Jessica Napoles University of Utah, USA. Article

434823 2012 IJM0010.1177/0255761411434823NapolesInternational Journal of Music Education Article The influences of presentation modes and conducti...
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434823

2012

IJM0010.1177/0255761411434823NapolesInternational Journal of Music Education

Article

The influences of presentation modes and conducting gestures on the perceptions of expressive choral performance of high school musicians attending a summer choral camp

International Journal of Music Education 31(3) 321­–330 © The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0255761411434823 ijm.sagepub.com

Jessica Napoles University of Utah, USA

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the influences of presentation modes (audio and visual) on perceptions of expressive choral performance. The stimulus recording included four choral selections, each conducted by a different conductor in two ways: using expressive conducting gestures and using strict conducting gestures. Three groups of participants: (1) listened to the eight audio excerpts; or (2) listened and viewed the conductor from the rear; or (3) listened and viewed the conductor from the front. They then answered questions regarding expressivity, tone quality, and overall impression of the choral performance. Results indicate significant differences between presentation modes and conducting style. Participants rated performances conducted with an expressive gesture higher than performances conducted with a strict gesture in all three presentation modes. Keywords choral, expressive conducting, presentation modes Ensemble directors generally desire to achieve musically-expressive performances. Oftentimes they look to their own conducting gestures to achieve this expressivity. It is unclear whether expressive performances occur as a result of expressive conducting, but the goal of musical expression is ubiquitous among music teachers of all age groups, if elusive. Indeed, the expressivity of a performance is one factor that differentiates beginner and advanced performers (Woody, 2002). While even children as young as kindergartners can perceive musical expression, the ability to produce music expressively appears to be a more difficult task (Rodriguez, 1998). Corresponding author: Jessica Napoles, University of Utah, School of Music, 1375 E Presidents Circle, 256 David Gardner Hall, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA. Email: [email protected]

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Researchers have endeavored to define elements of expressiveness, and many agree that tempo, dynamics, and articulation contribute to perceptions of musically-expressive performances. In a series of studies, Johnson ascertained that participants favored more rubato, and that rubato was equated with musicality (Johnson, 1996a, 1996b, 1997); further, there was a fairly wide window for the amount of rubato that was acceptable, as long as it complied with the pattern of temporal flow established by common practice (Johnson, 2003). Crist (1996) noted that tempo and dynamics were components associated with musical expressivity. Woody (2006) agreed, and added articulation to the list, while Sheldon (2004) proposed that tempo and articulation were the elements that accounted for expressivity. Ervin (1975) defined expressive conducting as ‘when the conductor deviates from a strict beat pattern for expressive purposes such as dynamics, phrasing, accents, cueing, etc. Variation in the size of the beat patterns and facial expressions are also considered to be examples of expressive conducting’ (p. 47). Thus it appears that expressiveness in conducting is defined in terms of musical elements as well as nonverbal aspects of a conductor’s behavior. This is consistent with findings of VanWeelden (2002) and Fredrickson, Johnson, and Robinson (1998), which indicated that posture, facial expression, and a variety of pre-conducting behaviors affected perceptions of conductors. The gesture itself is in fact a form of nonverbal communication. Conductors work to develop a common gestural vocabulary that is recognizable. These gestures have been referred to as ‘emblems,’ and various studies have sought to establish which gestures are most recognized by instrumental performers (Mayne, 1992; Sousa, 1988) and how this recognition can be improved (Cofer, 1998). When considering the amount of time future music teachers spend in conducting classes, purportedly learning the physical skills and coordination required for conducting in addition to the ability to communicate expressively with gestures, it seems worthwhile to question how expressive conducting contributes to student attitude and performance. The research literature is mixed. Laib (1993) and Yarbrough (1975) reported positive high school student opinions and higher performance scores with expressive conductors, compared with nonexpressive conductors. Sidoti (1990) asserted that performances (of musical expression markings) were more accurate under the expressive conducting condition. Conductors of more musical bands used more expressive gestures in Grechesky’s (1985) study. Price and Winter’s (1991) adolescent participants failed to yield a significant performance difference between the strict conductor and the expressive conductor. A strict conductor was defined as using minimal body movement, expressive gestures or facial expressions, or group eye contact. An expressive conductor engaged in frequent body movement, expressive gestures, approving and disapproving facial expressions, and group eye contact. However, it should be noted that Price and Winter’s participants did prefer the expressive conductor over the strict conductor, so expressive conducting affected student attitude in a positive way, even though there was no effect on performance achievement. Price and Chang (2001, 2005) and Price (2006) consistently found no relationship between expressive conducting and expressive performance. Because music is experienced in a variety of ways via multiple forms of media, it is logical to assume that perhaps listeners/viewers respond to musical performances differently depending on the mode in which they are presented. There is evidence that presentation modes affect participants’ cognitive and affective responses to music (Geringer, Cassidy, & Byo, 1996, 1997). Presentation modes can also affect performance ratings in vocal performance (Wapnick, Darrow, Kovacs, & Dalrymple, 1997), in choral rehearsal (Yarbrough & Hendel, 1993), and in marching band settings (Johnson, 1991). Several studies have examined presentation mode with respect to conductors and ensemble performances. Price’s (2006) participants rated audio recordings of band ensembles higher than video recordings of their conductors. Madsen’s (1991) evaluators listened to performances displaying good and bad conducting gestures, but good conducting gestures did not result in significantly

