2014 Vol. 38. No. 4

© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek Toruń 2014

ISSN 1732-6729 ISBN 978-83-8019-051-1

Prenumeratę instytucjonalną można zamawiać w oddziałach firmy Kolporter S.A. na terenie całego kraju. Informacje pod numerem infolinii 801 205 555 lub na stronie internetowej http://www.kolporter-spolka-akcyjna.com.pl/prenumerata.asp WYDAWNICTWO ADAM MARSZAŁEK, ul. Lubicka 44, 87-100 Toruń tel./fax 56 648 50 70; tel. 56 660 81 60, 56 664 22 35 e-mail: [email protected] www.marszalek.com.pl Drukarnia nr 1, ul. Lubicka 46, 87-100 Toruń, tel. 56 659 98 96

CONTENTS

Stanisław Juszczyk Editor’s Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

„ SOCIAL PEDAGOGY María José Latorre Medina, Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda Professional Ethics Training in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Katarína Hollá Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová Social Non-Economic Effects of Education on The Level of Crime . . . . . . . 43 Milena Lipnická Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of Inclusive Pre-Primary Education for Children from Marginalized Roma Communities . . . . . . . . . 57 Zlata Vašašová, Erika Lipková Relationship between Creativity and Perfectionism in Secondary School Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Lenka Slepičková, Michaela Kvapilová Bartošová Ethical and Methodological Associations in Doing Research on Children in a School Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Grażyna Szafraniec Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Andrea Jindrová, Hana Vostrá Vydrová Lifelong education at the Faculty of Economics and Management at the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

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Contents

Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Katarzyna Kowalczewska-Grabowska Health Pedagogy at the University of Silesia (Katowice, Poland) Diagnosis and evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

„ PEDEUTOLOGY Roman Švaříček Verbal and Visual Strategies of Teachers’ Work on Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Andrysová Pavla, Martincová Jana, Hana Včelařová Pedagogical Condition at Undergraduate Teacher Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Anna Romanowska-Tołłoczko, Bianka Lewandowska Emotional Intelligence as a Predisposition to Pursue the Teaching Profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Eunika Baron-Polańczyk The Model of the Continuum of Teachers’ learning Environment A Cloud or a Silo? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Tatyana Noskova, Tatiana Pavlova, Olga Yakovleva, Nina Sharova Communicative Competence Development for Future Teachers . . . . . . . . 189 Betsy Kanarowski, Susan S. Johnston Influences of a Short Term International Field Experience on Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions and Cultural Competency . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Alina Szczurek-Boruta Multidimensionality of Learning – a Report from some Studies Among Candidates for Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

„ GENERAL DIDACTICS Juan Arias-Masa, Laura Alonso-Díaz, Sixto Cubo-Delgado, Prudencia Gutiérrez-Esteban, Rocío Yuste-Tosina Assessment of the Use of Synchronous Virtual Classrooms in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Contents

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H. Binterová, V. Petrášková, O. Komínková The CLIL Method Versus Pupils’ Results in Solving Mathematical Word Probelms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Hao-Chiang Koong Lin, Sheng-Hsiung Su, Yi-Chun Hsieh, Shang-Chin Tsai Impacts of Affective Tutoring System on the Academic Achievement of Primary School Students with Different Cognitive Styles – An Example of Marine Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Agata Chudzicka-Czupała, Małgorzata Chrupała-Pniak, Damian Grabowski Why May Teachers Become Cynical at Work? Predictors of Organizational Cynicism Among Polish Teachers – Research Report . . . . 262 Lucia Lacková Protective Factors of University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

„ CHRONICLE Anna Waligóra-Huk Monograph Review: Stanislaw Juszczyk (ed.), European Education and Training) Systems, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszalek, Toruń 2014, 337 p., English, ISBN 978-83-8019-017-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

CONTRIBUTORS

Alonso-Díaz Laura (PhD.)

Education. Junior Lecturer, position, University of Extremadura, Avd. De la Universidad s/n, 10003 Cáceres, Spain

e-mail: [email protected]

Arias-Masa Juan (PhD.)

Computing. Senior Lecturer, University of Extremadura, Avda. Santa Teresa de Jornet, 38, 06800 - Mérida (Badajoz), Spain

e-mail: [email protected]

Andrysová Pavla, (Mgr. Ph.D.)

Department of Pedagogical Sciences, e-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Humanities, Thomas Bata Univerzity in Zlin, Address: nám. T. G. Masaryka 1279, 760 01 Zlín, Czech Republic

Baron-Polańczyk Eunika (PhD. hab.)

University of Zielona Gora, ul. prof. Z. Szafrana 4, 65-516 Zielona Góra, Poland

Binterová H. (Doc., RNDr., PhD.,)

Faculty of Education, University of South e-mail: [email protected], Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Website: http://www.pf.jcu.cz/ stru/katedry/m/binter.html

Blanco Encomienda Francisco Javier (PhD., Associate Professor)

University of Granada, Faculty of Education e-mail: [email protected] and Humanities, Campus Universitario de Ceuta, 51002, Ceuta, Spain

[email protected]

Borzucka-Sitkiewicz University of Silesia, Faculty of Pedagogy Katarzyna (PhD. and Psychology, address: ul. Grażyńskiego Hab) 53, 40-126 Katowice, Poland

e-mail: [email protected], Website: www.us.edu.pl

Chrupała-Pniak Małgorzata (PhD.)

University of Silesia, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, address: ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice, Poland

e-mail: [email protected]

Chudzicka-Czupała Agata (PhD.)

University of Silesia, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, address: ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice, Poland

e-mail: [email protected]

Cubo-Delgado Sixto Psychology. Senior Lecturer, position, (PhD.) University of Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas S/N, 06006 Badajoz, Spain

e-mail: [email protected]

Grabowski Damian (PhD.)

University of Silesia, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, address: ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice, Poland

e-mail: damian.grabowski@ us.edu.pl

Gutiérrez-Esteban Prudencia (PhD.)

Education. Junior Lecturer, position, University of Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas S/N, 06006 Badajoz, Spain

e-mail: [email protected]

8

Contributors

Hao-Chiang Koong Lin Ph.D., Professor

Department of Information and Learning e-mail: [email protected]. Technology, National University of Tainan, tw 33 Sec. 2, Shu-Lin Street, Tainan City 70005, Taiwan

Hollá Katarína (PaedDr., PhD.)

Department of Pedagogy, Faculty of Education, Constantine The Philosopher University in Nitra, Drážovská 4, 949 01 Nitra, Slovak Republic

e-mail: [email protected]

Hroncová Vicianová Faculty of Economics, Matej Bel University, e-mail: jana.hroncova@umb. Jana (Ing. PhD.) Department of Public Economics and sk Regional Development, Tajovského 10, 975 90 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic Hronec Štefan (Doc. Faculty of Economics, Matej Bel University, e-mail: [email protected] Ing. PhD.) Department of Public Economics and Regional Development, Tajovského 10, 975 90 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic Jindrová Andrea (Ing. PhD.,)

Department of Statistics, Kamycka 129, e-mail: [email protected], Prague 6 – Suchdol, 165 21, Czech Republic Web: http://wp.czu.cz/cs/ index. php/?r=1071&mp=person. info&idClovek=6586

Johnston Susan S. (Prof. PhD.)

University of Utah, Department of Special e-mail: susan.johnston@utah. Education, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, 1721 edu Campus Center Drive SAEC 2280, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, 801-440-3360 (cell)

Kanarowski Betsy

University of Utah, Department of Special Education, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, 1721 Campus Center Drive SAEC 2280, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, 801-440-3360 (cell)

Komínková, O. (Mgr.)

Faculty of Education, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic,

e-mail: kominkova.olga@ zsbites.cz, Website: http:// www.pf.jcu.cz/stru/ katedry/m/binter.html

Kowalczewska-Grabowska Katarzyna (PhD.)

University of Silesia, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, address: ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice, Poland

e-mail: [email protected], Website: www.us.edu.pl

Kvapilová Bartošová Office for Population Studies, Faculty of Michaela Social Studies, Masaryk University, Jostova 10, Brno, Czech Republic, tel: +420 549 493 310

e-mail: [email protected], http://ups.fss.muni.cz/

Lacková Lucia, (PhD. Katedra pedagogické a školní psychologie, e-mail: [email protected], PhDr.) Pedagogická fakulta, Ostravská univerzita v tel. 597092693 Ostravě,  Fráni Šrámka 3, 709 00 OstravMariálnské Hory, Czech Republic

Contributors

9

Latorre Medina University of Granada, Faculty of Education e-mail: [email protected] María José (PhD., and Humanities, Campus Universitario de Associate Professor) Ceuta, 51002, Ceuta, Spain Lewandowska Bianka Departament of Psychology, University of (PhD.) Wrocław, 50-527 Wrocław, Dawida St. 1, Poland

e-mail: b.lewandowska@ psychologia.uni.wroc.pl

Lipková Erika

Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University, Department of Psychology, Ružová 13, 974 11 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic

Lipnická Milena (PaedDr. PhD.)

Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University, Department of Elementary and Pre-school Pedagogy, Ružová 13, 974 11 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic

Martincová Jana (Mgr.)

Department of Pedagogical Sciences, e-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Humanities, Thomas Bata Univerzity in Zlin, Address: nám. T. G. Masaryka 1279, 760 01 Zlín, Czech Republic

e-mail: milena.lipnicka@umb. sk

Mikušová Meričková Faculty of Economics, Matej Bel University, e-mail: beata.merickova@ Beáta (prof. Ing. Department of Public Economics and umb.sk PhD.) Regional Development, Tajovského 10, 975 90 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic Noskova Tatiana (Prof. PhD.)

e-mail: info@fit-herzen.ru Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Dean of the Faculty of Information Technology, Head of the Chair of Informatization of Education, Nab. R. Moiki, 48, Saint-Petersburg, 191186, Russia

Pavlova Tatiana (PhD.)

Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Nab. R. Moiki, 48, Saint-Petersburg, 191186, Russia

e-mail: [email protected], Website: http://www.herzen. spb.ru/main/structure/ fukultets/fit/1381429641/1381 435451/1381436479/

Petrášková V. (RNDr., Faculty of Education, University of South e-mail: [email protected], PhD.) Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic Website: http://www.pf.jcu.cz/ stru/katedry/m/petrasek.html RomanowskaTołłoczko Anna (PhD.)

Departament of Pedagogy, University School of Physical Education, 51-612 Wrocław, Paderewskiego St.35, Poland

e-mail: [email protected]

Shang-Chin Tsai

Department of Information and Learning e-mail: maney100@hotmail. Technology, National University of Tainan, com 33 Sec. 2, Shu-Lin Street, Tainan City 70005, Taiwan

Sharova Nina

Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Nab. R. Moiki, 48, Saint-Petersburg, 191186, Russia

e-mail: sharova.n.n@gmail. com

10

Contributors

Sheng-Hsiung Su

Department of Information and Learning e-mail: [email protected] Technology, National University of Tainan, 33 Sec. 2, Shu-Lin Street, Tainan City 70005, Taiwan

Slepičková Lenka

Office for Population Studies, Faculty of Social Studies, Masaryk University, Jostova 10, Brno, Czech Republic, tel: +420 549 493 310

Švaříček Roman

Department of Educational Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Arna Nováka 1, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic

Szafraniec Grażyna (PhD.)

University of Silesia, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, address: ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice, Poland

e-mail: lenka.slepickova@ gmail.com, http://ups.fss. muni.cz/

Szczurek-Boruta University of Silesia, Faculty of Education, Alina (Prof. UŚ, PhD. Institute of Education, 43-400 Cieszyn, ul. Hab.) Bielska 62, Poland

e-mail: [email protected]

Vašašová Zlata (doc. Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University, PhDr. PhD.) Department of Psychology, Ružová 13, 974 11 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic

e-mail: [email protected]

Včelařová Hana (PhD.)

Department of Pedagogical Sciences, e-mail: [email protected] Faculty of Humanities, Thomas Bata Univerzity in Zlin, Address: nám. T. G. Masaryka 1279, 760 01 Zlín, Czech Republic

Yakovleva Olga (PhD.)

Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Saint-Petersburg, Nab. R. Moiki, 48, Saint-Petersburg, 191186, Russia

Yi-Chun Hsieh

Department of Information and Learning e-mail: erica0809tw@yahoo. Technology, National University of Tainan, com.tw 33 Sec. 2, Shu-Lin Street, Tainan City 70005, Taiwan

Yuste-Tosina Rocío (PhD.)

Education. Assistant Lecturer, position, University of Extremadura, Avd. De la Universidad s/n, 10003 Cáceres, Spain

e-mail: o.yakovleva.home@ gmail.com, Website: http:// www.herzen.spb.ru/main/ structure/fukultets/fit/138142 9641/1381435451/1381436 479/

e-mail: [email protected]

Stanisław Juszczyk

Editor’s Preface The fourth number of The New Educational Review in 2014 is the thirty eighth issue of our journal since the start of its foundation in 2003. In this issue there are mainly papers from: the Czech Republic, China, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Taiwan, and the USA, because our journal is open for presentation of scientific papers from all over the world. In the present issue the Editors’ Board have proposed the following subject sessions: Social Pedagogy, Pedeutology, General Didactics, and Chosen Aspects of Psychology. The subject session “Social Pedagogy” consists of ten articles. The research by María José Lattorre Medina and Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda addresses their issue in the context of aspiring professionals currently undergoing training, and aims to determine the attitudes and perceptions of students in response to certain key ethical issues. In her article, Katarína Hollá describes what forms pupils in the Slovak Republic use to perpetrate cyberaggression and through what forms they are victimized. The aim of the study by Štefan Hronec and his co-workers is to quantitatively analyse and confirm the existence of a relationship of direct and indirect dependence between the number of crimes committed and selected factors such as expenditure on education, educational structure of population, average length of study and unemployment rate. Theoretical considerations, research findings and practical experiences of teachers are used by Milena Lipnická to formulate key actions for successful pre-primary education for children from marginalized Roma communities in the process of inclusive education. The goal of the study described by Zlata Vašašová and Erika Lipková is to examine the relationship, including its nature, between creativity and perfectionism in secondary school students. In their article, Lenka Slepičková and Michaela Kvapilová Bartošová discuss the new paradigm in social research on children, accepting the child as an important social actor, which has its methodological and ethical consequences.

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Stanisław Juszczyk

In the subject session “Pedeutology” we publish eight articles. The paper by Roman Švaříček describes qualitative research which studied six teachers from their professional beginnings to the present position of an experienced – expert – teacher. The aim of the research by Andrysová Pavla and her co-workers is to enrich the existing form of pedagogical programmes by adding a new dimension of personality development, which we want to achieve through psychosomatic disciplines. Anna Romanowska-Tołłoczko and Bianka Lewandowska have conducted a study on the emotional intelligence among the students of the Academy of Physical Education in Wrocław. The article by Eunika Baron-Polańczyk presents a multi-dimensional model of a continuum in educational environment concerning teachers’ activity in the postmodern world, inundated with rapidly developing information and communication technologies. Grażyna Szafraniec, in her article, demonstrates the research results that she collected while carrying out the programme of “Psychopedagogical diagnostics” with students of the Institute of Education of the University of Silesia in Katowice. The paper by Andrea Jindrová and Hana Vostrá Vydrová describes and analyses one of the main stages of lifelong learning, which is the adult education at the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague. In their contribution Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz and Katarzyna Kowalczewska-Grabowska outline the development of the specialized Health Pedagogy programme at the University of Silesia, and students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of educational experience. The main scientific focus of the paper by Tatyana Noskova and her co-workers is the new pedagogical knowledge about the educational activities content and organization for the development of future teachers, communicative competence, together with the new aspects of educational communication, implemented in the modern information environment. The qualitative study conducted by Betsy Kanarowski and Susan S. Johnston investigates a ten-day international field experience in Peru and its influence on undergraduate and graduate level teacher education students’ cultural competency. In her article Alina Szczurek-Boruta describes extensive multivariate studies conducted in some academic centres of Poland which differ in locationand socioeconomic potential. In the subject session “General Didactics” we publish three articles. The paper presented by Juan Arias-Masa and his co-workers describes the characteristic of a study conducted on Synchronous Virtual Classrooms, virtual spaces which harbour such resources as videoconferences, shared desk-tops, etc. H. Bitnerová and her co-workers characterize results of empirical investigation conducted in one elementary school in connection with the implementation of mathematics teaching in English using the CLIL method. The study described by Hao-Chiang Koong Lin and his co-workers is trying to use the affective tutoring system with

Editor’s Preface

13

emotional calculating technology in the activity of the shell education program. The result is used to study the academic achievement of students with different cognitive styles and system usability. In the subject session “Chosen Aspects of Psychology” we publish two articles. The manuscript by Agata Chudzicka-Czupała and her co-workers presents an exploratory study on the possible sources of organizational cynicism among Polish teachers. Lucia Lacková and Fráni Šrámka discuss protective factors of university students, among which the individual’s personality plays an important role. We hope that this edition, like previous ones, will encourage new readers not only from the Central European countries to participate in an open international discussion. On behalf of the Editors’ Board I would like to invite representatives of different pedagogical sub-disciplines and related sciences to publish their texts in The New Educational Review, according to the formal requirements placed on our website: www.educationalrev.us.edu.pl – Guide for Authors.

