participants with biotechnology education in order to identify promising practices for future replication with expanded audiences. Eighty urban teens will be recruited and extensively trained to deliver a minimum of 20 hours of biotechnology programming for youth in afterschool, club, and summer/camp programs.
Outcome Objectives 1. Content Knowledge – Agricultural Biotechnology a. Participants will increase their knowledge of biotechnology/AgriScience principles and concepts. b. Participants will increase their awareness of potential careers in agricultural biotechnology fields. c. Participants will feel comfortable communicating the biotechnology story. 2. Science Process and Life Skills 50
a. Participants will increase in 4-H Science Abilities (science process skills) (Worker, 2012). b. Participants will increase in Life Skills as measured by the Youth, Engagement, Attitudes and Knowledge (YEAK) Survey. 3. Program Development and Implementation a. Participants will improve their teaching and communication skills. b. Participants will increase their skills in 4-H Science program design. c. Participants will understand how to effectively use content rich partners as part of their trainings. d. Participants will understand how to integrate biotechnology/AgriScience activities from recommended curricula sources into program plans.
Concepts and Related Activities and Curricular Resources In the absence of a comprehensive and current 4-H agricultural biotechnology curriculum, the demonstration program leadership teams were introduced to a variety of activities from suggested curricula at the national training. These activities, along with field trips, presentations from contentrich partners, and computer-based resources, were sequenced to address the following concepts (see Table 2). Suggested curricula included the 4-H AgriScience Online biotechnology activities (Horton, Warkentien, & Gogolski, 2011) and resources from the Iowa State University Biotech Office (2012). Teams also utilized selected components of an agricultural biotechnology curriculum from The Children’s Museum of Indianapolis (2007) and the GetBiotechSmart.com website (United Soybean Board, 2012).
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Table 2 Ag Science Concepts and Related Activities and Resources Ag Science Concepts
Agricultural Literacy Agricultural Products (how and where they are produced) Plants & People - Food, Feed, Fuel, Fiber Seed Production Yield and Yield Trends Factors Influencing Yield
Challenges for Agriculture Global Food Security Sustainability
Intro to Agricultural Biotechnology Biotechnology Defined Historical Perspective Input and Output Traits Types of Biotech Crops Regulation of Biotechnology Public Concerns Regarding Biotechnology International Perspective
Science of Biotechnology Cell Biology DNA Genetics Genetic Engineering Tools and Techniques
Selected Activities and Resources Bio Plastic from 4-H AgriScience Online Soy Ink from 4-H AgriScience Online Biomass to Biofuel from 4-H AgriScience Online Soap – Plant Oils Matter from 4-H AgriScience Online Field trip to seed company addressed seed production, yield and yield trends, and factors influencing yields. Youth spoke with staff and toured seed production facilities.
Primarily addressed through guest speakers, field trips, PPT, and video. History of Agricultural Biotechnology from Agricultural Biotechnology, pg. 6-11, 27 Engineering a Better Oil from 4-H AgriScience Online Trait Testing Activity from Iowa State University Biotech Office Bioethics Case Studies from Iowa State University Biotech Office Also addressed through guest speakers, field trips, PPT, and video. Staff from agribusinesses and commodity groups were especially helpful in addressing input and output traits and the types of biotech crops. Due to their work in many countries, the Danforth Plant Science Center was key in providing a global perspective.
Cell Model Activities: Background info from Agricultural Biotechnology, pg. 12-14 Cell Pudding Pie Model from Field of Genes
DNA Model Activities: Paper Clip Model from Agricultural Biotechnology, pg. 18-20 Candy Model (licorice & gum drops) from GetBiotechSmart.com (some did similar with pipe cleaners)
DNA Extraction Activities: Fruit Smoothie Version from Iowa State University Biotech Office Wheat Germ Version from Agricultural Biotechnology, pg. 21-23 Strawberry Version from Pioneer
LEGO Analogy for Sequencing In Delaware, Missouri, and Illinois, participants completed PCR and microarray lab activities at the Delaware Biotechnology Institute and the Danforth Plant Science Center.
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Ag Science Concepts
Agricultural Biotechnology Career Awareness
Selected Activities and Resources Youth met many in the field of biotechnology through field trips and guest speakers. Youth (both teens and younger participants) visited the labs and greenhouses of many partnering agribusinesses and organizations.
National Kickoff Training The Kickoff Training was a four-day program held in Indianapolis, Indiana for 16 Teen Leaders and 16 adults serving on state leadership teams. Program kickoff partners included USB, the Indiana Soybean Alliance (new uses, communicating the biotech story, and a panel of Purdue students and faculty from the Soybean Innovation Contest), Purdue University (Biotechnology 101, DNA extraction and sequencing activities), Beck’s Hybrids (seed production, input and output traits, trait testing activity, tour), Dow AgroSciences (biotechnology and global food security, product pipeline, tour), and Adayana, Inc. (GetBiotechSmart.com). In addition to presentations and tours from partners, the youth also experienced several activities from suggested curricula and practiced teaching these activities on the last day. Participants also had time to brainstorm ideas for teen recruitment, training, and program implementation.
