Journal of Negro Education

Effective Strategies to Increase Diversity in STEM Fields: A Review of the Research Literature Author(s): Lisa Tsui Source: The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 76, No. 4 (Fall, 2007), pp. 555-581 Published by: Journal of Negro Education Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40037228 . Accessed: 01/03/2011 13:02 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=jne. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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TheJournalofNegroEducation,76 (4), 555-581

in STEM StrategiestoIncreaseDiversity Effective Fields:A ReviewoftheResearchLiterature Lisa Tsui

The Urban Institute, WashingtonDC

Thisliterature reviewpresentstheresearchevidencethatexistsfor ten intervention strategies to increasediversity in science,technology, commonly efforts striving adoptedbyprogrammatic and mathematics (STEM)fields.Alsopresentedis empiricalsupport for threemodel engineering, intervention Program,Minority programs:TheMeyerhoff Engineering Program(MEP), and the The articleconcludeswitha discussionof recommendations Mathematics Workshop. forfuture actionand researchinthisarea. Introduction Since 1983,morethan500 reportshave beenpublishedaddressing theproblemsof scienceand that mathematics education(Laws, 1999). These reportsare so similarin theircalls forreform as including thefollowing theycanbe easilysummarized principles: learnscienceandmathematics withpeersandinstructors; activelyby doingthemin collaboration engagein extended research mentors; projectswithfaculty explorefewertopicsinmoredepth;achievescientific literacy bybeingable to ask and answerquestionssuchas 'How do we know. . .?' and 'Whatis theevidencefor. . .?'; relatescientific and mathematical to contemporary social issues; and developwrittenand oral communication skills. understandings (Laws, 1999,pp. 218-219)

on whatshouldbe doneto improve Thebases ofthereports suggestthatthereis muchagreement scienceand mathematics education.But it is dangerousto assumethatwhatis recommended for whatworksbestforthosewhoareunderrepresented thegeneralSTEM student bodyis necessarily inthatpopulation. To avoidimpending shortfalls ofscientists andengineers, theU.S. needsto shoreup itsnative talentsbyincreasing therecruitment andretention ofthosewhocontinue tobe underrepresented in - women, as well as, underrepresented science, technology,engineeringand mathematics While some of the same barriersare facedby bothwomenand underrepresented minorities. thereare also notabledifferences. thesetwounderrepresented minorities, Therefore, groupshave researchattention oftheirown(see Clewell& Campbell,2002 fora review receivedconsiderable thataddressesWhitewomenand minority women'sprogressin STEM). As thefastestgrowing of the students a greatpotentialpool of future minority school-agepopulation, represent portion entrantsinto STEM fields.In comparisonto theirWhite peers, underrepresented minority freshmen are just as likelyif not more likelyto enrollin science and engineering studies of (Anderson& Kim, 2006; Elliott,Strenta,Adair,Matier,& Scott,1996; U. S. Department minorities aremorelikelyto switchto non-science Education,2000). However,underrepresented and engineering majorsand are less likelyto completea science,mathematics, degree(Chubin& Elliott et al, 1996; Georges,1999;Morrison& Williams,1993;U.S. Babco,2003; Culotta,1992; of Education,2000). While approximately of the school-agepopulation one-third Department consistsof AfricanAmerican,Latino,and Native Americanstudents, these minority groups (Chubin,May,& Babco,2005). currently compriseonly11% ofthosein STEM occupations low participation The disproportionately of AfricanAmericans,Native Americans,and to a numberof factors,includingbarriersthatare of a Latinosin STEM fieldsis attributable © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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cultural(social expectations fordifferent that (historicallaws and regulations groups),structural barred the entryof minoritiesinto educationand employment), and institutional nature have reducedformaland (discriminatory policiesand practices).Whilesocietaltransformations the lineage of accumulateddeficitopportunities withina socially legallysanctionedbarriers, stratified in societycontinuesto exertits negativeimpact.For instance,studentachievement STEM is enhancedby educationaladvantagessuchas a rigorousmathematics and sciencehigh schoolcurriculum, teacherswithsuperiormathematics and lab knowledge,access to equipment, activitieswork(Campbell,Jolly,Hoey, & Perlman,2002). However,educationalaccess and qualitycontinueto be relatedto socioeconomicstatus(SES) and racialstatus(May & Chubin, 2003). Adelman'snationalstudy(2006) foundacademicintensity ofone's highschoolcurriculum to be the most important pre-collegiatefactorin providingmomentumtowardcompletinga bachelor'sdegree.BenbowandArjmand(1990) pointedoutthat in schoolprograms differences effect on levelsofabilityandachievement, evenamongthe appeartohavea profound talented. . . Intellectually talentedstudents will notachieveas highlyifnotprovidedwithappropriate intellectually educational opportunities, (p. 437)

In theirnationalstudy,Astinand Astin(1992) foundthatthestrongest and mostconsistent of changesin collegestudents'interest in a sciencemajorand careeris students'entry predictor levelofmathematical andacademiccompetency. However,forexample,whencomparedto White or Asian students, Latinostudents are farless apt to attendhighschoolsoffering trigonometry, muchless, calculus(Adelman,2006). In addition,whencomparedwithstudentsin thehighest SES quintile,students in thelowestSES quintileattendhighschoolsthatare less likelyto offer aboveAlgebraII (Adelman,2006). anymathematics To redresstherace/ethnic in STEM participation, a rangeof intervention disparity programs havebeencreatedto operateon collegeanduniversity entail campuses.Theseprograms typically a varietyof servicesandactivities designedto addressfactors minority affecting underrepresented students'interest, and skillsin STEM. The availability of academicandpsychosocial motivation, services is critical in of the that what seems to thosewhopersist support light finding distinguish fromthosewhotransfer outof STEM has less to do withability,andmoreto do withthemanner in whichstudents thattheyencountered. a largenumberof respondto thebarriers Interviewing who persistedand those who switchedout of mathematics, science, and undergraduates engineering majors,SeymourandHewitt(1997) foundthetwogroupsto be similarin abilityand butthat"nonswitchers weremorelikelyto makeeffective use of situational character, resources, to employa varietyof otherstrategies, andto findwaysto tolerateor surmount thesametypesof difficulties reported byswitchers" (p. 232). Is thereresearchevidence to supportthe efficacyof commonlyadopted intervention Thisreviewwas undertaken to examinethescholarlyliterature forempiricalevidence strategies? oftheeffectiveness ofan arrayof strategies thatarefrequently used in efforts to increaseminority in STEM fields. The synthesisof existingresearchfindingson intervention participation and local approachescan yieldvaluableinsightforinformed policymaking,futureinitiatives, While much of the researchpresentedhere examinesspecificeffectson implementation. underrepresented minority groups,in manycases theeffects maybe comparablefornon-minority students. while research on some failed to examineparticular effectson Conversely, strategies it is quitepossiblethatbenefitsfoundfortheoverallgroupcan also be found students, minority forminority groupmembers. Thepublications includedinthisreviewwereidentified searcheson educationbyconducting relateddatabases and search engines,such as Social Science Abstracts,ERIC, Education Abstracts,EBSCOhost, JSTOR, and ProQuest.Searches were conductedusing key words and retention. science, engineering, pertainingto minorities, highereducation,intervention, in an to additional for in inclusion this Furthermore, attempt identify review,citations publications in relevant retrieved articles were also considered. appearing 556