Social Pedagogy

María José Latorre Medina, Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda Spain

Professional Ethics Training in Higher Education

Abstract Recent years have witnessed particular awareness of, and societal demand for, professional ethics. Increasing emphasis is being placed on the importance of including ethical considerations in university education, and on the decisive role played by universities in achieving rounded professional development. The ethical aspects of professional practice are seen to be essential for producing competent, effective professionals. The presented research addresses this issue in the context of aspiring professionals currently undergoing training, and aims to determine their attitudes and perceptions in response to certain key ethical issues. To this end, a mixed research methodology (first qualitative, and subsequently quantitative) was employed. The results reveal important pedagogical issues to be taken into account when designing professional training programmes, in line with the current trajectory of university didactics. Keywords: professional ethics, training, university

Introduction The presented paper is based on three prior assumptions. The first is that professional training for university students has been predominated by cognitive and technical content. This has led to a growing concern for providing a high quality education that should include, in addition, ethical training, which traditionally has been rather overlooked (Martínez, Buxarrais and Esteban, 2002) or at least has taken an implicit role, in deference to equipping students with technical

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María José Latorre Medina, Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda

skills. Specifically, as Bolívar (2005) warned, there is a worrying deficit in Higher Education in terms of preparing students morally and ethically for their chosen professions. Fortunately, there are now increasing calls to include such training in any university curriculum. The work of Esteban, Buxarrais and Mellen (2013) makes an important contribution in this regard. The second premise of the presented paper is that professional ethics, as a significant and necessary aspect of a rounded university education, can and should be taught explicitly at university. The attitudes and values that a professional from any sphere needs to have are not innate, but rather must be learned and, therefore, taught. In other words it should not be assumed that each new professional will begin exercising their profession responsibly, fairly and respectably purely on the basis of intuition, without previously having been provided with notions, tools and approaches that they can draw on as references (García, Sales, Moliner and Ferrández, 2009). The third assumption goes still further, and is based on the works by Agejas, Parada and Oliver (2007) and Carr (2006). In the former work, notably the authors affirm that “there can be no professional competence without ethical competence” (ibid. p.80); all professionals carry an ethical–social obligation, by the very social nature of human beings, which must not be overlooked or forgotten when preparing future generations of professionals. The ethical aspects of professional practice are therefore essential if students are to become competent and effective professionals, as asserted by Rubacha and Chomczyńska-Rubacha (2013) in one of their recent studies. As outlined in the literature, these premises are of particular relevance if one considers how employers trust those universities that train the employees of the future in all three dimensions (theoretical, technical and ethical) (Agejas et al., 2007). This means questioning the functions of the university in the present-day context, i.e., their capacity to provide training in professional ethical competence. While higher education has always been charged with educating future professionals in diverse areas of knowledge, nowadays it must also take care to produce genuine citizens, who are responsible and ethically committed to the social realities that surround them (Escámez, Ortega and Martínez, 2005).

Societal demands for ethically-aware professionals There is a growing societal awareness of, and demand for, ethics among the professions (Hirsch, 2003). There is also an increasing emphasis on the need to

Professional Ethics Training in Higher Education

19

include the ethical dimension in professional training and in the scientific and social research field. Within this context there has been a gradual introduction of content devoted to professional ethics and deontological concerns on university degree programmes. For instance, in some universities the delivery of subjects related to professional ethics has been made mandatory across all programmes. According to the work of De Vicente et al. (2006), one of the fundamental aims of a university education is to train the professionals of the future. As well as theoretical and practical competences, professionalism comprises ethical professional conduct, as typically demanded by citizens and clients alike. Professionals who have received their training at university should possess the ethical principles and moral standards that help (along with the appropriate professional knowledge) to guarantee excellent service. Universities unquestionably play a decisive role in producing well-rounded professionals. This not only requires that these institutions deliver discipline-based knowledge; being well-rounded also implies that future professionals themselves must understand that their work will only truly make sense if it betters the life of others and of society as a whole. This scenario begs the question of how universities, as institutions, communities, and learning organizations, might create a suitable framework for self-organization that fits with the emerging social, political, economic and technological needs (García et al., 2009). In turn, this calls for training of professionals to be reviewed in two key aspects: students’ preparation for professional practice and their ethical education.

Aim of the study The main aim of the presented research is to identify the attitudes and opinions of university students, as future professionals, regarding certain competences related to professional ethics. The paper also aims to establish if certain variables regarding the identity of the sample have a differentiating effect on these opinions. Within the context of these broad objectives, the following hypotheses are put forward: 1. There is a significant association between the gender of the students surveyed and their opinions regarding ethical professional competences. 2. There is a significant association between the age of the students surveyed and their perceptions of professional ethics. 3. There is a significant association between combining work with study and the attitudes of the students surveyed regarding professional ethics.

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María José Latorre Medina, Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda

Methodology The study, undertaken by the University of Granada (Spain), was structured around two distinct but complementary phases. The first phase was exploratory in nature and addressed qualitative data-collection, beginning with a group dialogue session organized over the course of two seminars. Analysis of the information that was gathered enabled the researchers to refine the design for the data-collection tool to be used in the second, quantitative, phase of research. This latter stage took a survey-based approach, applying statistical tests (Creswell, 2008) to confirm, or otherwise, the research hypotheses.

The qualitative phase Qualitative research plays a particularly important role in the early stages of any study, thanks to its exploratory nature. The techniques associated with the qualitative approach are typically based on smaller groups of subjects or experts who are invited to share information that will subsequently be analysed via larger samples using quantitative techniques (Rabadán and Ato, 2003). Meanwhile, the group dialogue session is the most flexible methodology offering the greatest scope to adapt to any topic or situation. In this approach, participants’ views are drawn together to form an overall sense of the collective opinion in the room. For these reasons the presented research began with data-collection from two such sessions. More specifically, this first phase of research consisted of analysing the responses of the participants to three key questions: 1) what does it mean to be a good professional?; 2) are the ethical aspects of professional practice essential to being a competent and effective professional?; and 3) should all university degrees include an assignment on professional ethics? Once these sessions were complete, analysis categories were established for each question and each group. Significant pedagogical conclusions and implications were derived from this analysis, which can contribute to designing improved professional training.

The quantitative phase The method used for this phase of the research was a survey aimed at a representative sample of the target population for the study, comprising students at the

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Professional Ethics Training in Higher Education

University of Granada, Spain. The sample consisted of 182 students, selected via simple random sampling. Sample description Of the 182 students in the sample, 61.5% were women, and 27.5% of the sample combined study with employment. As regards the age range of the overall sample, 65.4% were between 18 and 22 years old, 23.1% were between 23 and 27, and 7.7% were between 28 and 32. The following graph shows the distribution of the respondents by age range.

Graph 1. Sample distribution by the age of respondent 70%

65.4%

60% 50% 40% 23.1%

30% 20%

7.7% 3.8%

10% 0% 18-22 years

23-27 years

28-32 years

Over 32 years

Source: Own research

The data-collection instrument Data-collection was conducted using the ‘Questionnaire on Attitudes to Professional Ethics’. It comprised 55 statements, adapted from a baseline reference tool developed by Hirsch (2005) to reflect the information gathered in the previous phase of the research. A Likert scale was used, with four alternative responses (1= totally agree; 2= disagree; 3= agree; and 4= totally agree). The items covered by the questionnaire were based on four main areas of content referring to different aspects of professional competence, namely: • Cognitive competencies, divided into four dimensions: knowledge, training and professional competence; continuous development; innovation; and technical knowledge and skills.

María José Latorre Medina, Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda

22

• Social competencies, again comprising four elements: interpersonal relations; communication; team working; and capacity for hard work. • Ethical competencies, comprising six elements: responsibility; honesty; professional and personal ethics; acting out of a sense of providing society with a service; respect; and acting subject to moral principles and professional values. • Affective–emotional competencies, referring to two issues: identification with the profession, and emotional capacity.

Data Analysis In order to understand the students’ attitudes and perceptions, their responses to the questionnaire were analysed, along with the most significant interventions from the group sessions. During the qualitative phase of the study, two seminars were organised, attended by an average of 50 students per session. Each of the questions prompted a great diversity of responses, which were pulled together to form different categories for subsequent analysis. To systematize the responses, all of the words, phrases or definitions expressed by the students were analysed, and the responses sharing similar content were grouped together. Once these had been classified, the absolute frequencies and percentages were calculated. Next, the data from the questionnaire were examined statistically using SPSS software. First, a descriptive analysis was undertaken so as to achieve an overview of the results. A contingency analysis was then carried out to establish which identification variables from the sample presented a significant association with regard to gender, age and employment status.