State Level Teen Recruitment and Training After attending the national kickoff training, state leadership teams (four teens, 4-H professional, and content rich partner) were responsible for recruiting additional teen teachers and planning and implementing a 15-hour training to help prepare them for their responsibilities. State teams were strongly encouraged to utilize content rich partners from agribusinesses, universities, and agricultural commodity groups in their training events. Highlights of their partners, trainings, and programming are below.
Demonstration Program Highlights and Content Rich Partners Delaware (Claymont, Dover, Hartly, and Wilmington) Delaware 4-H partnered with Boys and Girls Club in Clayton, the Delaware Housing Authority in Dover, Urban Promise in Wilmington, and a local school to deliver four agricultural biotechnology summer camps from June through August. The program’s content rich partners included the Delaware Biotechnology Institute, a University of Delaware agronomist, and a member of the Delaware Soybean Board. In addition to hosting part of the two-day state teen training in March, the Delaware Biotechnology Institute also allowed access to research labs and provided activities for the youth camp participants. In addition, the Delaware team also incorporated several of the biotech activities into the annual science adventure camp. Illinois/Missouri (Cahokia and Madison, Illinois; Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri) Illinois and Missouri 4-H programs joined forces to implement nine 20-hour programs with afterschool, camp, and summer school partners in the greater St. Louis and Kansas City areas. From the beginning, the program benefitted from the expertise of Dr. Terry Woodford-Thomas of the Danforth Plant Science Center, who hosted a weekend planning retreat in January and the weekend teen training in February. Dr. Woodford-Thomas also assisted with activities and mentoring the Teen Teachers. In addition to their regular programming, the teenagers incorporated agricultural biotechnology activities into the Missouri State 4-H Congress in May and the Youth Futures Conference in July. The program was presented to afterschool professionals at the Midwest Regional Science Conference.
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Indiana (Columbus and Lafayette) Two county 4-H educators partnered to deliver the program in afterschool sites in Columbus and Lafayette. Agricultural biotechnology content was also incorporated into two three-day campus-based summer camps in June, Purdue 4-H Roundup and one of the Purdue 4-H Science Workshops (PINE— Plants, Insects, Natural Resources, Environment). Dr. Kathryn Orvis, State 4-H Specialist, served as the primary content partner, lending a background in plant science and biotechnology education to the Indiana team. Dr. Orvis was instrumental in training the Teen Teachers and in engaging other content rich partners such as the Biotechnology Learning Center of the Children’s Museum of Indianapolis, host of part of the two-day teen training in February. Ohio (Dayton) The Teen Leaders conducted a pilot of the program at a partnering afterschool site in Dayton, Ohio from February to April before recruiting and training additional teens to deliver the program as part of the six-week Adventure Central summer camp in June and July for 111 youth. The agricultural biotechnology training was incorporated into the weeklong teen counselor training prior to camp. In addition to the camp-based programming, the Ohio 4-H team partnered with the Ohio Soybean Council and the Ohio BioProducts Innovation Center to coordinate a day trip to The Ohio State University to meet with faculty from Food Science, Horticulture and Crop Science, and Agricultural Engineering. USA Science and Engineering Festival All leadership teams (teens and staff) traveled to Washington DC in April 2012 to represent National 4-H and this project at the USA Science and Engineering Festival—the largest celebration of science in the US – featuring over 500 interactive exhibits for approximately 500,000 people. In addition to time spent staffing the 4-H booth, the teens participated in activities from a variety of universities, federal agencies, and science centers.
Project Evaluation Teen Teachers and Teen Leaders were evaluated using multiple instruments over multiple administrations. Teen Leaders were Teen Teachers who had the additional responsibility of attending the National Kickoff Training and planning and implementing state trainings for their peers. Instruments included a Knowledge Assessment, several open-ended questions, a Retrospective Assessment, and the Youth Engagement, Attitudes, and Knowledge Survey (YEAK). In addition, the adult program leaders were asked to provide feedback regarding the project.