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It is worthnotingthatthis article'sfocus on approachesbeing employedat the higher educationsettingoughtnot to be interpreted as suggestingthatschools ratherthanfamily, or be held primarily business and should industry government, responsibleforincreasingthe in STEM. Each of thesegroupshas a stakeand of underrepresented minorities participation in thisendeavor,as well as, thepowerto exerta positivechange.If the future responsibility STEM workforce is to substantially increaseitscurrent ranks,itmustfosterandthennurture early in STEM. This can bestbe accomplished children'sinterest collaboration through amongfamily, and businessand industry. thesegroupsworkingtogether schools,government, Undoubtedly, can more than as entities. synergistically accomplish collectively separate In presenting a reviewof theresearchliterature, thisarticlebeginsby examining on findings forwhichthereis considerable tencommonstrategies research.This is followedby a discussion of thebenefitsof adoptingan integrated intervention are approachin whichmultiplestrategies threenotableintervention and evidenceof their pursued.In supportof thisargument, programs arepresented. effectiveness actionsandresearch Finally,thisreviewconcludeswithrecommended intheSTEM pool. nationalcapabilities stepstowardstrengthening through diversity expanding Major Intervention Strategies SummerBridge Pre-collegesummerbridgeprogramsor transitional programsfor low-incomeand minority to recruit, students havebecome"an established retain,andgraduatea population partoftheeffort in highereducation"(Ackermann, of students 1991,p. 201). In a studyof 20 underrepresented of underrepresented minority prototypical programsto promotethe high achievement college of theseprograms are focusedon thesciences, Gandara(1999) notedthatthemajority students, and additionally, and engineering, mathematics, nearlyhalf of theseprogramsincludea prefreshmanbridge approach.Althoughbridgeprogramsvary, they typicallyentail intensive academicenrichment andotherstrategies students' transition andadjustment designedto facilitate to thejuncturefromhighschoolto collegeis imperative to collegelife.Attention giventhehigh thatoccursbetweenfreshmen and sophomoreyear (Tinto, 1987). degreeof studentattrition narrowa preparation instruction through pre-freshman bridgecan effectively Supplemental gap schools withinadequateinstruction, thatis oftencaused by attendanceof impoverished poor and fewpositiverolemodels.Minorities tendto be less preparedfora facilitiesand equipment, in because are much less academic they likelythanWhitesor Asian program college rigorous Americansto pursuea rigorousacademiccourseof studyor to takeadvancedplacement(AP) mathematics and sciencecoursesduringhighschool(Wilson,2000). A 1990 studyby theRand foundthatschoolswithhighminority enrollments generallyofferstudentsfewer Corporation and science(Culotta,1992). Moreover,thehighertheSAT coursesin mathematics challenging therole of mathematics score,themorelikelythatpersonwill majorin science.Investigating in Elliott and found that science variables colleagues(1996) preadmission ethnicity persistence, amountofthevarianceofsciencepersistence whileethnicity accountedfora significant didnot. of summer is limited, Whileresearchon theeffects thefindings bridgeprogram participation in suggesting in comparison thatprogram aregenerally consistent to non-participants, participants, are moreapt to achievepositiveoutcomesuch as persistenceintotheirsecond college year to improveminority studentadmissionsand retention, (Pascarella& Terenzini, 2005). In trying offersparticipants thefour-week (AfricanAmerican bridgeprogramat GeorgiaStateUniversity studiesstudents)classes in mathematics, reading,composition, developmental studyskills,and word processing.Additionally,it provides free tutoring,academic and career counseling, and otherfollow-upservicesduringthe academicyear.Programevaluationresults mentoring, showhighratingsof programeffectiveness by studentsas well as facultymembers.Moreover, participantshave achieved "a remarkablyhigh retentionrate" that exceeds that of all studiesstudentsof otherraces and whichmatchesthatof AfricanAmerican developmental courses(Gold, Deming,& Stone, 1992). Study studentswho do not requiredevelopmental © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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students, findingsof one community college's six-weeksummerbridgeprogramforminority academic enrichment and trainingin "college survivalskills,"indicatedthatprogram offering in comparison to non-participants, had lowergradepointaverages,butachievedat participants, and graduation rates retention, comparableor higherlevels on academicskillstests,first-year (Evans, 1999). An evaluationof the summerbridgeprogramof theCaliforniaStateUniversity basic System,a four-to six-weekon-campusresidential experiencethatfocuseson improving skillsandfamiliarizing newstudents withtheuniversity foundan increasein freshmen experience, and sophomore retention rates.Moreover,participants weremorelikelyto use campusservices, withtheir meetmorefrequently withfacultyoutsideof class,join studygroups,and be satisfied for An evaluation of a summer collegefriendships (Garcia,1991). program incomingfreshmen and transfer students at theUniversity of California, Los Angelesfounda modestincreasein the rateofparticipants collegepersistence (Ackermann, 1991). of successfulminority Summerorientation is recognizedas a commoncomponent programs (Torres,2000). Data collected fromdirectorsof programsthat aim to recruitand retain and studentsin science and engineering showedthatovernight, residential, underrepresented to success summer were most cited as most (Matyas, being integral program programs frequently Program 1991a). Moreover,researchon theMeyerhoff Engineering Programand the Minority have also identified SummerBridgeto be an (MEP), twohighlyregardedintervention programs; factorin theireffectiveness (Maton, Hrabowski,& Schmitt,2000; Morrison& important researchstudyconductedby the NationalActionCouncil for Williams,1993). In a retention Minoritiesin Engineering (NACME), in whichdata were analyzedfor51 projects,a positive andtheoffering student retention was foundbetweensuccessfulminority relationship engineering ofa summer (Penick& Morning,1983). pre-freshman program Mentoring Mentoring programshave become prevalent,and appearto be a widelyutilizedapproachin In designingintervention and intervention to increaseinterest forminorities. programs programs in STEM fields,Ginorioand Grignon(2000) recommended theconsideration sustainpersistence someonewho has of theprinciple"each student needsat leastone personto serveas a mentor, faithin themandwillprovidenecessaryinformation at keyjunctures choice" or support involving on its effectiveness the of research evidence (p. 167). Despite growingpopularity mentoring, to anecdotaland qualitativesince thereare few studiesattempting continuesto be primarily measureeffects theuse ofa controlgroupthathas notbeenmentored (see Romero'sstudy through as citedin Gandara,1999). Accordingto Gandara,researching theeffectsof mentoring poses a can varygreatly;a programmayshowgreater specialchallengebecausementoring relationships withingroupdifferences thanbetweengroupdifferences (Gandara,1999). in theimportance ofmentoring On thewhole,theexisting researchevidenceseemsto support has been found to of student-mentor contact education undergraduate (Jacobi,1991). Frequency positivelycorrelatewith students'college adjustmentand perceivedmentorsupportiveness havereported on thecriticalrolethatmentors students (Santos& Reigadas,2002). Minority play in theiradjustment to college,andprogresstowardgraduatestudiesand a career(Freeman,1999; such in mentoring have demonstrated students who participated Lee, 1999). Minority programs increasedself-efficacy, and positiveoutcomesas highergradepointaverages,lowerattrition, better-defined academicgoals (Santos & Reigadas,2002; Schwitzer& Thomas,1998; Thile & and delayed Matt, 1995). Mentoringis said to address several causes of college attrition and social of students' academic (Redmond,1990). graduation byfacilitating aspects integration betweenformalor planned The literature on mentoring recognizesa criticaldistinction and informalor naturalmentoring.Research suggeststhat naturallyforming mentoring, outcomes(Davidson& Fosteraremorelikelyto be successfulandresultin superior relationships to fosterinformal Johnson, 2001; Gandara,1999). Some intervention mentoring programs attempt relationshipsthroughcohort or communitybuilding among peers and programstaff. uncommon withoutintervening circumstances, appearsto be relatively Unfortunately, mentoring 558

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at thepostsecondary educationlevel,and thisappearsto be especiallytrueforminority students A longitudinalstudy involvingminorityhigh school (Blackwell, 1987; Jacobi, 1991). indicatedhowwithout to guide valedictorians and salutatorians properrolemodelsand supporters themthrough students could easilyfailto live up to theirpotential(Arnold, college,promising 1993).Arnoldobservedthat andoutsidethecentralcollegeacademicand social structures, thevaledictorians at predominantly ignoredby faculty Whiteinstitutions neverhadtheopportunity to developthesubtleskillsoftranslating intrinsic academicinterests into careergoalsandeffectively andprofessional activities, clearlyformulated managededucational (pp. 277-278)