Results This section describes the most significant results for each research phase, these forming the basis for subsequent conclusions. The qualitative phase Following the analysis of the two group sessions, it can be affirmed that for the majority of the students: • A good professional is a person characterized by demonstrating: the necessary knowledge to carry out their profession; and the necessary attitudes

Professional Ethics Training in Higher Education

23

(willingness to learn, take responsibility, initiative, commitment, flexibility, keenness to continuously develop) and values (honesty, responsibility, commitment, constancy) that enable them to exercise their work in a professional and competent manner. • The ethical aspects of professional practice are essential to being a competent, effective professional. The students asked for better information and training on this topic (notions, tools and working styles they can use to help guide them). • Professional ethics as course content/assignment. When asked about the need for an assignment devoted to professional ethics on all degree programmes, 73% of the future professionals considered it to be necessary; 9% thought not; and 18% were unsure. The quantitative phase Descriptive analysis

An initial examination of the data (averages and standard deviations) obtained for each of the items in the questionnaire reveals a degree of heterogeneousness in the students’ responses, with average scores for each of the items ranging between 1.19 and 3.84. There are also certain differences in the standard deviations with dispersion ranging between 0.372 and 0.961. Both intervals are indicative of a difference between the data obtained in the study. To arrive at an initial approximation of the students’ attitudes toward professional ethics, the highest average scores were taken into account. The highest average pertains to item “It is a major achievement to be doing professionally what I most enjoy” (X=3.84), closely followed by items: “I may need training in ethics so as to be able to deal with conflicts in my professional work” (X=3.81); “To exercise my profession well I cannot limit my development solely to technical skills” (X=3.80); and “I consider it essential to take into account ethical issues when exercising my profession” (X=3.77). It can also be observed that as well as presenting high average values these items also reached the lowest standard deviation values (between 0.372 and 0.419). This indicates that these variables not only attracted the respondents’ acceptance but also registered less variability of responses. In contrast to these data, as regards the lowest average scores, the lowest of all corresponds to item “The solution to the problems of society is a technical matter that does not require the citizens to be listened to” (X=1.19), followed by items: “So long as science and technology continue to make advances, there is no need to be concerned about their consequences” (X=1.38); “The solution to the problems of

María José Latorre Medina, Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda

24

society is not the job of professionals” (X=1.52); and “What mainly interests me in my profession are the money and prestige it can give me” (X=1.62). The latter is worth special attention as it presents one of the highest standard deviations for one of the lowest averages. These data demonstrate greater variability among the students’ responses. Examining the percentages for each of the response options, the majority of the future professionals in the sample said they totally disagreed with the notion that “The solution to the problems of society is a technical matter that does not require the citizens to be listened to” (84.6%) and with the statement: “The solution to the problems of society is not the job of professionals” (55.5%). Meanwhile, 81.3% of the respondents totally agreed that training in ethics is necessary to help them deal with conflicts in their professional work. The majority of the students totally agreed that in order to achieve good professional delivery they should not limit themselves to learning technical skills (79.7%), and considered it essential to take ethical aspects into account (77.5%). With weaker scores in the affirmative, 67.6% of the students agreed with the notion that they were acting as good professionals when showing sensitivity to the needs of others, as a job well done is worth nothing if it does not contribute to helping others (65.9%). The majority also asserted that there are certain ethical decisions that can arise in the course of their professional duties that are so important they should not be left only to the criteria of organizations (65.4%); and that to be a good professional they should not ignore the problems of society (64.3%). Contingency analysis

Contingency analyses revealed, firstly, which of the variables from the questionnaire presented a significant association with regard to the independent variable ‘gender’. Table 1 shows the significance of the relationships between these variables. Table 1. Significant relationship between the variable ‘gender’ and questionnaire items VARIABLES

χ2

I chose this career so as to be helpful to people

27.461**

I prefer working as part of a team because the result is of a higher quality

13.714**

I am convinced that in order to be a good professional I will have to make sacrifices 9.534* **p≤ 0.01 *p≤ 0.05 Source: Own research

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Professional Ethics Training in Higher Education

Internal analysis of the associations between the variables in Table 1 shows that choosing a given course of study and professional career in order to be of service to others, and the idea that to be a good professional one must make sacrifices, are significantly associated with the gender of the respondents. More female than male students agreed or totally agreed with these statements (78.6% and 86.6% vs. 42.8% and 70%, respectively). There is also a significant relationship between gender and the preference for team working; in this case it was the male students who believed that working as a team produces better quality results (70% vs. 50.9%, respectively). Secondly, Table 2 shows the results of the analysis to ascertain the significance of the relationships between the variable ‘age’ and each of the items in the questionnaire. Table 2. Significant relationship between the variable ‘age’ and questionnaire items VARIABLES

χ2

I am worried that I might end up doing my profession simply out of routine

18.139*

**p≤ 0.01 *p≤ 0.05 Source: Own research

Further internal analysis of the correspondence between different variables revealed that the concern regarding doing a profession purely out of routine was associated with the age of the respondent. For the majority of the students between 18 and 22 years of age (86.5%), this represented a major concern, while for those over 32 it was less of an issue (57.2%). Finally, Table 3 captures the significant relationships between the variable ‘combining work with study’ and each of the variables in the questionnaire. Table 3. Significant relationship between the variable ‘combining work with study’ and questionnaire items VARIABLES

χ2

Fulfilling my professional commitments on time is important

6.225*

Upholding confidentiality is important in professional life

4.656*

I should not take major professional decisions without first assessing their consequences

14.781**

**p≤ 0.01 *p≤ 0.05 Source: Own research

26

María José Latorre Medina, Francisco Javier Blanco Encomienda

These analyses demonstrated that there were more students combining employment with study (vs. those purely devoted to studying) who totally agreed that fulfilling professional commitments on time is important (56% vs. 35.6%, respectively). Similarly, the majority of the students working during their studies (54%) entirely agreed that upholding confidentiality is important in professional practice, vs. 36.4% of those who did not combine employment with study. Furthermore, 64% of those who combined work with study were totally in agreement that they should not take major professional decisions without first assessing their possible consequences, compared to 32.6% of those who were not employed while studying.

Conclusions and implications of the study A  number of interesting responses were gleaned from students regarding professional ethics, regarding: what it takes to be a good professional; the need to consider the ethical aspects of professional practice to become a competent, effective practitioner; and a call for professional ethics to be made a core assignment in all university degree programmes. In their attitudes toward professional ethics, the majority of the students highlighted the following issues. First, they considered that in order to exercise their profession effectively they could not limit themselves to developing only technical skills, but rather ethical aspects should also be taken into account as training in ethical considerations could be helpful in dealing with conflicts of professional nature. Second, virtually all the students affirmed that the solution to social problems also sits with professionals; and that major professional issues can be resolved by listening to others. Significant relationships were found to exist between the gender, the age and the employment status of the respondents and several variables from the questionnaire, relating to social, cognitive and ethical competencies. A significant pedagogical implication is derived from this research: the need to train students in key ethical issues that can be of enormous value when designing and delivering university courses. Being in favour of training in professional ethics means assimilating that if universities are to produce good professionals they must help students to become aware not only of which profession they wish to take up, but also what type of professional they aspire to be. On this premise, dual reflec-

Professional Ethics Training in Higher Education

27

tion is required with a view to enabling future professionals not only to learn their craft but also become ethically-aware citizens. Thus, as reflected in the presented paper, the ethical aspects of professional practice become essential for operating competently and effectively.

Acknowledgements: This work is supported by the Research Program from the

Faculty of Education and Humanities of Ceuta.

References Agejas, J.A., Parada, J.L., & Oliver, I. (2007). La enseñanza de la ética profesional en los estudios universitarios. Revista Complutense de Educación, 18 (2), 67 – 84. Bolívar, A. (2005). El lugar de la ética profesional en la formación universitaria. Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa, 10 (24), 93 – 123. Carr, D. (2006). Professional and Personal Values and Virtues in Education and Teaching. Oxford Review of Education, 32 (2), 171 – 183. Creswell, J. W. (2008). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: SAGE. De Vicente, P.S.  et al. (2006). Formación práctica del estudiante universitario y deontología profesional. Revista de Educación, 339, 711 – 744. Escámez, J., Ortega, P., & Martínez, M. (2005). Los valores de la educación en el espacio europeo de la enseñanza superior. In V. Esteban (Ed.), El Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior (pp. 165 – 198). Valencia: Universidad Politécnica de Valencia. Esteban, F., Buxarrais, M.R., & Mellen, T. (2013). What do University Teachers Think about the Teaching in Ethics and Citizenship in the European Higher Education Area? The New Educational Review, 32, 313 – 323. García, R., Sales, A., Moliner, O., & Ferrández, R. (2009). La formación ética profesional desde la perspectiva del profesorado universitario. Teoría de la Educación, 21 (1), 199 – 221. Hirsch, A. (2003). Elementos significativos de la ética profesional. In A. Hirsch & R. López (Coords.), Ética profesional e identidad institucional (pp. 27 – 42). México: Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa.