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higher ratings of collegiate choral performances when evaluators listened to the performances on audiotape. In a similar study investigating cultural differences, Madsen (2009) did not find a significant difference due to presentation mode (audio, visual, or audiovisual) or culture (Americans and Argentinians) when participants viewed or listened to excerpts of choral music. Price and Mann (2009) tested whether participants’ evaluations of wind ensemble performances would differ among various conductors and determined that the conductor significantly impacted both conductor and ensemble performance evaluations. The researchers concluded that music does sound different, depending on the visual information accompanying it. The link between presentation mode and perceptions of expressivity is unclear. Lucas, Hamann, and Teachout (1996) and Lucas and Teachout (1998) found that undergraduate and graduate music majors evaluated expressiveness differently when listening (aural-only mode), when viewing the conductor (visual-only mode), and when listening and viewing the conductor (aural-visual mode). Expressive performances received higher ratings than did the nonexpressive performances in each of the three presentation modes, and visual-only and aural-visual modes yielded higher expressiveness ratings than did aural-only mode. Hamann (2003) reported different findings with middle school participants: aural excerpts were rated as more expressive than video-only excerpts. Silkebakken’s (1988) results also indicated a significant main effect for presentation mode. There were significantly higher ratings for expressiveness when conductors were viewed from the rear as opposed to from the front. Price and Chang (2005) used two presentation modes for high school bands: video-only (view of the front of the conductor, no audio track) and parallel audio-only excerpts. Their participants did not rate expressivity significantly differently. Whether conductors were viewed from the front or back had a significant impact on participants’ evaluations of the conductors in Price and Mann’s (2009) study. The purpose of this study was to add to the existing body of literature examining presentation mode as an independent variable influencing perceptions of expressivity. In light of the number of performances where an audience member views the conductor exclusively from the back, and the proliferation of films and videos of conducted performances from the audience point of view, this seems an under investigated area of research. Of the literature surveyed, only two studies compared rear and front view presentation modes (Price & Mann, 2009; Silkebakken, 1988), and neither involved choral ensembles. The present study attempts to answer the following research questions: 1. Do presentation modes (aural recording, video of conductor from the front, and video of conductor from the rear) affect participants’ ratings of expressivity, tone quality, and overall impression of choral performances? 2. Are expressively-conducted performances perceived differently than nonexpressivelyconducted performances across all presentation modes?

Method Participants Participants included 131 high school students (95 females and 36 males) enrolled in a summer choral camp at a large southeastern university, representing seven states. There were 19 students who had completed their first year (freshmen), 36 students who had completed their second year (sophomores), 64 students who had completed their third year (juniors), and 12 students who had completed their final year (seniors). All participants voluntarily took part in the study with no incentive provided, and all were briefed at the end of the session regarding the purpose of the research. Downloaded from ijm.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 12, 2016