and femalestudentsmay feel a greaterneed for Jacobi(1991) pointedout thatwhileminority because of the mentors,theyare more likelyto encounterobstaclesin obtainingmentoring members. Thisshortage is especiallyacutein scienceand offemaleandminority faculty shortage attainmorepositive Thereis someevidenceto suggestthatminority undergraduates engineering. attitudes towardresearch(Frierson, Hargrove,& Lewis, 1994) andthepursuitof graduatestudies (see Martinez'sstudyas citedin Gandara,1999) whentheyare mentored by femalefacultyor of color. race or between mentor and However, faculty genderconsistency protegemaynotbe as in as some other factors the mentoring important relationship(Clewell & Ginorio,1996). in student views about race the Lee (1999) foundthatAfrican Examining mentoring relationship, Americanstudents a predominantly Whitecollegefeltthathavingan AfricanAmerican attending thanhavinga mentorin theircareerfield.In theirreviewof facultymentorwas less important Johnson(2001) argued that mentoring graduateresearchersof color, Davidson and Fostermentors needto have an understanding knowledgeis thekeyto successfulcross-racementoring: of theirownpersonalprejudicesand attitudes towardrace; theirproteges'racialmaturity, career and and their and professional discrimination efforts, goals, strengths; organization'sdiversity andsocialnetworks. policies,andprofessional The criticalrolethatmentoring playsintheeducational progressofunderrepresented minority in a studyby Solorzano(1993) in whichhe interviewed studentsis clearlysubstantiated 66 Chicano/aFord FoundationMinority abouttheireducationalexperiences. Fellowshiprecipients The single-mostimportant factoridentifiedin students'degree attainment was a positive decisions among Native American mentoringexperience.In a study of non-persistence Gloriaand Kurpius(2001) foundthathavinga sociallysupportive networkis undergraduates, to academicpersistence; is the effect of central mentors. particularly strong havingfaculty/staff Because of theverylimitedavailabilityof Chicano/afacultyrole modelsand mentorson morefrequently frompeers.In a study reported collegecampuses,students receivingmentoring at one institution, on thementoring Romero experiencesof MexicanAmericanundergraduates weremostlikelyto be mentored (1996) foundthatthesestudents by a familymember(54.4%), followedby a peer/roommate (16.3%), and university personnel(13.6%). A studyby Rice and Brown(1990) showedthatwhilesomestudents mayprefera peermentorovera facultymentor, not be to mentors servicesthatstudents may adequatelyequipped provideall thementoring peer it that a desire. is combination of both and Therefore, likely may faculty peermentorscan best fulfill theneedsofthosestudents fromindustry can seekingmentorship. Mentorship professionals also be very helpfulto STEM students.MentorNet(http://mentornet.net/) is a large-scale electronic mentoring programthatmatchesfemaleSTEM studentsas well as underrepresented STEM studentsto professionalsin industry and academia foryear-longmentoring minority in schedulingand to overcome is said to allow for flexibility relationships. E-mentoring that barriers otherwise deter may geographical mentoring opportunities. Projectresultsvalidatethe usefulness of theelectronic format formentoring Bennett et al.'s (see studyas citedin Kasprisin, & & Muller, 2003; Muller, Cunningham, Single,Single, Single, Single,2000). ResearchExperience Thereis considerable evidencefrommultipleresearchstudiesto suggestthatengagingin handson research, whether withinan academicsettingor off-campus in a positionwithindustry, is an © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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in increasingthenumberwho pursuedegreesand careersin STEM fields.A effective strategy recent study found that alumni who participatedin their university'slong-established withtheir ResearchProgramreportedsignificantly Undergraduate greateroverallsatisfaction educationand were more likelyto attendand completegraduateschool than undergraduate comparablealumniwho had no researchexperience(Bauer & Bennett,2003). Usinga national in familybackground, Pascarellaand Staver(1985) controlled fordifferences sampleof students, aptitude,secondaryschool experiences, pre-collegecareerchoice,academicmajor,and college and foundthaton-campusemployment in scienceexerteda positiveeffecton postachievement, science career choice. sophomore year and forsocial background Hackett,Croissant,and Schneider(1992) foundthatcontrolling academicexperiences; researchandcooperative educationprograms (paid industry undergraduate influenced students'skills,job values, and life internships) strongly participating engineering in an industry thisworkexperience objectives.Thosewhoparticipated internship positionreported to be veryinfluential to theircareerchoice,farmoreso thantheirclassroomexperience.Post in the CorporateScholars data collectedfromNACME scholarswho participated internship found that matters. Successful either Program by individualsformally mentoring mentoring the role or who carried out the duties of mentors, resultedin assigned by supervisors, informally substantial increasedinterest to their host and more favorable interns to return by companies evaluationof workplaceexperiences(Highsmith, Denes, & Pierre,1998). In a surveystudyof an internship, Schambachand Kephart(1997) found computing majorswho were completing students and reported generally expresseda veryfavorableresponseto theexperience, perceived benefitsthat included "recruitment advantages,an excellent method of learning,better of organizations of courselearnedskills and careerfocus,as well as reinforcement understanding and enhancedconfidencein theirown professional capabilities"(p. 214). In a studyon science those who persistedtendedto reportthat students, persistenceamong high-ability minority scientistsand engineerstheyknew,knew about,or met in summerjobs or part-time work, scientists and engineers, influenced themto a greaterdegreethandidparents, especiallyminority friends,and teachersalthoughthese individualswere important (Hilton,Hsia, Solorzano,& Benton,1989). In Solorzano's(1993) studyofFordFoundation Fellows,manystudents, especially Minority thoseinthesciences,reported withfaculty was one thatengagingin hands-onresearchexperience of theirmostimportant academicexperiencesand was particularly influential to theirfinishing research college and attending student-faculty graduateschool. A programon undergraduate at theUniversity and female of Michigan,whichtargetsunderrepresented partnership minority in science,has producedpositiveeffectson retention. students interested Usingan experimental wererandomly designin whichstudent applicantsto theprogram assignedto eitherthecontrolor affected retention foundthatprogram experimental group,theresearchers participation positively and foreachoftherace/ethnic examined African American, White).Particularly groups (Hispanic, AfricanAmericangroup(Nagda,Gregerman, strongeffectswerefoundforthelower-achieving vonHippel,& Lerner,1998). Jonides, of NSF's A 1990 studyby theNationalScienceFoundation(NSF) showedthatparticipants in science interest ResearchExperiencesforUndergraduates a heightened Programdemonstrated andengineering, a graduatedegree,andattending following pursuing graduateschoolimmediately forvariousreasons, Whileparticipants choseto be involvedwiththeprogram collegecompletion. AlaskanNatives,and females) students NativeAmericans, (AfricanAmericans, underrepresented or were morelikelythanothersto be motivatedby wantingto know if science,engineering, researchwas appropriate in a summerscienceresearchprogramcan also forthem.Participation In a studyinvolvingpastparticipants of one suchprogram, enhancestudents'social integration. withpeersand faculty students tendedto stresstheimportance of positiverelationships minority andhowthisimpactedtheirdecisionto continue on to graduateschool(Walters,1997). and educational Involvement withfaculty researchat theundergraduate levelcan helpclarify Proactivestepsto heightenstudents' careerplans,and enhancestudents'sense of self-efficacy. in scienceand engineering in efforts arerecommended to expanddiversity (Hackett, self-efficacy 560

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selfCroissant,& Schneider,1992). Beyondthe effectsof academicabilityand achievement, and in has been found to be of technical/scientific efficacy predictive grades persistence majors,as well as perceivedcareeroptionsin a rangeof scienceand engineering fields(Lent,Brown,& Larkin,1986). Researchwithfacultymay entailsuchprofessional development experiencesas - all of which conference of one's work,and publicationsubmissions attendance, presentation socializes one to a careerin researchwhile strengthening self-efficacy. Surveyingstudents research,one studyfoundthata highpercentageof studentswould engagedin undergraduate recommend theexperienceto others,and thatstudents perceivedthemostvaluedskillsderived fromthe experienceto be technicalskills,problem-solving skills, and the developmentof self-confidence & (Mabrouk Peters,2000). Similarly,in a qualitativestudyof professional students involvedundergraduate researchat fourschoolsfounda highlevelof satisfaction among and the mostoftencited gains to pertainto increasedconfidenceto "workas a participants scientist" Hunter, Laursen,& Deantoni,2004). In an interesting (Seymour, experimental studyon mathematics/science with at least a self-efficacy enhancinginterventions, undergraduates moderate levelofmathematics abilityandwhowereundecidedaboutcareerplanswererandomly conditions. Fourweeksaftertreatment, thosewhounderwent the assignedto one offourtreatment treatment a of number series continued performance (successfulcompletion accomplishment task), to show higherlevels in mathematics/science course self-efficacy, mathematicsand sciencerelatedcareerinterests, in coursestheyplannedto enrollin the mathematics/science relatedness nextquarter, andmathematics/science relatedness oftheirchoiceofmajor(Luzzo, Hasper,Albert, Bibby,& Martinelli, 1999). inresearchalso entailstheaddedbenefits ofinformal Undergraduate participation mentorship close contactwithfaculty. Interactions withfaculty thatcombinestudents'classroomand through non-classroom havebeenfoundparticularly to student retention experiences important (Pascarella & Terenzini,1991). For bothminority and non-minority a has been groups positiverelationship foundbetweenstudents'self-reported in mathematics and and students' science, progress satisfaction with student-faculty relations(Eimers,2000). Analyzingdata collectedfroma nationalsampleofundergraduates and faculty, Drew(1996) foundthatfaculty orientation toward is verystrongly relatedto students'satisfaction withtheircollegescience workingwithstudents experiences(this measure had a greatereffectthan all other backgroundand college environmental variablesin theregression). the level of studentsatisfaction with Unfortunately, science facultyrelationsappearslow. In a studyinvolvingAfricanAmericanupperdivision students at 11 publicresearchuniversities, morestudents viewedfaculty members as discouraging ratherthansupportive(Blockus,2001). Aside frombuildingstudents'knowledgeand skills, researchworkwithfaculty can be beneficialbyproviding students withan opportunity to interact withfacultyoutsideof the classroomand to developa basis fora truementormeaningfully protegerelationship. Paid researchworkalso has theaddedbenefitof helpingstudents defraycollege expenses. This is especiallysalientin thecase of minority who are moreaptto faceunmetneed students, afterfinancialaid assistanceand thusmaybe morelikelyto seek employment duringcollege forexample,aremorelikelyto leave collegeto support (Long & Riley,2007). Hispanicstudents, Jonides,von Hippel,& Lerner,1998). family(see Celis's studyas citedin Nagda, Gregerman, Meanwhile,NativeAmericanscienceand engineering majorshave been foundto averagemore hoursof paid workthantheirpeers(Grandy,1994). Whilea job thatis unrelatedto students' academicprogramcan detracttimefromstudyand academicpursuits, a job thatis relatedcan and enrich students' studies National datarevealthat complement through experiential learning. bachelor'sdegreeattainment, with a host of other is associated along positiveoutcomes, positively withholdinga part-time associatedwithholdinga part-time job on campus,butnegatively job off campus(Astin,1993). In anotherstudyinvolvinga nationalsampleof collegestudents, working was foundto havea significant forminorities off-campus negativeeffecton persistence (reducing the chance of persistingby 36%) but not for non-minorities (Nora, Cabrera,Hagedorn,& to professional normsand may Pascarella,1996). Qualityworkexperiencecan socializestudents © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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resultin long-term In theirreviewoftheresearchin thisarea,Pascarella professional advantages. and Terenzini(1991) concludedthatmostof theevidencesuggeststhatworkingduringcollege, in a job relatedto one's majororinitialcareeraspirations, has a positivenetimpacton particularly careerchoice,careerattainment, and level of professional attainedearlyin one's responsibility career. Tutoring aid in studentlearning,and is widelyused today as an Tutoringhas been a long-standing intervention measureto enhancestudentperformance and persistence.College-leveltutoring can in and Thosein thetutorrole substance, programs varygreatly approach, degreeof structure. are oftenupperdivisionstudents, staffmembers, or facultymembers.Most studiesthatcompare achievementoutcomesof studentstutoredby eitherpeers or staffmembershave foundno differences (Moust& Schmidt,1994). In his reviewof peertutoring, Topping(1996) notedthat is beingwidelyused in varyingformsat severalhundredinstitutions, and thatstudent tutoring subjectivefeedbackis generally verypositive. In a studyinvolvingacademicallyunder-prepared college freshmen, lengthof exposureto had a consistent effect on credits earned course & tutoring (House Wohlt,1990).In an earlystudy on tutoring enrolledin a remedialcoursewererandomly dividedinto by Carman(1975), students one of threegroups(one groupreceivingno tutoring, and twogroupsreceivingvaryinglevelsof tutoring). StudyresultsindicatedthatcoursegradeandoverallGPA didnotdiffer amongthethree was significantly lowerforthetutored groups.However,coursewithdrawal groupsthanthenontutored resultsrevealedthatmembersofthetutored group.Moreover,interview groupsheldmore views about mathematics and other courses. This of and increased positive pattern persistence attitude continued the two the In a positive during yearsfollowing tutoring experience. studyby Gahan-Rech,Stephens,and Buchalter(1989), positive effectsof tutoringwere foundfor mathematics students.Controllingfor students'initialmathematics in ability,no difference mathematics was foundbetweenthegroupthatreceivedno tutoring and thegroup performance thatattendedfiveor fewertutoring sessions.The groupof studentswho attendedsix or more betterthantheothertwogroupsdespitethesuperior initial sessions,however,performed tutoring mathematics of the non-tutored ability group. Benefitsoftutoring havebeendemonstrated fornotonlythosereceiving thetutoring, butalso for those performing the tutoring.In some cases tutorswere foundto experiencegreater achievement gainsthanthosewho are tutored (Bargh& Schul,1980). In one studyusingsurvey datacollectedfromnon-traditional at multipleinstitutions, thestrongest collegestudents predictor of understanding science was teachingscience (Lundberg,2003). Evidence of affectiveand academicbenefitswerefoundforadvancedstudentmentorsinvolvedin a minority engineering withmenteesregularly and involvement in programin whichtheyinteracted tutoring through In & an on the problem-solving workshops(Good, Halpin, Halpin, 1998). experimental study benefits ofteaching, betweena groupof cognitive Barghand Schul(1980) comparedperformance who studiedverbalmaterialto learn forthemselves(the controlgroup)and undergraduates anothergroupwho studiedthesame materialto teachit to anotherperson.The groupthatwas to teachscoredsignificantly retention test preparing higherthanthecontrolgroupon a subsequent ofthematerial.In anotherstudyin whichstudents wererandomly assignedto one oftwogroups, Benwareand Deci (1984) investigated whetherstudents who learnedwithan activeorientation betterthanthose (learningmaterialthattheyexpectedto teachanotherstudent)wouldperform who learnedwitha passiveorientation the same material and to be testedon (learning expecting Results revealed that the two scored on rote but the it). groups equally learning, groupthatlearned to teachscoredhigheron conceptuallearning.Similarresultsemergedfroma studyby expecting Annis(as citedin Topping,1996) in whichstudentswere randomlyassignedto one of three groups.The groupthatshowedthegreatest gainon testscorewas thegroupthatreadandtaught, followedbythegroupthatreadandexpectedto teach(butwhoactuallydidnotcarryoutthetask), 562