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Hirsch, A. (2005). Construcción de una escala de actitudes sobre ética profesional. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa, 7 (1). Retrieved 26/09/2011, from http://redie.uabc.mx/index.php/redie/article/view/125 Martínez, P. (2008). Cualitativa-mente. Los secretos de la investigación cualitativa. Madrid: Esic Editorial. Martínez, M., Buxarrais, M.R., & Esteban, F. (2002). Ética y formación universitaria. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación, 29, 19 – 43. Rabadán, R., & Ato, M. (2003). Técnicas cualitativas para investigación de mercados. Madrid: Pirámide. Rubacha, K. & Chomczyńska-Rubacha, M. (2013). Ethical Orientations and Sex in Teachers with Varied Educational Strategies. The New Educational Review, 33 (3), 237 – 246.

Katarína Hollá Slovak Republic

Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic

Abstract Cyberbullying is a behaviour of ever increasing occurrence. Methods of cyberbullying vary, from less serious to very serious forms. The aim of the research was to find out what forms pupils in the Slovak Republic use to perpetrate cyberaggression and through what forms they are victimized. The research was conducted on a sample of 696 pupils of elementary and secondary schools, using the research tool Cyberbullying and Online Aggression Survey Instrument (2010). It was proved that the simplest form of cyberbullying is gross insults posted on the Internet and the most difficult form is creation of websites and videos to cause emotional injury. Keywords: cyberbullying, typology of cyberbullying, forms of cyberbullying, cyberaggressor, cybervictim

Introduction Internet lack of inhibition, propensity for negative forms of behaviour, lack of interest and attention, possibility to contact people anywhere and at any timethese are only a few factors paving the way for cyberbullying. During the recent 10 years cyberbullying has become a serious social problem among youth worldwide. Cyberbullying via media is a relatively new phenomenon and researchers need more empirical research in this field. The study intends to point out to the forms of cyberbullying used by pupils (and on pupils) of elementary and secondary schools in the Slovak Republic.

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Katarína Hollá

1. Terminology of Cyberbullying Cyberbullying occurs on the basis of real relations among persons and provides space for bullying to continue offline. The issue of cyberbullying is dealt with by several scholars, scientists and researchers (B. Belsey, 2004; P. Smith, 2006; P. Aftab, 2006; H. Vandebosch, 2006, P. Agatston, 2007; J.J. Myers, 2011; S. Hinduja, J.W. Patchin, 2009, 2012; R.M. Kowalski, 2012). At present there is no term for cyberbullying adopted by consensus. Formally, this socio-pathological behaviour is defined as cyberbullying, but from the point of view of cultural, language and individual differences, the name differs (English cyberbullying, German cybermobbing, online bullying, electronic bullying, etc.). According to P. Agatston (2007), cyberbullying is a form of emotional attack (also referred to as relational aggression, i.e., a covert type of aggression causing damage of relationships and social exclusion) causing emotions of fear, isolation and humiliation in victims. S. Hinduja and J.W. Patchin (2009) define cyberbullying as wilful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers and other electronic devices. The authors admit that their definition is not perfect and could be supplemented by “repeated harm inflicted by the use of cell phones” (S. Hinduja and J.W. Patchin, 2012, p. 33). As the authors add, cyberbullying victims are twice as likely to attempt suicide compared to youth who did not experience cyberbullying. In connection with the use of information-communication technologies in the process of cyberbullying, the authors´ definition explicitly specifies repeated aggressive attacks using computers, mobile phones and other electronic devices. Cyberbullying as a term is not recognized worldwide. In their 2012 research into cyberbullying, Microsoft used the term online bullying, which extends bullying by repeated behaviour on the Internet and in text messages intended to tease, demean or harass someone technically less skilled (Microsoft, 2012). Building on the above premises, analysis of the terms cyber and online as the basic platform comes to the fore. The prefix cyber relates to a computer or computer virtual network, where online communication takes place. The term online denotes the state in which the equipment capable of control or communication with a computer is activated and prepared for operation. The term online refers not only to a computer, but to any devices capable of communication with a computer, thus also mobile phones. On the basis of this, the term online bullying can be considered more complex, since it involves negative behaviour via computers and compatible devices. Nevertheless, we prefer cyberbullying as the most widely used term in the world (cf. Hollá, K., 2013).

Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic

31

According to H.  Vandebosch and K.  Cleemput (2008), it is necessary to develop a clear definition of cyberbullying, which is congruent with the perceptions of pupils, because insufficient conceptual clearness may lead to situations where the scientists and respondents perceive the phenomenon differently. Based on the analysis of the definitions, we explicate cyberbullying as aggressive behaviour including harassment, threats, stalking, humiliation and other negative behaviour of a child or adolescent towards a victim or victims, through repeated attacks via computer, mobile phone and other electronic devices, the content of which causes emotional injury (Hollá, K., 2013, p. 17). 1.1. Typology of Cyberbullying There are various methods of cyberbullying perpetrated by children and adolescents. New technologies provide a platform for the ways of bullying, teasing and bothering victims. Knowing how an online attack can be made gives room to caution in the process of online communication. N. Willard (2007) compiled a comprehensive classification of online attacks: • online flaming – attacks via electronic messages in social discussion groups, with insulting and vulgar contents; • online harassment – frequent and repeated sending of impertinent and offensive messages; • denigration – spreading derogatory statements, fabrications and gossip about the victim; • impersonating – insulting messages seemingly coming from the victim, this in the effort to get that person in trouble or to threaten or damage that person’s reputation and relationships; • outing – posting and spreading intimate and embarrassing information, images and videos via the Internet and mobile technologies; • trickery – tricking the victim into disclosing secrets and personal information as well as potentially embarrassing information; • exclusion – exclusion from online groups, chat-rooms, rejection of online communication; • stalking – abusing online communication to harass and intimidate chosen users. The above forms of cyberbullying are identical, having, however, their own specifics. Harassment and stalking are two related forms. The former is an online attack perpetrated by a child or adolescent, in difference from stalking which usually occurs among adults. The difference between harassment and stalking lies also in the number of contacts (contacts made) between the harassed and the harassing

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individual. While harassment is one incident, cyberstalking is characterized by several incidents (Hollá, K., 2013). In terms of the nature of attacks, cyberbullying can be perpetrated by direct attacks or indirect attacks, i.e. by mediated attacks causing social isolation and exclusion. Direct attacks include online provocation, harassment, denigration, impersonation, disclosure, social exclusion. The process of cyberbullying involves the attacker or attackers directly. Another method is mediated attacks, where the aggressor acts in the role of instigator and has the “dirty job” done by others. Cyberbullying also includes behaviours that may be categorized from less serious up to very serious by their impact on the victim. Inspired by S. Hinduja and J.W. Patchin (2009, p. 164), we propose the following distribution of cyberbullying behaviours: Picture 1. Categorization of Cyberbullying Forms (according to Hinduja, S., Patchin, J.W., 2009, p. 164) Less serious • online flaming • exclusion • denigration

Moderately serious • impersonating • outing • trickery

Very serious • happy slapping • online harassment • stalking • death threats

Online attacks with insulting and vulgar contents may be included in the less serious cyberbullying behaviour. Repeated neglect, no response to Chat Room messages, exclusion from an online group and from friends may also be included in less the serious behaviour. The category of moderately serious behaviour includes theft of identity, user names, passports, dates of birth and personal data. Their abuse may take the form of cyberbullying (e.g., impersonation when a person insidiously obtains passwords of the chosen victim and sends unbecoming, offensive and often even threatening messages to others in the chosen victim’s name); they are frequently connected with frauds. In the Slovak Republic, identity theft is not a crime, but specific behaviours are a part of prosecution. Moderately serious behaviour includes forwarding unbecoming and embarrassing images, photographs and videos. This consequently leads to disclosure of secrets and disparagement of the person displayed.

Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic

33

Spreading information, rumours and denigration via the Internet and electronic devices are the last manifestations of online attacks in this category. Physical threats and assaults typical of happy slapping are serious cyberbullying behaviours. Online stalking includes repeated and unreasonable monitoring of the victim via the Internet, harassing and controlling text messages, instant messages, calls, etc., while the victim fears for his/her life. Death threats via the Internet also cause the victim physical and emotional injury. In combination with other online attacks and individual personality and social determinants, this cyberbullying form can cause suicidal behaviour in the victim.