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Preparing the stimulus recording Senior university choral music education majors from another state were recruited to produce the stimulus video and audio recordings. There were four conductors and a group of 12 singers formed the chorus. The researcher met with each of the conductors ahead of time for a training session. Conductors were each given a musical selection (all in unison and in English) and instructed to prepare to conduct the first musical idea. These phrases ranged from eight to 12 measures. For each selection, conductors were asked to conduct with a strict conducting gesture first and then with an expressive conducting gesture. These terms were defined according to Price and Winter (1991): a strict conductor uses little to no body movement, expressive gestures, facial expressions, and group eye contact. An expressive conductor engages in frequent body movement, expressive gestures, approving and disapproving facial expressions, and group eye contact. Conductors practiced with the researcher to ensure that appropriate contrasts were perceptible. As a validity check, four graduate students also unanimously agreed that the strict conducting gestures were different from the expressive conducting gestures, and both were indicative of the appropriate condition. At the recording session, chorus members were given the opportunity to read through the first 8–12 measures of each piece several times until pitches and rhythms were secured. There were two digital video cameras, one positioned in front of the conductor, at such a distance that everything above the torso was in view, and another positioned behind the conductor, at the same distance, torso and above, with no view of the conductor’s face. In addition, a Zoom H2 Recorder was placed at the front of the room to produce the audio recording. The researcher and two assistants operated the video and audio equipment, and the researcher gave conductors cues as to when to begin, when to do another take, and when to change conducting conditions. At the end of the session each master tape contained four pieces, conducted in two different ways, with strict gestures and with expressive gestures, for a total of eight excerpts. Video footage was edited using iMovie. Verbal instructions were inserted into the video, as well as labels for each forthcoming example. A practice example was included at the beginning of each recording. Two videos were produced: the video from the front of the conductor, and the video from the rear of the conductor, in addition to the audio recording. Each recording was approximately 12 minutes long. Pilot studies were conducted to determine whether one-minute intervals between examples would be sufficient time to answer the three questions on the answer sheet. Other changes incorporated after pilot studies included adding an audio cue to indicate the next example was forthcoming, adding a 15-second interval between the indication of an example and the start of the example, and clarifying wording to reflect that participants were evaluating the choir and not the conductor.

Design and procedure Participants were randomly separated into six groups with some consideration for male/female representation. Groups 1 and 2 listened to the audio CD, groups 3 and 4 watched the front videos of the conductors, and groups 5 and 6 watched the rear videos of the conductors. There were two orders employed, and these orders were the same for all three groups (audio CD order 1 and 2, front group order 1 and 2, and rear group order 1 and 2). The first was a random order, and the second was the same order in reverse. The purpose of this reverse order was to isolate the independent variable more specifically: by the last few excerpts, participants may have guessed that the experiment concerned expressive conducting, so the two orders distributed the bias in both directions. In order to give participants the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the task, there was one practice example. Demographic data were collected and participants were given the following instructions:

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Thank you for agreeing to take part in this study. You will be viewing/listening to eight short excerpts and you will answer three questions after each. Let’s do a practice example.

On the response sheet participants were asked to rate tone quality, expressiveness, and overall performance of the choral performance on a seven-point Likert-type scale, 1 being poor and 7 being excellent.

Results There were 131 participants who completed the study and answered all questions (43 in the CD group, 54 with a front view of the conductor, and 34 with a back view of the conductor). Preliminary analyses revealed differences between individual student conductors and possible order effects. Since the individual conductors and order presentation were not the main focus of the study, these were combined in the subsequent analyses, and a multivariate analysis of variance was conducted with presentation mode as the between-subjects variable (CD, front, or rear) and conducting style (strict/expressive) as the within-subjects variable. The variates were musical element (tone quality, expressivity, and overall impression). An alpha level of .01 was established a priori. There were significant multivariate main effects for conducting style, F(3, 126) = 57.04, p < .001, partial η2 = .57. Prior to examining the univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) results, the alpha level was adjusted to α = .003 because three dependent variables were analyzed. These ANOVAs indicated differences were present in conducting style for all three variates: tone quality, F(1, 128) = 78.83, p < .001, partial η2 = .38, expressivity, F(1, 128) = 172.79, p < .001, partial η2 = .57, and overall impression, F(1, 128) = 139.96, p < .001, partial η2 = .52. All musical elements were rated higher under the expressive conducting condition (M = 21.12, SD = 2.61 for tone quality, M = 20.74, SD = 3.52 for expressivity and M = 21.10, SD = 2.84 for overall impression) than under the strict conducting condition (M = 18.36, SD = 3.96 for tone quality, M = 15.55, SD = 4.64 for expressivity and M = 17.15, SD= 4.00 for overall impression). See Figure 1 for an illustration of this effect. Presentation modes were also significantly different from each other, F(6, 252) = 5.56, p < .001, partial η2 = .11, with respect to tone quality, F(2, 128) = 9.28, p < .001, partial η2 = .12, and overall impression, F(2, 128) = 11.80, p < .001, partial η2 = .15. Tukey HSD post-hoc comparisons indicated significant differences between CD and front view presentation modes in tone quality ratings (p < .001) and overall impression (p < .001). There were no other significant differences or interactions. As can be seen in Figure 2, consistently, participants who viewed the conductor from the front gave the lowest ratings. Highest ratings alternated between the audio CD and rear conductor view presentation modes, but when examining the strict conducting condition, participants who listened to the CD always gave the highest ratings.