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followedby thegroupwhichreadto studyonly.Therefore, theimplication hereis thattheact of facilitates or reinforces the teaching learning process. CareerCounselingandAwareness Thereis muchresearchto suggesta strongconnection betweencareerdevelopment and student withregardto SES (Hill, Pettus,& Hedin,1990; Mestre& Robinson, background, particularly 1983). For example,thosemajoringin naturalsciencetendedto be froma higherSES thanthose pursuinga social scienceor non-science major(Clark,1986). Scientistscome disproportionately fromwell-educatedfamilies,withfathersengagedin professionalor managerialoccupations scienceandengineering (Pearson,1986).In a studyofundergraduate majorsconducted byGrandy of Whitestudents thanminority students had parentsemployedin (1994), a greaterproportion technical,mechanical,and scientific positions.In theirnationalstudy,Astinand Astin(1992) foundthathavinga father whois an engineer in engineering. In anotherstudy predicts persistence studentswere foundto have receivedless careercounseling Hispanicscienceand engineering fromhighschool teachersand counselors,owned fewertechnicaltoys,and had lowerfamily incomelevels thantheirnon-minority peers (Mestre& Robinson,1983). Given the historical of minorities in and in prestigious and lucrativecareersin under-representation highereducation, and science-basedfields,careercounselingand careerawarenesshave become mathematicscommonintervening used in efforts to recruit andretainminorities in STEM. In a study strategies and salutatorians, Arnold involvingAfricanAmericanand Latino high school valedictorians (1993) notedthatevenwiththisselectgroupofacademicachieversthereappearedtobe a "critical lackoftacitknowledgeabouthighereducationandcareers"(p. 277). Moreover, researchsuggests thatin comparisonto theirWhitepeers,minority studentstendto demonstrate a lowercareer & and ethnic barriers Hird, (Gloria decision-making 1999), self-efficacy perceivedgreater identity intheircareerdevelopment (Luzzo, 1993). In a studyinvolving middleandhighschoolstudents, andstudents froman historically Black was identified as themajorfactor (HBCU), personalcontactwitha scientist collegeoruniversity students'science-related careerdecisions.Studentswho personallyknew a scientist, affecting or engineerscoreda highermeanthandidthoselackingthistypeof acquaintance mathematician, on suchvariablesas participation in science-related hobbiesand activities, academicself-image, science-related career interest, and parentalencouragement support,perceivedrelevanceof mathematics and science,and abilityin mathematics and science(Hill,Pettus,& Hedin,1990).A students foundthatpriorknowledgeoftheprofession and studyofAfricanAmericanengineering to talkwithengineers was a factor thatdifferentiated betweenthosewhoremained in opportunities themajorandthosewhoswitched(Good,Halpin,& Halpin,2002). Another researcher foundthat to a positiveimagesof scientistsand engineersis positivelyrelatedto students'commitment scienceor engineering and commitment to a scienceor engineering major,degreeaspirations, career(Wyer,2001). While accurateinformation on sciencecareersand personalcontactwith scientists can facilitate one's career professional explorationand decision-making, poor ofthenatureof scientific careersmaybe contributing to theloss of student interest understanding in science.Accordingto Grandy(1998), theperceivedcompatibility betweenstudents' valuesand theiraspiredcareerimpactsthepersistence towardthatcareer.The authornotedthat,sadly,a numberof individualshave a poor appreciationof the contributions of science significant sincesomereportedly transferred outofscienceandengineering becausetheywould professionals rather do something thatwillbenefit society. In theSeymourand Hewittstudy(1997), inadequateadvising,counseling, and tutoring were responsiblein partforaboutone quarterof all studentdecisionsto switchout of mathematics, of theswitchers as a sourceof science,and engineering majors,and werecitedby three-quarters frustration. Abouthalfof thosewho persistedin mathematics, studies science,and engineering withdeficiencies in advising,counseling, andtutoring, sincethiswas the expresseddissatisfaction second most frequently mentionedconcernforthis group.Studentstendedto describetheir © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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and in suchtermsas "confusing," "unreliable," "inadequate," advisingandcounselingexperiences desired current information and advice about career schools, "impersonal." They options,graduate and interaction withprofessionals who could sharetheirexperiencesaboutwork scholarships, (Seymour,1995; Seymour& Hewitt,1997). who completedengineering Accordingto one nationalstudy,7 outof 10 students degreesin of doing so when theywere high school seniors(Adelman,1998). college had intentions twonationalstudiesshowedthattheonlysignificant comes recruitment to engineering Moreover, fromstudents who initiallyintendedto majorin thephysicalsciences(Adelman,1998; Astin& a mathematics-based or is notsurprising Astin,1992). Thisfinding giventhatsuccessin attaining science-based and seems to on a foundation of mathematics collegedegree dependgreatly strong science preparation. This suggeststhatwhile intervening strategiesat the college level can in therecruitment enhancetheretention of STEM majors,theyarenotlikelyto be veryeffective ofnewstudents intoSTEM fields.Instead,in orderto substantially increasethenumber ofSTEMthereneedstobe degreerecipients, especiallythosewhohavebeentraditionally underrepresented, at the pre-collegelevel. Unfortunately, the underserved do not acquirea greaterintervention sufficient mathematics "eliminated froman to and are background prior collegeentry essentially inordinate numberof careersrangingfrom. . . physicalsciencesand engineering to thosein the social sciencesand psychology"(Anderson,1990, p. 264). In fact,the majorityof American children(about 60%) and the bulk of minority children(about 85%) are channeledout of advancedmathematics andsciencewhentheyareonly13 yearsold (Campbell,1996). The lack of earlyencouragement as one of the main and motivation has been identified reasonsfortheunder-representation of AfricanAmericansin thenaturalsciences(see Pearson's have been studyas citedin Grandy,1994). Pre-collegesummerseminarand careerinformation shownto exerta greaterinfluence on thechoiceof an engineering careerforAfricanAmerican and HispanicstudentsthanforWhitestudents. In a reviewof researchon careerdevelopment that counselingforAfricanAmericans, Murryand Mosidi(1993) pointedto evidencesuggesting parentalinfluencemoreheavilyimpactsthe careerchoice attitudesof AfricanAmericanand NativeAmericanhighschoolstudents thanthatoftheirWhitepeers.Therefore, alongwiththeuse of rolemodelsand mentoring, forminority adolescents earlyoutreachcareerguidanceprograms and theirparentsare recommended witha wider as an effective meansof familiarizing students ofcollegemajorsandcareerfields. spectrum LearningCenter A growingnumberof campuseshave seen the contributions thata learningcenteror drop-in centercan make towardstudentachievement. Studyingthe growthand influenceof learning Sullivan(1980) notedthatsincethelate 1960sand early1970stherehas beena growing centers, to movementin highereducationinstitutions to createa unit,program,or facilityspecifically A surveyof assiststudents in strengthening thelearningskillsneededforacademicachievement. one-half in NorthAmericarevealedthatapproximately and four-year institutions 2,713 two-year orunit(Sullivan,1980). Whilelearningcenterscan operatedat leastone learningcenterprogram vary in name as well as function,theytypicallystriveto facilitatestudentretentionand resourcesand media,learning and oftenincludeelementsrelatedto instructional performance, skillsenhancement, services,andpedagogicaldevelopment. Verylittleresearchhas been tutoring betweentheir done on the effectsof learningcenters;however,observations of a relationship An Holton andHorton on article and student have been documented. by presence campus learning Center described the and of the (PLC) at Rutgers (1996) development impact PhysicsLearning lecture The Center offers later renamed the Mathematics and Science Center. University, Learning a studyarea,a physics demonstrations thathavebeenmodifiedas permanent interactive exhibits, and instructional videotapeson library,tutors,testmaterialsand coursehandouts,computers, and reviewsessions.Attracting morethan 140,000 studentvisitsa year,the problem-solving Centerbecamea place wherefaculty holdofficehours,studygroupsmeet, andteachingassistants and clubs are housed. The authorsnotedthatthefacility are workshops presented, undergraduate 564