Methods Knowledge Assessment A 29-item (36 points) Knowledge Assessment was developed specifically for this project. The assessment included items on genetics, the science of biotechnology, input and output traits, types of biotechnology crops, biotechnology benefits and concerns, and biotechnology regulation. Question formats included multiple choice, matching, true/false, and short answer. The assessment was administered to the Teen Teachers and Leaders three times, pre-training, post-training, and postteaching. Scores were assigned based upon number of correct items. Results were analyzed with SPSS using paired t-tests for dependent samples. Open-ended Questions The teens were asked to answer three open-ended questions about their experiences. The questions included: 1. What are the three (3) most valuable things you learned about biotechnology this week? 54
2. What was the most valuable part of this training? 3. What was the most valuable part of this biotechnology program experience? Responses were analyzed by clustering the answers into similar groups. The authors then looked for emerging themes, and labeled the clusters accordingly. Retrospective Assessment A 7-item Retrospective Assessment was also developed for this project to assess how students felt about their: • understanding of the science of biotechnology, • awareness of careers in biotechnology, • confidence to speak intelligently about biotechnology, • confidence to implement the 4-H biotechnology program in their state, • confidence to teach/facilitate biotechnology activities with other youth, • confidence to work as part of a team to develop the program, and • awareness of the many opportunities to engage content-rich partners in programming. The response set included strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), agree (3), and strongly agree (4). The assessment was administered twice, once after the trainings and again after completion of the teens’ teaching responsibilities. Results were analyzed with SPSS using paired t-tests for dependent samples. Youth Engagement, Attitudes, and Knowledge Survey (YEAK) The YEAK survey is a national instrument developed to assess the impact of 4-H Science programming on youth participants (Mielke, LaFleur, & Sanzone, 2010). The survey was administered twice to the Teen Teachers, before training (pre-survey) and again after completing their teaching responsibilities (post-survey). The survey asked youth to provide a self-report on personal decision making, critical thinking, and problem solving skills. The survey also included a series of questions intended to gauge respondents’ enthusiasm for science as a subject that touches their everyday lives. Respondents were also asked to describe their own science skills. Results were analyzed using SPSS by Policy Studies Associates, Inc. Program Leaders Program leaders were asked to identify promising practices in program development, implementation, and evaluation that could be shared with others to enhance future programming. Responses were analyzed by clustering the answers into similar groups. The authors then looked for emerging themes, and labeled the clusters accordingly.
Results The program was evaluated using several instruments over multiple administrations. Often, a single instrument was used to assess multiple dimensions of the project. As this is a program evaluation, results are reported here according to project and outcome objectives, instead of reporting by instrument.
Project Objectives Each of the four demonstration programs included a leadership team composed of four Teen Leaders, at least one 4‐H Program professional, and at least one agricultural biotechnology partner from their state soybean board, industry, and/or their Land Grant University. All leadership team members attended the project kickoff/grantee training, January 11‐14, 2012 in Indianapolis, Indiana.
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Eighty-two teenagers, an average of 20.5 per demonstration program, were trained as Teen Teachers. Demographics of the Teen Teachers were as follows: 49% African American, 48% White, and 3% American Indian or Asian. 4% were Hispanic. 60% were female. Seventy-six percent (76%) lived in urban or metropolitan areas. This program was the first experience with 4-H for 45% of the teens, and 47% had participated in 4-H for three or more years (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1 Demographics: Teen Teachers 3%
Race
Gender
African‐American 49%
40% Female
White
Male
48%
Other
60%
Residence
6%
Exposure to 4-H
7% Farm 11%
45%
47%
Town50K 76% 8%
Eighteen 20-hour programs were implemented by the Teen Teachers. The programs reached a total of 620 youth participants, an average of 155 per demonstration program. Demographics of the youth participants were as follows: 71% African American; 27% White; and 2% either American Indian, Asian, or Pacific Islander. In addition, 10% were Hispanic and 53% were female. Youth came from all grade levels: 9% lower elementary, 36% upper elementary, 39% middle school, and 16% high school. Eighty-five (85%) of the youth lived in urban or metropolitan areas (see Fig. 2).
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Figure 2 Demographics: Youth Participants 2%
Race
Gender
27% African‐American
47%
Female
White
Male
53%
Other 71%
16%
Grade Level
9%
5%
Farm 5%
Lower Elementary
Town50K
Table 3 provides a snapshot of the expected and achieved project objectives. All stated objectives were achieved.
Table 3 Reach At-a-Glance Achieved
10
Item Demonstration programs in 5 states: Delaware, Illinois/Missouri (partnership), Indiana, Ohio Urban areas
16
Teen Leaders
16
18
Out-of-school Time (OST) sites/programs
8
82
Teen Teachers (includes Teen Leaders)
80
620
Youth participants
400
4
Expected 4 4
Though not one of the stated objectives, 800 additional youth were reached at the USA Science and Engineering Festival in Washington, DC (April 2012). Leadership teams from the four demonstration programs led a DNA Extraction activity for participants.
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Outcome Objectives Agricultural Biotechnology Knowledge and Career Awareness The Teen Teachers were expected to: increase knowledge of agricultural biotechnology principles and concepts, increase awareness of potential careers in agricultural biotechnology fields, and to become more comfortable communicating the biotechnology story. The Knowledge Assessment was developed to track changes in the teens’ knowledge over the course of the project. It was administered three times, pre-training (n=73), post-training (n=72), and post-teaching (n=40). The teens demonstrated statistically significant (p < 0.05) improvements on the Knowledge Assessment over time. Teen Leaders, however, scored significantly better than Teen Teachers on the post-training and post-teaching administrations (see Figure 3).
Figure 3 Knowledge Assessment Scores 30 25
20.63* 17.73*
20 15
26.13*
24.06*
14.31 11.96
10 5 0
Pre‐Training
Post‐Training
Teen Teacher
Teen Leader
Post‐Teaching *p