Discussion The purpose of this study was to examine whether presentation modes affected participants’ ratings of expressivity, tone quality, and overall impression of choral performances. The data indicated that presentation modes did indeed affect perceptions of tone quality and overall impression: there were significant differences between the aural-only group and those who viewed the conductor from the front (the aural group rated performances higher), but no differences between front and rear conductor view ratings. This is inconsistent with findings of Price and Chang (2005) and Madsen (2009), who reported no significant differences between presentation modes, and with Madsen (1991) and Lucas and Teachout (1998), whose participants rated video excerpts higher than aural excerpts.

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Mean rating

20

15

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5 Strict condition Expressive condition 0 Tone quality

Expressivity

Overall impression

Musical element

Figure 1.  Comparison between strict and expressive conducting conditions. 25

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Back condition Front condition CD condition

0 Tone Expressiveness- Overall Tone Expressiveness- Overall qualityexp impression-exp Qualitystrict impressionexp conducting conducting strict conducting strict conducting conducting conducting

Figure 2.  Comparisons between presentation modes.

However, this study’s results are congruent with Price’s (2006) and Hamann’s (2003) in that audio excerpts were rated higher than video excerpts. Unlike Price and Mann (2009) and Silkebakken (1998), there did not appear to be a difference between ratings of performances when viewing conductors from the front or from the rear. The differences surfaced between the CD group and the

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front view group instead. Interestingly, many of the cited studies (Lucas et al., 1998; Lucas & Teachout, 1998; Madsen, 1991; Price, 2006; Price & Chang, 2005; Price & Mann, 2009) researched perceptions of undergraduate and graduate students. The current study examined perceptions of high school students, particularly those high school students who were committed enough to enroll and participate in a choral camp, indicating a more unusual participant pool. It is interesting that the participants who viewed the conductor from the front consistently gave the lowest ratings. It is possible that observing the conductors’ faces could have provided some distraction or that, given access to the conducting pattern, they felt compelled to criticize aspects of the conducting that were not as they expected. Participants with a rear view of the conductor could not see much nuance in the gesture, and those in the CD group clearly saw nothing, so a focus on the choir performance was more likely in these groups. One could conjecture that having some visual information is different from having all the visual information in a performance and, as others have noted, a choir might ‘sound different’ simply by the accompanying visual signals they receive (Price & Mann, 2009). It might be worthwhile to endeavor to learn where participants focus their attention while they are taking in so many visual cues. With respect to strict versus expressively-conducted performances, participants rated expressivelyconducted performances higher than strictly-conducted performances across all presentation modes. However, unlike other studies that have used some form of deception with the same recording and different conductors superimposed over the aural information, this study did in fact have different performances each time, so that variable could not be teased out. One obvious question arises: did the choir sing differently when a conductor conducted in the expressive condition as opposed to the strict condition? Participants did in fact perceive those performances as different, even in the aural condition without the visual cues. Another possibility is that the choir attempted to make differences between strict and expressive conducting conditions more obvious since they knew that they were being video and audio recorded for an experiment. What are the implications for practitioners given this study’s findings? On the one hand, participants did perceive certain conductors to be more expressive, and this lends support to continuing to teach expressivity in collegiate conducting classes, especially given that conductors and their ensembles will be adjudicated on a regular basis (most likely with a rear view of the conductor). On the other hand, sometimes there is no control over which presentation mode will be used for evaluation. Some festivals/contests are based on aural recordings only, and others might indeed require visual information via a live conducting session or video recording. Perhaps one might consider that adjudicators will potentially be more critical when they are viewing a front view of the conductor, although more study is warranted before drawing definitive conclusions. There are several limitations in this study that should be noted. First, despite the attempt to control for order effect, it was still evidenced. Second, there were differences between individual conductors. These two issues are perhaps related. It is possible that the CD/DVD that contained more expressive conductors towards the beginning influenced participants’ perceptions of subsequent conductors. Future studies may choose to incorporate more conductors in the stimulus recording and examine perceptions of preservice or experienced teachers rather than high school students. References Cofer, R. S. (1998). Effects of conducting-gesture instruction on seventh-grade band students’ performance response to conducting emblems. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46, 360–373. Crist, M. (1996). The listeners’ ability to identify an expressive performance. Contributions to Music Education, 23, 19–30.