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and persistencewere enhanced,and where became the settingwhere studentperformance course occurred(Holton & "innovative,student-active, developmentand experimentation" Gandara Horton,1996,p. 140). In herreviewof intervention programs, (1999) notedthatthose whichused learningcentersas a majorstrategy emphasizedthemas a place in whichstudents networks involvingpeersand programstaff,wherelearningtools are gatherto formsupportive andwherestudents can findsanctuary forstudy.The presenceof a student imparted, studycenter was identified as a programcomponent commonto modelminority engineering programsin a studybyNACME (Matyas,1991a). and Seminars Workshops Academic enhancement activitiesdesignedto impartknowledgeand refineskills that are instrumental to collegesuccesshave becomeprevalent on manycampuses.The effectiveness of andworkshops, has beenlittlestudied(Gandara,1999).However,givena suchseminars however, cleardemandforsuchofferings, thistypeof academicsupportis oftenincludedin college-level A intervention of minority students, programs. largeproportion includingsomewithstrongprein in educational once because offeelingsofisolation,and records,struggle collegiate college part awareness of school and African Americanstudents poor policy,procedures, supportprograms. have self-reported poorerstudyskillsin comparisonto theirWhitepeers (Nettles,Thoeny& Gosman,1986). Gallagher,Golin, and Kelleher(1992) foundthatAfricanAmericancollege whencomparedwiththeirWhitecounterparts, students, expresseda greaterneed forassistance testanxiety, withstudyskills,readingskills,test-taking mathematics andtimestrategies, anxiety, skills.AfricanAmericansalso displayedmoreconcernwithself-confidence, fearof management and with African American males showed the most concern over failure, relationships faculty. careerchoice.Overall,AfricanAmericancollegestudents to be under a appeared greater degreeof stressthantheirWhitepeers.A studyby Novels and Ender(1988) foundthatminority students who participated in a seriesof threedevelopmental moduleswiththe themesof "University Awareness,""Strategiesfor SuccessfulCollege Study,"and "CareerExploration/Validation," achievedhighercollegegradesthandida historical comparison group. Efforts to increaseSTEM graduate-degree attainment ofteninvolvedassistingstudents with skills because school admissions tend to much on entrance test-taking graduate place emphasis examination scores.Researchon testpreparation fortheGraduateRecordExamination (GRE) has and testanxiety yieldedevidenceof positiveeffectsthatmay be linkedto testfamiliarization reduction(Powers, 1987; Swinton& Powers, 1983). Information about graduateprograms, admission aid opportunities, can greatly assisttraditionally process,andfinancial underrepresented in theirprogresstowardgraduateschoolentry. students In his studyof FordFoundation Minority thelack of information Fellows,Solorzano(1993) foundthatmanyof thesescholarsexperienced and encouragement to continueon to graduateschool as an obstacle that hinderedtheir advancement fromundergraduate to graduatestudies. AcademicAdvising of student retention Qualityacademicadvisinghas beendescribedas the"cornerstone" (Dannells, used in intervention thatstrive Rivera,& Knall-Clark, 1992),and is a commonstrategy programs to reducestudentattrition. Researchsuggestedthatqualityacademicadvisingpositivelyimpacts student retention as well as satisfaction withtheinstitution (Backhus,1989;Lowe & Toney,2001; Pascarella & Terenzini,2005). There is evidence to supportthat institutions with strong orientation and advisingserviceshave highergraduation ratesthaninstitutions without programs suchemphasis(see Forrest'sstudyas citedin Pascarella& Terenzini,1991). One studywhich controlledforacademicability,foundthatstudents'chancesof persisting increasedwiththe numberof counselingsessionstheyreceived(Wilson,Mason,& Ewing,1997). Because student dissatisfaction withacademicadvisingis high,especiallyamongSTEM students(Seymour& © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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outof STEM majors,some students are at a greater riskof dropping Hewitt,1997),and minority haveadvocatedtheuse of "intrusive" or "aggressive"advisingwithunderrepresented populations (Matyas,1991b; Velez, 2000). Intrusiveadvisementprogramsare based on the principlethat studentsshouldbe called in foradvisingnumeroustimesduringtheschoolyearinsteadof the standardonce-a-semester meetingbetweena studentand his or her advisor,or untila student In one study,theimplementation of an intrusive displaysseriousacademicdifficulties. advising attrition, programcoincidedwithpositiveoutcomessuch as, reducedfreshmen highermeanstudent andcompleted Because gradepointaverage,andmorecoursehoursattempted bystudents. of a lack of controls, it is not clear what is attributable and to the advisement however, program, whatresulted fromotherintervening & (Glennen Baxley,1985). programs Close contactwithfacultyand counselorshas been identified as a keyelementof successful mathematics and science intervention models for underrepresented students(Rendon,1985). fromfaculty members Accordingto Seymourand Hewitt(1997), thefailureto elicitreassurance thattheyareperforming well,andhavemadea properchoiceof science,has a disproportionately studentsbecause theirconfidencetendsto be negativeeffecton both femalesand minority "neitherstrong,nor internalized, and is oftentied to particularhigh school teacherswho them"(Seymour,1995,p. 201). Thosestudents in thestudywhopersisted in science, encouraged and engineering(SME) majors expresseda strongappreciationfor "faculty, mathematics, andteachingassistants who showedan activelongadvisors,departmental assistants, professional intheirlearning, terminterest theirproblemsandtheirprogress"(Seymour,1995,p. 202). As thehighereducationstudent bodybecomesmorediverse,academicadvisorscan playan crucialrolein addressing theneedsof nontraditional students. increasingly Possessingless of the "culturalcapital"thatprovidesfamiliarity withhowto negotiatesuccessfully a university through students can benefit from system,traditionally underrepresented tremendously qualityacademic In a recentstudyof factorsthataffectdecisionsof underrepresented advisement. minorities to science and doctoral and Brazziel found that each of the Brazziel forego (2001) engineering study, mentioned In a studyto assessthelongas a hindrance. highlyable interviewees pooradvisement termeffects on a cohortofAfricanAmericanstudents fora specialacademiccounseling targeted fora rangeof variables,firstprogram, Trippiand Cheatham(1991) foundthatwhilecontrolling and third-year studentswho soughtand receivedcounselorassistancewith year,second-year, to institutional culture,norms,and procedures)were legibilityconcerns(i.e., thosepertaining more to than receivesuchassistance.In a studyon those who did not consistently likely graduate intheretention academicadvising,Lowe andToney(2001) foundno difference ratesofthosewho wereadvisedby facultyand thosewho wereadvisedby staffadvisors.A studyon thepersonal, foundthatin termsofmodeofreceiving career,andlearningskillsneedsofcollegestudents help, individual was themostpreferred methodbytheoverallsample,andwas moregreatly counseling thanby Whitestudents(Gallagher,Golin,& Kelleher, preferred by AfricanAmericanstudents 1992). In a reviewoftheliterature an advising on educationaladvising,Creamer(1980) constructed for model forretention thatrecommended such stepsas offering training programs facultyor a for flowto counselorswithadvisingresponsibilities, implementingsystem regularinformation students whichfrequently andpromoting thedevelopment of frequent updatesacademicprogress, and meaningfulinteractions betweenfacultyand students.A retentionstudyconductedby is relatedto the NACME yieldsevidencethatretention successof minority students engineering of student and earlywarningof academicdifficulty (Penick& Morning, monitoring performance on advising,PascarellaandTerenzini(2005) concludedthat 1983).In theirreviewoftheliterature than be better no advisingand advisingearlieris likelyto be betterthan low-quality advisingmay later. FinancialSupport to ofproviding financialsupport intervention tendto recognizetheimportance Minority programs at 117 institutions In a nationalstudyof minority students students. by NACME, a engineering 566