2. Research 2.1. Research Object and Research Questions The research object was forms of cyberbullying, perpetrated by cyberaggressors and experienced by cybervictims. The aim of empirical research was to find out which forms are used by pupils for perpetration of cyberaggression and by which forms they are victimized. The following research questions were posed referring to the main aim: • What is the difficulty of the cyberaggressor´s cyberbullying forms? • What is the difficulty of the cyberbullying forms for the victim? • What is the value of the latent variables: cyberaggressor, cybervictim? 2.2. Research Sample 696 pupils from 26 schools across the Slovak Republic participated in the research. The sample consisted of n = 302 (43.33%) boys and n = 394 (56.53%) Picture 2. Numbers of Pupils by the Region

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girls at the age of 11 – 18. The average age of the respondents was 15 (SD=2.04). The pupils participating in the research attended elementary schools (42%) and secondary schools (58%). 2.3. Research Methods and Methodology The research was done using the research tool Cyberbullying and Online Aggression Survey Instrument (2010) by S. Hinduja and J.W. Patchin. The authors of the research tool gave their consent to the use of the questionnaire for the research in the Slovak Republic. The research was conducted in the school year 2012/2013 and involved 26 elementary and secondary schools across the Slovak Republic. Cyberbullying and Online Aggression Survey Instrument (2010) is a tool mapping the occurrence of cyberbullying and online aggression forms from the point of view of the cyberaggressor and the cybervictim, using a Likert scale (0 – not at all, 1 – once, 2 – sometimes, 3 – often, 4 – every day). The tool was chosen deliberately and used as a pilot empirical investigation for subsequent standardization of the research tool in the Slovak Republic. For statistical evaluation, the Item Response Theory (IRT) was used. The aim of IRT is to estimate the value of a latent variable on the basis of respondents´ responses to items. In IRT, we were interested in the likelihood of the “correct” response to an item in dependence on the value of a latent variable reflecting the individual´s abilities. Observed variables consisted of questionnaire items and responses to them. In a one-parameter logistic regression model (1-PL), the conditional probability of a correct response to the item i for the given level of the latent variable ηj is determined by the relation: P ( yij = 1 |η j ) =

exp(βi + η j ) 1 + exp(βi + η j )

where we assume that the responses to an item for the given level of the latent variable ηj are conditionally independent.

3. Research Results and their Interpretation Partial aims were to estimate the difficulty of individual forms of cyberaggression for cyberaggressors and cybervictims. And also to estimate the value of latent variables (cyberaggressor, cybervictim) for each of the pupils, reflecting what their level of cyberaggression, or cybervictim was.

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Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic

3.1. Difficulty of Cyberaggression from the Perspective of the cyberaggressor The pupils were asked which of the given forms they used to cyberbully other persons: • gross offences posted on the Internet • gross and offensive photos posted on the Internet • gross and offensive videos posted on the Internet • creation of a gross and offensive website • posting untrue information on the Internet • threats of bodily harm via text messages • threats of bodily harm via the Internet • impersonating in the online environment and hurting others Table 1 shows ten most frequently occurring response patterns. It shows that up to 68.2% of the pupils did not use any of the above cyberbullying forms and 31.8% of the pupils used at least one form of an online attack against others. Table 1. Response Patterns for Cyberaggressors Pattern

Frequency

Pattern

Frequency

00000000

475

11001000

9

10000000

70

01000000

8

10001000

18

10000001

6

11111111

17

10100000

4

11000000

13

10000010

4

 

From among the specific forms, 10.0% of the pupils used gross offences on the Internet. It is quite interesting that 2.4% of the pupils used all forms of online attacks to cyberbully others in cyberspace. It is the fourth most frequently used pattern! The difficulty parameter of Table 2 items was estimated by the method of conditional maximum likelihood (CML). Table 2. Estimation of the Difficulty Parameter of the Cyberaggression Forms for the 1-PL Model by the CML Method Item Gross offences on the Internet

Parameter

Point estimate Standard Deviation

-β1

-2.776

0.195

Gross and offensive photos on the Internet

-β2

-0.592

0.184

Gross and offensive videos on the Internet

-β3

0.603

0.230

Katarína Hollá

36 Item

Parameter

Gross and offensive website

Point estimate Standard Deviation

-β4

1.522

0.287

Posting untrue information

-β5

-0.508

0.186

Threats of bodily harm via text messages

-β6

1.070

0.256

Threats of bodily harm via the Internet

-β7

0.650

0.232

Impersonating

-β8

0.032

0.204

The picture captures characteristic curves reflecting the probability of the use of the form considering the level and form of cyberaggression. Picture 3. Characteristic Curves of the Cyberaggression Forms Likelihood Gross insults on the Intenet Gross photos on the Intenet Gross videos on the Internet Gross website Untrue information Bodily injury via text messages Bodily injury via the Internet Impersonation cyberaggressor

It shows that the form gross offences on the Internet is considerably of the least difficulty (-2.776). In the case of this form, there is 50% likelihood that it will be used even by a pupil with a relatively low level of cyberaggression. Creation of a gross and offensive website is of the greatest difficulty (1.522). Values of the latent variable (cyberaggression) of pupils in 1-PL were estimated by the WLE method (Warm´s Weighted Likelihood Estimates). The total score is the sum of positive responses to the items. Table 3. Estimation of the Cyberaggressor Value Total score

Person’s parameter

Standard deviation

0

-3.963

1.860

1

-2.209

1.155

2

-1.187

0.931

37

Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic Total score

Person’s parameter

Standard deviation

3

-0.476

0.833

4

0.126

0.796

5

0.703

0.803

6

1.316

0.859

7

2.069

1.013

8

3.385

1.617

As seen in Table 3, 9 levels for cyberaggressors were obtained. Each level is characterized by a certain value. The levels are not in the same distance from each other! If persons with scores 1 and 2 are compared, the difference between them is 1. If comparing persons with scores 3 and 4, the difference is also 1. In the former case, the difference is more conspicuous (-2.209–(-1.187) =- 1.022) against (-0.476 – 0.126 =-0.602) considering the level of the latent variable. The above shows that there are up to 9 levels, types of aggressors, every aggressor displays a different type of attack using various forms. Differences between individual levels are not striking, nevertheless it is impossible not to identify a person using only one- relatively less serious – form as a cyberaggressor. 3.2. Difficulty of Cyberaggression Forms from the Perspective of the Victim In the case of cybervictims, the same procedure was used as for cyberaggressors. We tried to find out through which cyberaggression forms pupils become victims of this socio-pathological behaviour. Table 4. Response Patterns for Cybervictims Pattern

Frequency

Pattern

Frequency

00000000

394

11111111

12

10000000

41

11000000

12

10001000

39

00000001

9

00001000

19

11001001

8

10001001

15

10001110

7

 

Most frequently (56.6% of the cases) the pupils did not become victims of cyberbullying. In 5.89% of the cases, the pupils became cyberbullying victims through only one form, reading gross offenses on the Internet, and in 5.60% of

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the cases through the forms of gross offenses on the Internet and posting untrue information on the Internet at the same time. In 1.72% of the cases, all forms of cyberaggression were perpetrated on cybervictims. Table 5. Estimation of the Item Difficulty Parameter for the 1-PL Model Parameter

Point estimate

Standard deviation

-β1

-2.112

0.146

Gross and offensive photos on the Internet

-β2

-0.047

0.150

Gross and offensive videos on the Internet

-β3

1.541

0.222

Gross and offensive website

-β4

1.081

0.193

Posting untrue information

-β5

-1.392

0.137

Threats of bodily harm via text messages

-β6

0.776

0.178

Threats of bodily harm via the Internet

-β7

0.349

0.162

Impersonating

-β8

-0.197

0.147

Item Gross offences on the Internet

The estimates of the difficulty parameter for each of the items in Table 5 show that the least difficult to become a cybervictim is through the form of gross offences posted on the Internet and through the form of untrue online information. The most difficult to become a victim of cyberbullying is through gross and offensive videos posted on the Internet. Picture 3. Characteristic Curves of Cybervictim Forms Likelihood Gross insults on the Intenet Gross photos on the Intenet Gross videos on the Internet Gross website Untrue information Bodily injury via text messages Bodily injury via the Internet Impersonation Cybervictim

As with cyberaggressors, it showed that the form gross offences on the Internet is the least difficult (-2.112). The victims were attacked in the online environment also by other forms of relatively little difficulty: untrue information posted on the

39

Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic

Internet (-1.392) and hurting in the online environment by a manipulated identity of a close person (-0.197). However, the form gross videos on the Internet is of the greatest difficulty (1.541). 3.3. Estimation of Values of Latent Variables There were two latent variables- cyberaggressor and cybervictim- for each of the pupils. On that basis, we investigated whether there was any dependence between them. To assess the degree of dependence, the asymmetric correlation coefficientSommers´ D was used. The value of Sommers’D in the case that the cybervictim was a dependent variable and the cyberaggressor was an independent variable, was D = 0.409. In the case that the cyberaggressor was a dependent variable and the cybervictim was an independent variable, D = 0.312. The relationship between the cyberaggressors and the cybervictims proved to be significantly asymmetric (cf. Picture 4). Picture 4. Estimation of Dependence between the Cyberaggressor and the Cybervictim 4 3 2

Cybervictim

1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

-4

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

Cyberaggressor

The size of the bubble shows the numerousness of pupils in the given category. The case where the pupils achieved the lowest scores in the cyberaggression and the cybervictim were excluded from the graph. The degree of dependence is not the same in both directions. A higher value of cyberaggression manifested itself by the cybervictim’s higher value stronger that the cybervictim´s higher degree

40

Katarína Hollá

manifests itself by a cyberaggression higher value. It can be stated from the above that the aggressor tends to be also a victim more than the victim tends to be a strong aggressor.