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Ervin, C. (1975). Systematic observation and evaluation of conductor effectiveness. Dissertation Abstracts International, 36, 7034A–7035A. (University Microfilms No. 76-1751) Fredrickson, W. E., Johnson, C. M., & Robinson, C. R. (1998). The effect of pre-conducting and conducting behaviors on the evaluation of conductor competence. Journal of Band Research, 33, 1–13. Geringer, J. M., Cassidy, J. W., & Byo, J. L. (1996). The effects of music with video on responses of nonmusic majors: An exploratory study. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44, 240–251. Geringer, J. M., Cassidy, J. W., & Byo, J. L. (1997). Nonmusic majors’ cognitive and affective responses to performance and programmatic music videos. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 221–233. Grechesky, R. N. (1985). An analysis of nonverbal and verbal conducting behaviors and their relationship to expressive musical performance (aesthetic, gestural). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46, 2956A. Hamann, K. L. (2003). Identification of expressiveness in small ensemble performances by middle school students. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 155, 24–32. Johnson, C. M. (1991). Use of the continuous response digital interface in evaluation of auditory versus auditory and visual aspects of musical performance. Southeastern Journal of Music Education, 3, 97–108. Johnson, C. M. (1996a). Musicians’ and nonmusicians’ assessment of perceived rubato in musical performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44, 84–96. Johnson, C. M. (1996b). The performance of Mozart: Study of rhythmic timing by skilled musicians. Psychomusicology, 15, 87–109. Johnson, C. M. (1997). A comparison of the perceived musicianship of skilled musicians and their respective rhythmic timings in performances of Mozart. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 133, 45–51. Johnson, C. M. (2003). Effect of rubato magnitude on the perception of musicianship in musical performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 51, 115–123. Laib, J. R. (1993). The effect of expressive conducting on band performance. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54, 3258A. Lucas, K. V., Hamann, D. L., & Teachout, D. J. (1996). Effect of perceptual mode on the identification of expressiveness in conducting. Southeastern Journal of Music Education, 8, 166–175. Lucas, K. V., & Teachout, D. J. (1998). Identifying expressiveness in small ensemble performances. Contributions to Music Education, 25, 60–73. Madsen, M. K. (1991). The effect of specific conducting gestures on vocal sound. (Unpublished master’s thesis). The Florida State University, USA. Madsen, K. (2009). Effect of aural and visual presentation modes on Argentine and US musicians’ evaluations of conducting and choral performance. International Journal of Music Education, 27, 48–58. Mayne, R. G. (1992). An investigation of the use of facial expression in conjunction with musical conducting gestures and their interpretation by instrumental performers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53, 2729A. Price, H. E., & Winter, S. (1991). Effect of strict and expressive conducting on performances and opinions of eighth-grade band students. Journal of Band Research, 27, 30–43. Price, H. E. (2006). Relationships among conducting quality, ensemble performance quality, and state festival ratings. Journal of Research in Music Education, 54, 203–214. Price, H. E., & Chang, E. C. (2001). Conductor expressivity and ensemble performance: An exploratory investigation. Contributions to Music Education, 28, 9–20. Price, H. E., & Chang, E. C. (2005). Conductor and ensemble performance expressivity and state festival ratings. Journal of Research in Music Education, 53, 66–77. Price, H. E., & Mann, A. (2009, February). The effect of conductors on ensemble evaluations. Paper presented at the International Symposium of Research in Music Behavior, St. Augustine, FL. Rodriguez, C. X. (1998). Children’s perception, production, and description of musical expression. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46, 48–61. Sheldon, D. A. (2004). Listeners’ identification of musical expression through figurative language and musical terminology. Journal of Research in Music Education, 52, 357–368. Sidoti, V. J. (1990). The effects of expressive and nonexpressive conducting on the performance accuracy of selected expression markings by individual high school instrumentalists. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51, 3270A.