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was foundbetweenminority retention rate and average relationship positiveand significant financialaid awards(Georges,1999). Similarly, a reportby theU.S. Department of Education found science and to be related to receiving (2000) engineering degreecompletion positively financialaid fromschool.Holdingconstanta rangeof factors, students withfamiliesproviding reliablefinancialsupport weremorelikelyto completea scienceor engineering degree.Although institutional researchon the impactof studentaid has yield mixedresults,withsome studies and othersconcludingthatit is notsignificant concludingaid to be effective (Murdock,1987), nationalstudieshave consistently foundstudent aid to be a positiveinfluence on persistence (St. St. John,Kirshstein, and John,1991). In theiranalysisof data fora nationalsampleof students, Noell (1991) foundthatwitha rangeof background and collegeexperiencevariablestakeninto Loans as well as grantsand account,financialaid exertsa positiveeffecton collegepersistence. worksignificantly affected persistence. In a meta-analysis ofresearchstudieson financialaid andpersistence, Murdock(1987) found a positivealbeitweak relationship. The impactof financialaid on persistence was greaterfor lower SES studentsthanformiddle-andhigh-SES students, greaterforstudentsat two-year thanfour-year institutions institutions, greaterforthoseattending privatethanpublicinstitutions, in the than initial later the of The dramatic and,greater years years college. impactof scholarship aid (as opposedto loans) on theretention of low-incomestudents was documented in a studyby the U.S. GeneralAccountingOffice(as cited in Campbell,1996). Amongstudentsfromthe aid to loan reducedtheprobability of poorestfamilies,a shiftof just $1,000 fromscholarship graduation by 17%. and DuBrock(2000) foundthatdeparture rateswithinSME werehighestfor Fenske,Porter, minorities and needystudents. minorities in bothSME and underrepresented Underrepresented non-SMEmajorswereless likelyto financetheireducationwithgift-aid onlyor self-helponly in moretypesof aid. For each of thefiveyearsof college tendto participate packages;minorities in whichdatawereanalyzed,a highproportion of students withgift-aid onlypackagespersisted thefollowing conducted year.A recentanalysison STEM students byACE foundthatcompleters came fromfamilieswithhigherincomesand thatnon-completers weremorelikelyto work15 hoursormorea week(Anderson& Kim,2006). Curriculum and Instructional Reform Much concernand criticismhave been raised over the factthatdespitethe relativelystrong in mathematics, offreshmen withinterest academicbackgrounds science,andengineering (Green, ratein 1989; Seymour,1992; Seymour& Hewitt,1997), therecontinuesto be a highattrition theseareasofstudy.Whilesomemayperceivethedeficitin STEM majorsas thenaturaloutcome of a "weedingout" process of those who are incapableof handlinga highlyquantitative moreare comingto recognizethattheheavyflowof talentedstudentsfromthese curriculum, fieldssignals a systemicproblemin STEM undergraduate educationin this country.In an to science fails to retainor attractstudents withthe ethnographic study investigate whycollege to become future Sheila Tobias recruited seven able from scientists, potential (1990) postgraduates thehumanities and social sciencesto "seriouslyaudit"introductory sciencecoursesandto keepa andobservations. a "tyranny oftechnique," journaloftheirexperiences Encountering competition, in theirscience course,the auditorsyearnedforgreaterattention, and a lack of community andexcitement. The mainfinding, support, accordingto Tobias(1993), is that thephysicalsciencesarepresented in toonarrowa teachingandlearning modeandthat,students withotherstrengths findlittleopportunity to use theskillstheylearnelsewhere, theirverbalskills,in makingsenseof the particularly material, (p. 43)

reform as everyyeara largenumber ofstudents arediverted Manyhaveadvocatedcurriculum out of theSTEM pipelinethrough failurein gatewaycourses.Therehas been particularly great concernexpressedoverthequalityof calculuseducation.An estimated thirdof all freshmen who © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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take calculus fail the course (Treisman,1992). The natureof the "curricularstructural the"problemsare is complex,"explainedTreisman,and in cases likepre-calculus impediments withwhatcomes ones of the and its link or disconnectedness coherence of curriculum essentially next"(Garland,1993,p. 15). The calculusreform movement is saidto haveimpactednearlyevery involvesthe institution of highereducationin America(Bonsague& Drew, 1995),and typically "use of technology,""real-lifeapplicationsof the material,"and "innovativeteaching" (Alexander,Burda,& Millar, 1997). In a reviewof fileson the 127 projectsfundedby the NationalScience Foundation'scalculus initiative(1988-1994), Ganter(1997) foundthatthe of originalcurricular materialswas the major goal of most projects,and that development computerlaboratoryexperiences,discoverylearning,and technicalwritingwere the most reformis needed, thatcurriculum commonlyemployedinstructional strategies. Acknowledging the JohnWhiteof theNationalScienceFoundation coursesand combating proposedintegrating thatmathematics and scienceare "sterile"and removedfromtherealworld(Sheahan perception & White,1990). In his modelof institutional adaptation, developedfromcase studiesof effective institutions to explainwhy some colleges and universities are moresuccessfulthanothersin themost Richardson and retention, graduation, (1994) identified improving minority participation, advancedresponseas thatwhichincludessignificant curricular andpedagogicalreform. In theirstudy,Keynesand Olson (2000) describedtheredesignof thecalculussequenceat one researchuniversity as involvingsuchkeyfeatures as activelearning, creativeuse of lecturing and otherpedagogicalmethods,increasestudent/faculty contact,and increaseduse of group achieveda higheraverage of thecalculusinitiative projectsand workshopsessions.Participants coursegradeand rateof courseretention thandid a comparisongroupenrolledin thestandard thatare purelycontentcalculuscourse.The researchers cautionthatcurricular reformefforts based and whichdo notproducea moreengagingenvironment tendnotto yieldas successful studentoutcomes.In an experimentalstudy investigating the effectiveness of a revised enrolledin theexperimental course(one whichintegrated undergraduate biologycourse,students lectureand laboratory instructional sections,and adopteda learner-centered model)scoredhigher on theattitude towardsciencesurveyand equallywell on contentknowledgeacquisitionwhen enrolledinthetraditional course(McCormick, comparedwithstudents 2001). The need to targetpedagogicaleffectiveness in the reformmovementis clear. In their and engineering attrition, ethnographic Seymourand Hewitt inquiryintoscience,mathematics, interviewed 335 at institutions about their educational seven (1997) experiences, undergraduates thosewho stayedandthosewhotransferred outofthesefields.Oftherangeofconcerns including and engineering and persisters, expressedby defectors poor teachingby science,mathematics, Furthermore, facultywas themostoftencitedby bothgroups(90.2% and 73.7%, respectively). dissatisfaction with instruction was the thirdmost frequently mentionedfactorin switching to morethanone-third of suchdecisions.Students lamentedabout decisions,andhad contributed the"counterproductive" effectsof faculty'semphasison "weedingout"ratherthanon "support and encouragement" (Seymour& Hewitt,1997). In a studyinvolvinga nationally representative of freshmen, sample college Hagedorn,Siadat,Nora,and Pascarella(1997) foundthatperceived and positivelypredictsmathematicsgain. The teachingquality by studentssignificantly of qualityof instruction is also emphasizedin a nationalstudyby Hiltonet al. (1989) importance on the persistenceof high-ability studentsin college science.This studyfoundthat minority in comparison to nonpersisters, view science,math,and engineering persisters, studyto be more and enjoyable,interesting, rewarding. In a 1992 studyinvolvinga nationalsampleof undergraduates at 388 institutions, Astinand Astin foundthat a strongresearch-oriented facultynegativelyimpactedpersistenceamong physicalsciencemajors;theauthorssurmisedthatthiswas due in partto theheavyrelianceon In contrast, a strongstudent-oriented sciencecoursework. teachingassistantsin undergraduate facultypositivelyimpactedstudents'aspirationsfor researchcareersand persistencein the students are choosingnotto pursue biologicalsciences.Investigating minority whyhigh-ability SME fields,BrownandClewell(1998) interviewed 135AfricanAmericanandLatinonon-science scoresof 600 or above). The researchers foundthat majors(mostof whohad SAT I mathematics 568

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factorspertainto teachers'attitudesand behaviors(non-SME the top threemost influential teacherswereperceivedas beingmorecaringand encouraging, whereasSME teacherstendedto be seen as being "arrogant, unavailable,or unapproachable");teachingpractices(non-SME in presenting teacherswereconsideredto be moreeffective thesubjectmatter);and,courseor curriculum issues (students wereturnedoffby thelongertime-to-degree, restrictive curriculum, andintensecompetitiveness associatedwithSME). workload, time-consuming An Integrated Approach An accumulatedbody of research suggested that STEM interventionprograms for students workbestiftheyemployan integrated underrepresented approach.In a reportby BEST & ScienceTalent,2004),whichdrawson thesystematic reviewworkofan (BuildingEngineering expertpanel,eightdesignprinciplesthatunderpinexemplaryand promising highereducationwereidentified: basedSTEM interventions recruitment, (a) institutional leadership, (b) targeted (c) (e) peer support,(f) enrichedresearchexperience,(g) engagedfaculty,(d) personalattention, to thenextlevel,and(h) continuous evaluation.Similarly, a 1985 studybyNACME (see bridging found that Matyas,1991a) exemplary minority engineering programstacklebothacademicand attitudinal andtendto containthefollowing barriers, components: • • • • • • •

fromhighschoolsandtwo-year student recruitment colleges; assistancewithadmissionprocedures; assistancewithstudent matriculation financial aid,academicadvising,orientation); (including procuring academicsupport services(tutoring, extrarecitations); studyskillstraining, student studycenter; in engineering; withminority student and organizations linkageofstudents summer engineering jobs.