4. Discussion and Conclusions The issue of cyberbullying is not new, but serious and not studied yet in the conditions of the Slovak Republic. The aim of the research was to find out what forms are used by pupils in cyberbullying and through what forms they become victims. Methods of cyberbullying vary, from gross online offence through untrue information, creation of an offensive video, discriminating photo to death threats via technologies. 31.8% of the pupils in the research sample used at least one form of an online attack against others. From among the specified forms, gross offences on the Internet occurred most frequently. The most frequently used form by cyberaggressors is the form of gross and offensive language in cyberspace (-2.776). It is the simplest way of perpetrating online attacks. In consequence, there is 50% likelihood that it will be also used by a pupil with a relatively low level of cyberaggression. Creation of a gross and offensive website is of the greatest difficulty (1.522). This is logical, due to the low availability of domains in the Slovak Republic, offered users free of charge. It is not common that elementary and secondary school pupils buy free domains. Cyberbullying is a powerful weapon in the hands of attack perpetrators. At present, children increasingly become cybervictims, not only in the European, but also non-European context. The results of our research indicate 43.4% of cases where the pupils became victims of cyberbullying. The pupils became victims of cyberbullying by reading gross offences on the Internet in 5.89%. 5.60% of the cases were attacked in the form of offence and posted untrue information at the same time. All forms of cyberaggression were perpetrated on cybervictims in 1.72% of the cases. Again, it was proved that gross and offensive language in cyberspace is the simplest method of attack. Another of the least difficult forms is posting untrue online information. The most difficult to become a cybervictim is through the form of a gross and offensive video on the Internet (1.541). The asymmetric relationship between cyberaggressors and cybervictims proved that the cyberaggressor more frequently becomes a strong victim of cyberbullying, contrary to the cybervictim who need not become an aggressor. If the cybervictim acts in the role of the aggressor, he/she uses less difficult forms for online attack.

Cyberbullying and its Forms in Pupils in the Slovak Republic

41

The above findings lead to challenging questions which we plan to take up a standpoint to in future: 1. The most frequent and the least difficult form of cyberbullying among pupils aged 11 – 18 was impertinent and offensive language on the Internet: a. Would the same form show also with young people aged 18 – 20, or 20+? b. Are there statistically significant differences in terms of gender? c. Are there statistically significant differences in terms of school? d. Are there statistically significant differences in terms of region? 2. From the point of view of the cyberaggressor, the most difficult form of cyberbullying among pupils aged 11 – 18 is creation of a gross and offensive website: a. Would the same indicator show among older respondents? b. Is there a  statistically significant difference (indicator) in terms of gender? From the point of view of the cybervictim, the most difficult form of cyber3. bullying among pupils aged 11 – 18 is posting an offensive and disparaging video on the Internet: a. Would the same indicator show among older respondents? b. Are there statistically significant differences in terms of gender? We have outlined some questions by means of which it is possible to analyze the issue of cyberbullying and its forms more deeply. The presented study, thus, becomes a stimulus for further theoretical research, methodology and educational practice.

References Aftab, P. (2006). Wired safety. Available at: http://wiredsafety.net. Agatston, P. et al. (2007). Students´ perspectives on Cyber Bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 59 – 60. Available at: http://www.wctlaw.com/CM/Custom/Students’%20Perspectives%20on%20Cyber%20Bullying.pdf Belsey, B. (2004). Cyberbullying. Available at: ‹http://www.cyberbully.ca. Hinduja, S., Patchin, W.J. (2009). Bullying beyond the schoolyard: Preventing and responding to cyber bullying. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Sage Publications. Hinduja, S., Patchin, W.J. (2012). Cyberbullying Prevention and Response. Expert Perspectives. New York: Routledge. p. 204. Hollá, K. (2013). Kyberšikana. Bratislava: Iris, p. 111. Kowalski, R.M. et al. (2012). Cyberbullying. Bullying in the Digital Age. WillayBlackwell.

42

Katarína Hollá

Microsoft Service Nerwork. (2006). MSN cyber bullying report: Blogging, instant messaging, and email bullying amongst today’s teens. Available at: www.msn. co.uk/cyber bullying. Myers, J.J. et al. (2011). Responding to cyber bullying. An Action Tool for School Leaders. CA: Corwin, p. 195. Smith, P.K. et al. (2006). An investigation into cyber bullying, its forms, awareness and impact, and the relationship between age and gender in cyber bullying. Research Brief No. RBX03 – 06. London: Department for Education and Science, 2006 (DfES). Stutzky, G.R. (2012). Cyber Bullying Information. Available at: http://www.ippsr. msu.edu/Documents/Forums/2006_Mar_CYBER_BULLYING_INFORMATION_2006%20--%20Provided%20by%20Mr.%20Glenn%20Stutzky.pdf. Vandebosch, H. et al. (2006). Cyberpesten bij jongeren in Vlaanderen, studie in opdrancht van het viWta. Available at: ‹http://www.viwta.be/files/Eindrapport_ cyberpesten_(nw).pdf› Vandebosch, H., van Cleemput, C. (2008). Defining Cyberbullying: A qualitative research into the perceptions of youngsters. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 11, 499 – 503.

The study was written within UGA/15/2014”Standardization of the Questionnaire “Cyberbullying and Online Aggression” (S. Hinduja, J.W. Patchin) in the Slovak Republic

Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová Slovak Republic

Social Non-Economic Effects of Education on The Level of Crime

Abstract The aim of the study is to quantitatively analyze and confirm the existence of a relationship of direct and indirect dependence between the number of crimes committed, or the number of persons sentenced, as the case may be, and selected factors such as expenditure on education, educational structure of population, average length of study and unemployment rate (which is directly related to education). Fulfilment of the aim assumes validation of the research assumption in the form of a hypothesis, the source of the hypothesis being partial theories of a relationship between education and crime. The hypothesis assumes the existence of a relationship of mutual direct non-linear and linear dependence between selected factors. The object of quantitative analysis is a sample from 15 EU countries. The key methods of scientific research are the methods of classification analysis, comparison and abstraction in the formation of a theoretical and methodological framework for addressing the issue; methods of quantitative analysis using statistical methods for processing and evaluation of information in validation of the hypothesis in the application section of the study and methods of synthesis and partial induction in drawing conclusions of the research. Specification of education as the public sector branch of key importance from the viewpoint of society development by public investments for its protection from sociopathic behaviours and particularly crime is an expected benefit. The contribution is an output of the sub-project KEGA 037 UMB - 4/2013 Innovative Study Programme Social Economy and Entrepreneurship. Key words: public expenditure on education, educational structure, unemployment, crime rate, crimes

44

Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová

Introduction, Research Methods Education as a result of the educational process is an essential prerequisite for the development of any society. It is involved in the formation of labour force qualifications, in creation of their working-professional skills. It fulfils the economic as well as socio-cultural function. With its effects, education influences human personality. It is important for human values. In addition, it has an impact on family life, its stability, parenting and quality of population; it affects social and political initiative, and many other qualities of personality and society. It shapes the relationship of people to consumption, affects the use of pensions; it has an impact on the character and structure of material consumption and consumption of services. It provides general and specific knowledge which is part of a person’s preparation for participation in the labour force. It enables the person to get a job satisfying his/her interests (Benčo, 2000, pp. 137 – 138). The above shows that attained education has a direct impact on the person’s employability and thus the unemployment rate in the country. With its social and economic dimensions, unemployment affects the whole economy as well as society. Social consequences of people’s failure to make themselves useful as bearers of work in the market of a given production factor are linked to social consequences. They lie in the negative impact on the psychological development and condition of the person. Unemployment lowers the standard of living, leads to poverty, has a negative impact on family, breaks daily family customs, changes the position and authority of the unemployed in the family, limits social contacts. The unemployed loses self-confidence, sense of life and more frequently commits a crime, succumbs to alcoholism, etc. Effects of education are manifold, in addition to the economic substance; they may be divided into direct and indirect ones. Within our study, we shall focus mainly on direct and indirect effects in relation to committed crimes (Hronec, M., 2007). Commitment of crimes and criminality as such belong to the most serious worldwide problems, they are classified as sociopathic deviant forms of behaviour. According to J. Hroncová (2008, 2010, 2012), during the transformation period there was a sharp increase in delinquent behaviour in the population of the Slovak Republic, culminating in 1993 and rising by 56.59% in comparison with 1989. Crime means the aggregate of offences committed in a  given society, state or region, based on the definition of an offence in the applicable criminal statute (Emmerová, I., 2011, 2012, 2013). Education and its positive effects is one of effective tools for elimination of criminal activity. The assumption of the existing mutual relationship between the level of education and the crime rate has been partially supported by several scientific studies.