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Silkebakken, D. L. (1988). The effect of conductor visual attributes on the observer’s evaluation of conducting performance. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 3197A. Sousa, G. (1988). Musical conducting emblems: An investigation of the use of specific conducting gestures and their interpretation by instrumental performers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 2143A. (University Microfilms No. 8820356) VanWeelden, K. (2002). Relationships between perceptions of conducting effectiveness and ensemble performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 50, 165–176. Wapnick, J., Darrow, A. A., Kovacs, J., & Dalrymple, L. (1997). Effects of attractiveness on evaluation of vocal performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45, 470–479. Woody, R. H. (2002). The relationship between musicians’ expectations and their perception of expressive features in an aural model. Research Studies in Music Education, 18, 53–61. Woody, R. H. (2006). The effect of various instructional conditions on expressive music performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 54, 21–36. Yarbrough, C. (1975). Effects of magnitude of conductor behavior on students in selected mixed choruses. Journal of Research in Music Education, 23, 134–146. Yarbrough, C., & Hendel, C. (1993). The effect of sequential patterns on rehearsal evaluations of high school and elementary students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41, 246–257.

Author biography Jessica Napoles is Associate Professor of Choral Music Education at the University of Utah, where she teaches coursework in Choral Methods and Choral Rehearsal Techniques and conducts the Women's Chorus. Her research interests include teacher talk, conducting, and issues related to teacher communication.

Abstracts Les influences des modes de presentation de la performance chorale expressive sur les perceptions des etudiants de musique a l’ecole secondaire Le but de cette étude était d’examiner l’influence des modes de présentation (audio et visuel) sur les perceptions de la performance chorale expressive. Le stimulus sonore enregistré comprenait quatre sélections de chorales, chacune menée par un conducteur de deux manières différentes: en utilisant des gestes expressifs et en utilisant des gestes avec des restrictions. Trois groupes de participants (a) ont écouté les huit extraits audio, ou (b) ont écouté et regardé le conducteur de l’arrière, ou (c) écouté et regarder le conducteur de l’avant. Ils ont ensuite répondu aux questions concernant l’expressivité, la qualité sonore, et l’impression générale de la performance chorale. Les résultats indiquent des différences significatives entre les modes de présentation et les styles de conduir l’orchestre. Les participants ont évalué en plus haut dégrés les performances réalisées avec un geste expressif par rapport a celles réalisées avec un geste avec des restrictions dans tous les trois modes de présentation.

Influencias de los modos de presentación de las interpretaciones corales en las percepciones expresivas de los músicos en Secundaria El propósito de este estudio fue examinar las influencias de los modos de presentación (auditivia y visual) sobre las percepciones expresivas de las interpretaciones corales. La grabación empleada como estímulo comprendía cuatro selecciones corales, cada una dirigida por un director diferente y empleando dos estilos de dirección: utilizando gestos expresivos y sin expresión, rígidamente.

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Hubo tres grupos participantes, cada uno de los cuales: a) escuchó los ocho fragmentos de audio; b) escuchó y vio al director de espaldas; c) escuchó y vio al director de frente. Después respondieron a preguntas sobre expresividad, calidad tonal, y su impresión global sobre la interpretación coral. Los resultados indican la existencia de diferencias significativas entre los diferentes modos de presentación y el estilo de dirección. Los participantes puntuaron más altas las interpretaciones con dirección expresiva que las que no lo eran en los tres modos de presentación.

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