In a studythatexaminesinstitutional of minority practicesthatpositivelyaffecttheretention Whitecampuses,ClewellandFicklen(1987) conductedintensive students on predominantly case withhighminority retention rates.These researchers studiesof fourcolleges and universities retention thatweredeemedcomprehensive foundthatall fourinstitutions had effective programs intheiroffering ofservices. There are a numberof nationalSTEM intervention programsthatadopt an integrated theimpediments to greaterand morediverseparticipation in STEM. These approachto battling are neededto combatthe diversity of barriersthat programsrecognizethatmultiplestrategies hindertheprogressofunderrepresented groupsalongtheSTEM pathway.Threesuchprograms Scholars and the Mathematics Program,MinorityEngineering Program, Meyerhoff Workshop - are highlighted in thisarticle.These programswere chosenbecause theyare wellProgram theireffectiveness, and have been eitherwidely known,have empiricaldata to substantiate or influential to the of other development many programs. replicated Program Meyerhoff intervention The Meyerhoff of programlocatedat theUniversity Programis a comprehensive that is Baltimore to address fourcriticalareas suggestedby the Maryland County designed researchliterature as inhibiting minoritysuccess in science: (a) knowledgeand skills, (b) andadvising,(d) andacademicand socialintegration. motivation and support, (c) monitoring Top and scienceAfricanAmericanstudents areselectedforparticipation mathematics andareexposed to suchprogram as summer coursework science,andhumanities bridge(mathematics, components in analyticalproblem-solving); and training on scholarships (four-year comprehensive contingent at least a B average);academicadvisingand personalcounseling;tutoring; maintaining study in science and engineering;mentoringby scientific groups; summerresearchinternships A strongfamily-like and involvement. is and,faculty family professionals; programcommunity © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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fosteredthrough regulargroupmeetingsof staffand studentsand a sharedresidencehall for freshmanScholars. The programhas supported768 students,260 of whom are currently undergraduates (Summers& Hrabowski, 2006). In a studythatcomparesfirst-year academicoutcomesofthefirstthreecohortsofMeyerhoff students witha historical at the talented AfricanAmericansciencestudents sampleofcomparably Hrabowskiand Maton (1995) foundthatcontrolling forkey background variables, university, studentsachievedbotha highermeanoverallGPA (3.5 vs. 2.8) and a highermean Meyerhoff science GPA (3.4 vs. 2.4). Observationaland surveyquestionnaire data suggestedthatstudy a financial summer groups, peer-basedcommunity, scholarships, bridgeprogram,and the collaborative efforts ofstaffandfaculty wereparticularly toparticipant success. relevant the Extendingtheirpreviousresearch,Maton,Hrabowski,and Schmitt(2000) investigated longer-term participant impactof the Meyerhoff Programand factorsthatlead to program effectiveness. Academicoutcomesfiveyearsaftercollegeentrywerecomparedforthreecohorts ofMeyerhoff students andmultiplecomparison whodeclinedthe groups(includingSME students Meyerhoffscholarship,a historicalcohort of comparablestudents,and a contemporary studentsgenerallyearnedhighergradesin comparisongroup).ResultsshowedthatMeyerhoff with SME at a and SME, graduated degrees higherrate, attended graduateschoolin SME fieldsat a higherratethandidthecomparison interview dataindicatedthatas a result groups.Furthermore, oftheprogram, of scienceeducationwerefeltat theinstitution, andfaculty positiverippleeffects a "dramatic,positivechange in perceptionsand expectationsconcerningAfrican underwent Americanstudent in science"(Maton,Hrabowski, & Schmitt, 2000,p. 647). A more performance recentarticleechoesmanyofthesefindings (Summers& Hrabowski, 2006). Fries-Britt withtwelveMeyerhoff Scholarsin their (1998) conductedextensiveinterviews senioryearto learnmoreabouttheiracademic,social, and racial experiences.She foundthat similarto manyothertop AfricanAmericanstudents, thosein her studyhad littleexposureto otheracademicallygiftedAfricanAmericanstudents.Accordingto Fries-Britt, the Meyerhoff thefirst timethatthesestudents were"surrounded ofhighprogram represented bya largenumber towardthesamegoal of academicexcellence"(p. 564). She achievingBlacks who werestriving concludedthatparticipation in the Meyerhoff programprovidedan emotionallysupportive, environment thatfacilitatedpeer networking, and consequentlyhelped ward off family-like Studentisolationand non-assimilation are of particular concernin feelingsof marginalization. cases whereminority students attenda large,predominantly Whiteuniversity. Minority EngineeringProgram A well-established and widelyreplicatedprogramis theMinority Engineering Program(MEP), which is the college-levelextensionof the MESA (Mathematics, and Science Engineering, Achievement) programthatoperatesat the secondaryschool level. Foundedin 1973 by Ray at theCaliforniaStateUniversity, theMEP model Landis,an engineering professor Northridge, has been propagatedat morethan100 universities and privatelysponsoredprograms(May & in program Chubin,2003). WhileMEPs are locatedon a varietyof campuses,andvarysomewhat unitof the features, theytendto sharesome commonelements:linkagewiththe engineering efforts on working institution; strongpre-collegeand community collegeoutreach;concentrated withfreshmen and sophomores;an emphasison cooperativelearningand community building theuse of structured collaborative in the of MEP students through studygroups,theclustering same sectionsof courses,and the establishment of studycenters;professionaldevelopment activitiessuchas rolemodelspeakersand industry fieldtrips;and,theoffering of suchacademic services as freshmen orientation summer courses, tutoring, support bridge, supplemental in mathematics instruction and science,close monitoring of student progress,and academicand & Williams,1993). personalcounseling (Collea, 1990;Landis,1988;Morrison Gains in studentlearningand retention in engineering studieshave been reported forMEP to assess the participants (Rotberg,1990). In responseto a requestby theCalifornialegislature EducationCommission(1986) issueda report impactof MEP, theCaliforniaStatePostsecondary 570

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continuein engineering at a higherratethannon-participants. thatshowedMEP participants The forthefourethnicgroupstargeted the resultswereespeciallyencouraging by program(African MexicanAmericans, otherHispanics,and NativeAmericans).Examiningthree-year Americans, at theUniversity ofCalifornia retention dataforengineering students campusesandtheCalifornia StateUniversity rateforminority students who campuses,Landis(1988) foundthattheretention in theMEP exceedednotonlythatofminority students whodidnotparticipate in the participated MEP, butalso thatoftheoverallstudent groupin engineering. rate data forthe MEP at the CaliforniaState Gandara(1999) cited improvedretention Sacramento which an increased 10% per yearmorethanfouryearsUniversity, experienced in In a studyoftheimpactoftheMEPs at with 1991 and to 1994. 50% 80% growing by beginning and MechanicalUniversity-Florida FloridaAgricultural StateUniversity (FAMU-FSU), Ohland andZhang(2002) foundthataftercontrolling forhighschoolGPA, MEP students weremoreapt thannon-MEPcounterparts to graduatein engineering thoughtheresultswere not statistically Another rateofAfricanAmericanMEP students, studyfoundthatthehigherretention significant. in comparisonto non MEP AfricanAmericanengineering was students,at one institution associatedwitha greatersenseof connectedness to theengineering community (Good,Halpin,& have also been creditedwiththeirinstitution's Halpin,2002). The MEPs of certainuniversities successat graduating numbers of students. MEPs havebeenhighlighted in high underrepresented a study that examines the top ten institutions that are most successful at preparing minorities fordoctoralstudyin scienceand engineering underrepresented (Brazziel& Brazziel, Whitecampuseswithexceptionally 1997), as well as in a studyof fourpredominately high retention rates(Clewell& Ficklen,1987). minority Sincethecreationof theMinority enrollment in engineering Engineering Program, minority has climbedsubstantially, but attrition remainshigh(Morrison& Williams,1993). Therefore, on campusdoes notguarantee success.Justas program merelyhavinga program implementation varies,so does programeffectiveness (Richardson,1994). In a studyexaminingMEPs at 20 schools,MorrisonandWilliams(1993) foundthattheeightMEPs thatwerethemost engineering successfulin recruiting and graduatingminority studentstendedto have strongrecruitment thatstrengthen content through highschooloutreach, providedsummer programs knowledgeand emphasizestudyand criticalthinkingskills,were perceivedas havinghigh facultysupport, offered wereequippedwithan adequatenumberof tutors, and receivedrelatively studycenters, levels of institutional high funding. TheMathematicsWorkshop One of the most well-knownand modeled afterintervention programsis the Mathematics WorkshopProgram(MWP). Work on the MWP model began in 1974 when Uri Treisman observational conductedan informal in first-year differences studyto explaingroupperformance calculus students.Treisman(1992) foundthat group performance was linked to strategy in examination differences andhomework Morespecifically he foundthat preparation completion. informal aidedtheexchangeof academicand institutional information, "studygroups"effectively andexpedited ofsubjectmatter as "students checkedeachother'swork,pointedouterrors mastery in each others'solutions,and freelyofferedeach otherany insightsthattheyhad obtained. . . abouthowtomanagedifficult problems"(Fullilove& Treisman,1990,pp. 466-467). MWP was purposefully of designedas an honorsprogramto combat"debilitating patterns a isolationby emphasizing and life focused on a in shared interest grouplearning community mathematics" a As to the calculus an "intensive" 1992, course, (Treisman, p. 368). complement tackled workshopwas offeredin which groups of five to seven studentscollaboratively challengingand carefullycraftedproblemsfortwo hourstwice a week. A graduatestudent theprocessand strategically difficulties. workshopleadermonitored guidedparticipants through to Treisman(1992), theheartoftheprojectlies withtheproblemsetswhichfuelgroup According interaction as students aregiven"plentyofopportunities forself-correction andan environment in © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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whichtheycouldsafelymakepublictheirunderstandings" (Garland,1993,p. 14). Alongwithan on academic excellence and the withintheacademic enrichment, programalso offered emphasis a of services such as of academic setting range support counseling,monitoring progress,and withnavigating theuniversity assisting system(Clewell,1989). whencomparedwithnonProgramevaluationresultsshowedthatworkshopparticipants, weremorelikelyto persistand to graduate,in additionto beingtwoto threetimes participants, morelikelyto earnhighermathematics grades(Fullilove& Treisman,1990). Moreover,African AmericanandLatino\aparticipants notonlytheirnon-workshop outperformed minority peers,but also their non-workshopWhite and Asian classmates.AfricanAmerican studentswith Mathematics SAT scoresin thelow-600sperformed as well as Whiteand Asian students with MathematicsSAT scores in the mid-700s(Treisman,1992). These resultsare even more whenone considered theacademicrecordsofminority students impressive priorto thecreationof theprogram. AfricanAmericanandLatino\astudents hadgradesfarbelowtheaverage;morethan one-fourth of theminority students who attempted I-A droppedtheclass; and,after Mathematics numberofminorities withdrew fromtheinstitution failingthemathematics sequence,a significant of the that the (Clewell, 1989). Qualitativestudy programsuggested superioroutcomesof be due to time on mathematics workshop participants may greater study,whichis shownto spent be a significant andpositivepredictor ofmathematics Siadat, Nora,& Pascarella, gain(Hagedorn, mannerof studythatpurportedly occursin thesestudygroups 1997),as well as themoreefficient (Fullilove& Treisman, 1990). The mathematics suchas workshopmodelhas inspiredothersitesto adoptsimilarprograms theEmergingScholarsProgramat theUniversity of Texas at Austin,theAcademicExcellence at theCaliforniaStatePolytechnic Calculus Workshop University (Pomona),theMeritWorkshop at the of at Illinois and the Wisconsin Scholars Program University Urbana-Champaign, Emerging at the of which have all shown evidence of effects on Wisconsin, Program University positive studentparticipants includinghighergrades,lowerratesof courserepetition, greaterchanceof mathematics and choosingand persistingin a STEM major coursework, enrollingin further Burda,& Miller,1997; Bonsangue& Drew,1995;Moreno& Muller,1999;Murphy, (Alexander, & McCreary,1998). Stafford, Conclusion In orderfortheU.S. to maintain in in theworldeconomyofthisnewmillennium, itspreeminence whichscience-basedfieldsareplayingan increasingly role,educatorsneedto expand prominent and diversify theSTEM talentpool. The urgencyof thischallengeis underscored by theamount of of effort and funding to increasethequalityand quantity investedin an arrayof interventions in STEM fields.To ensurethatthesediversity efforts arepaying students choosingandpersisting oftheresearch intotheirefficacy needsto be pursued.Thisreviewandsynthesis off,investigation literature on effectivestrategiesreveals the mountingevidence on ten commonlyadopted Fromtheoverall,resultssomerecommendations to guidefuture actionandresearchcan strategies. be drawn. and consequently, This reviewyieldsa sense of whereempiricalevidenceis accumulating, wheremorestudyis needed.Of thetenstrategies examined,somehave receivedmoreresearch havebeenthesubjectsof attention thanothers.For instance, researchexperienceandmentorship and andseminars, moreresearchstudythansummer centers, workshops bridgeprograms, learning of theefficacy academicadvising.Whilethereis relatively less empiricalevidenceto substantiate who theirpopularuse would suggestthateducatorsand researchers these latterstrategies, themmightbe judgingthemeffective informal studyorcasualobservation. implement through The resultsof this review also suggestthatwhat has been foundto be effectivefor students underrepresented minority overlapswithwhatis knownto be beneficialfortheoverall and student research, faculty-mentored qualityadvisement, population(e.g., tutoring, internships, so forth)in termsof a range of desired studentoutcomes(National Survey of Student butnotlimitedto students'interest, 2003; Pascarella& Terenzini, 2005), including Engagement, 572

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in STEM studies(Astin& Astin,1992). This is an important and retention satisfaction, point can largelyfocustheirefforts on pursuing becauseitmeansthatschoolsand departments a setof thatbenefitnotonlyunderrepresented butalso, theSTEM student minorities, strategies bodyat salientbecause intervention are increasingly large.This is particularly programsforminorities called intoquestionand even legallychallenged("M.I.T. to opentwoprograms," 2003; Winter, 2003). Thereis some reasonto believethatSTEM enrichment programsmade availableto all minoritiesand women because they avoid studentswork better for underrepresented and "spotlighting" stigmatization (Bonsangue& Drew, 1995; CampbellJolly,Hoey,& Perlman, 2002; Knight& Cunningham, 2004; McLoughlin, 2005; Seymour& Hewitt,1997). The resultsherealso suggestthatthosewho fund,design,and implement intervention efforts a combination shouldstriveforan integrated of strategies. approachby employing Clearly,given thatimpedestudent in STEM whatis knownfromresearchabouttherangeofbarriers persistence evidenceof theefficacyof a numberof commonstrategies, and substantial fields,accumulating forsomeestablished in thisarticle),one (suchas thethreehighlighted empiricalsupport programs an arsenalof strategies can surmisethatprogrammatic interventions are moreapt to employing will be succeed.This is probablybecausea holisticapproachoptimizesthechancethatstudents with the and need to academic,social, provided professional development supportthey progress further alongtheSTEM pathway. On thescholarlyfront, morequalityempiricalresearchis needed.In conducting thisreview, thebulkofthewriting locatedon thissubjectareawas ofa descriptive nature(i.e., descriptions of withno data gatheredto studytheeffectsresulting fromtheintervention intervention programs actuallyinvolvesempiricalevidence. efforts). Only a small portionof the existingliterature are more evaluationresultsare not evaluations of programs becoming commonplace, Although and difficult to access & or (Ginorio Grignon, 2000). Comprehensive alwayspublished, therefore, can and shouldcontribute interventions to theknowledge intensiveevaluationsof programmatic anddisseminating theirresults. base bypublishing in particular, are especiallysituatedto further theknowledge Federaland nationalprograms, and institutional base becauseofthelargenumberof student involved,widerangeof participants variables(includingdemographic, programfeatures,outcomes)on whichdata are or can be The far-reach andbreadthofofferings withinnationalprograms collected,andprogram longevity. in to both shortand student outcomes.What a them long-term uniqueposition investigate places data collectionacrossprojectsand an efficient and effective is needed,however,is coordinated students. studies of national can greatly of programs Longitudinal tracking system participating at thenationallevel,as well whatis andis notworking advancetheunderstanding byilluminating andconditions. as withinvarying local contexts shouldmakespecialefforts to investigate therelative researchers andevaluators Furthermore, This wouldbe particularly beneficialgiventhatbudgetconstraints impactof variousstrategies. and schoolsfromadoptingas manystrategies as programdirectors preventthemostcommitted in it is difficult to discern how the "effective" identified would. otherwise However, strategies they becausetherehas beenlittlesystemic researchers thisreviewmeasurewithone another attempt by theeffectiveness of variousstrategies withina singlestudy.One notable to compareand contrast LSAMP (Louis Stokes'Alliances exceptionis theevaluationoftheNationalScienceFoundation's inwhichprojectstypically a rangeofintervention forMinority Program, implement Participation) involved,three Studyfindingsrevealedthatamongthe majorprogramcomponents strategies. withthe desiredstudentoutcomesof standout as havinga significant positiverelationship in and completion of graduatedegrees:(a) researchwithfaculty, and enrollment (b) internships, & Consentino de summer Cohen, Tsui, Deterding, 2006). (c) bridge(Clewell, one strategies, Finally,now thata certainbody of evidencehas accumulatedon effective whatworksforwhomandunderwhatcontextual or institutional needsto worktowardidentifying conditions.In otherwords,it is necessaryto move beyond"what"(works),and toward"for studiesthatinvolvebothquantitative and qualitative whom,""why,"and "how."Mixed-methods for this task. Quantitative be most suitable analyseslend themselvesto componentsmight © TheJournalofNegroEducation,2007, Vol.76,No. 4

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"what"and "forwhom."While "why"and "how" questionscan perhapsbe best investigating examinedthrough data.Resultsof suchstudies ethnographic studyandtherichnessof qualitative will helpinform boththepolicymaking and local programdecision-making thatanchorthevital endeavortobroadenandenhancethenationalSTEM capabilities. ' Thisarticle is basedonworkconducted as apartoftheevaluation forMinority oftheLouisStokesAlliances Participation Program for theNationalScienceFoundation (REC-9912176). Anyopinions, findings, anddo notnecessarily andrecommendations inthisarticlearethoseoftheauthor's conclusions, expressed theviewsofthefunding reflect agency.

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