Social Non-Economic Effects of Education on The Level of Crime

45

The theory of a collective consumption good (Samuelson, 1954) describes education as a good the individual consumption of which is connected with arising universal positive externalities (Pigou, 1960). Reduction in the extent of criminal activity committed in society can be identified as one of them. Feinstein (2002) considers learning and education as the determinant of an individual’s propensity to commit a crime. He identifies the influence of education through several channels: the individual’s income from legitimate work, quality of family relationships, amount of free time, ability to be aware of and assess risks of individual conduct. This assumption has been partially confirmed by several studies (Nemec, J., Meričková, B., Štrangfeldová, J., 2010). Attainment of higher education by an individual assumes the individual’s higher income from legitimate work and thus increases individual opportunity costs of participation in criminal activities (Lochner, 2004). In a simplified way, this means that participation in criminal activities may be economically disadvantageous to an individual with a legitimate high income. This is associated mainly with the risk the individual has to take and possible incarceration and subsequent loss of legitimate income. Educational attainment is reflected in the quality of family relationships, which again has an indirect impact on an individual’s propensity to commit a crime (Rutter et al., 1998). Children from single-parent families or disrupted families have a higher crime rate than children with a functional family background (Farrington, 2001). Higher propensities for crime commitment have been proved in the unemployed (unemployment is frequently a result of a low level of educational attainment), when talking about working-age population, and in children and youth with no other out-of-school educational activities, when talking about pre-working-age population (Calvo-Armwengol and Zenou, 2004; Lochner and Moretti, 2001). The employed and students simply have no time left to commit crime. Education changes, to some extent, an individual’s view of his/her own individual conduct, he/she is able to understand better its consequences and related risks; this, of course, holds also for conduct against the law (Hirschi and Gottfredson, 1995). The above empirical studies partially confirm the existence of a relationship between the level of education and the extent of crime committed. However, these studies do not clearly quantify the degree of influence that factors derived from education have on the extent of crime committed, or they do not determine the order of their importance (Hronec, Š., Meričková, B. and Marcineková, Z., 2008). The aim of the presented study is to quantitatively test the intensity of the relationship between the extent of crime committed as the dependent variable

Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová

46

and factors linked to education (educational attainment, average duration of education, unemployment in relation to educational attainment, expenditure on education) as independent variables. Outputs of quantitative secondary research seek to test the validity of the scientific assumption in the form of hypotheses about the existence of a relationship between the level of education and the crime rate in society, based on the current stage of knowledge of the problem and results of partial empirical studies and to indicate priority areas of the education and labour market policy from the point of view of the effort to minimize the crime rate in society. In accordance with the aim of the study and formulated research assumption, the research object was defined, which is the relationship between the amount of funds spent on education, length of study, educational structure of population and, in the indirect relationship, also between unemployment and the number of committed crimes per 1,000 inhabitants, or the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants in selected EU countries. The object of quantitative analysis was a sample of 15 EU countries. Selection of the sample was intentional in terms of the comprehensiveness of available data required for the analysis. The key methods of scientific research are the methods of classification analysis, comparison and abstraction in the formation of a theoretical and methodological framework for addressing the issue; methods of causal analysis and comparison in dealing with the posed research question in the application section of the work and methods of synthesis and partial induction in drawing conclusions from the research. The complexity of the research object in the area of the world economy assumes a high degree of abstraction in research of a secondary character. Secondary collection of information from available statistics of the Statistical Office and databases of Eurostat has been made by means of the constructive method of scientific observation. The information obtained was processed and evaluated using statistical methods with the emphasis on correlation analysis. Pearson’s correlation coefficient determines the strength of dependence between observed variables. The correlation coefficient is a  measure of the strength of linear dependence. The estimate of the pairwise correlation coefficient is defined as a quotient of the estimate of covariance between x and y to a product of their standard deviations, i. e.: (1) ryx =

cov xy SxSy

Social Non-Economic Effects of Education on The Level of Crime

47

where cov xy is the covariance between x and y and can be calculated as the arithmetic mean of the quotient of deviations, i. e., it is a “common” measure of variability (covariance) for two characters (x and y). The calculation is based on covariance, which is a measure of mixed variability of the variables X and Y. (2)

cov xy =

1 2

/

n i=1

r r – xr $ yr (xi – xr) (yi – yr) = xy

The coefficient of pair-wise correlation (Pearson’s correlation coefficient) has values within the interval , while the closer its value to -1 or +1, the stronger the dependence (direct linear relation in the case of positive values, or indirect linear relation in the case of negative values), the closer to zero, the weaker the dependence. The correlation coefficient measures the bilateral strength of dependence between x and y (Hendl, 2012). The correlation coefficient value identifies the existence of dependence relationship between the level of crime and development of individual indicators: the amount of financial support for education, length of study as well as the unemployment rate.

2. Quantitative Analysis of the Relationship between Selected Indicators of Education and Criminal Activity in Selected EU Countries The dependence analysis processing is based on available data of dependent and independent variables in selected EU countries within the period from 2003 to 2012, where 2012 is an estimation based on trend analysis. Our study on the dependence between education and criminal activity is based on data about the development of annual expenditure on public and private educational institutions calculated per student. Other economic indicators included in the analysis are data about the unemployment rate in the selected sample (Štrafeldová, J., Hronec, Š., 2013). Of non-economic parameters, dependence is studied in relation to the educational structure of population, defined by % of population with secondary and higher education, total average length of study, as well as the unemployment rate. The above data represent a time series of independent variables. The dependent variable is a time series of the number of crimes committed, as well as the numbers of incarcerated population calculated per 1,000

Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová

48

inhabitants. The following table presents the development of dependence of annual expenditure per student and the number of crimes committed in selected EU countries. Table 1. Dependence between annual expenditure on private and public educational institutions per student and the number of crimes 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Bulgaria

 

-

-1.00

-0.97

-0.95

-0.84

-0.96

-0.38

0.03

-0.08

2012* -0.29

Czech Republic

-

-1.00

-0.96

-0.97

-0.47

-0.56

-0.69

-0.69

-0.75

-0.81

Denmark

-

-1.00

-0.94

-0.97

-0.86

-0.52

-0.19

-0.15

-0.17

-0.35

Germany

-

1.00

-0.86

-0.81

-0.86

-0.93

-0.95

-0.95

-0.93

-0.85

Spain

-

-1.00

0.38

0.54

0.59

0.77

0.41

0.03

-0.22

-0.40

France

-

-1.00

-0.92

-0.93

-0.95

-0.97

-0.97

-0.98

-0.99

-0.99

Italy

-

1.00

-0.11

0.82

0.71

0.48

0.45

0.47

0.46

0.43

Cyprus

-

-1.00

-0.85

0.20

-0.19

-0.65

-0.77

-0.55

-0.42

-0.54

Netherlands

-

-1.00

-0.41

-0.72

-0.81

-0.89

-0.92

-0.91

-0.92

-0.93

Poland

-

-1.00

-0.95

-0.84

-0.88

-0.93

-0.92

-0.84

-0.79

-0.79

Slovakia

-

1.00

0.78

0.12

-0.28

-0.59

-0.69

-0.80

-0.86

-0.89

Finland

-

1.00

-0.36

-0.71

-0.53

-0.32

-0.28

-0.44

-0.10

-0.38

Sweden

-

-1.00

-0.65

-0.90

0.40

0.74

0.78

0.77

0.81

0.79

United Kingdom

-

1.00

-0.67

-0.82

-0.83

-0.80

-0.77

-0.82

-0.86

-0.89

Norway

-

-1.00

-1.00

-0.95

-0.95

-0.96

-0.94

-0.94

-0.96

-0.94

Average

 

-0.33

-0.56

-0.53

-0.45

-0.47

-0.46

-0.45

-0.45

-0.52

Source: own processing based on Eurostat, 2014

As presented in the table, indirect linear dependence can be identified in most of the countries (except Italy and Sweden). Countries with the highest positive influence include France (-0.99), Norway (-0.94), the Netherlands (-0.93). Countries with the lowest influence include Bulgaria (-0.29) and Denmark (-0.35). On average, it is moderate linear dependence, meaning that the number of crimes committed falls moderately with the increase in annual expenditure on education per student. The development of dependence between the educational structure and the number of crimes committed is presented in the following table.

49

Social Non-Economic Effects of Education on The Level of Crime

Table 2. Dependence between the % of population with secondary and higher education and the number of crimes committed 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012*

Bulgaria

 

-

-1.00

-0.98

-0.83

-0.74

-0.79

-0.38

0.22

0.06

-0.20

Czech Republic

-

-1.00

-1.00

-0.99

-0.53

-0.64

-0.78

-0.84

-0.89

-0.91

Denmark

-

-1.00

-0.45

-0.72

0.11

-0.11

-0.25

-0.25

-0.24

-0.22

Germany

-

1.00

0.96

0.90

0.02

-0.54

-0.70

-0.79

-0.82

-0.80

Spain

-

-1.00

0.38

0.54

0.62

0.72

0.38

-0.08

-0.35

-0.51

France

-

-1.00

-0.97

-0.98

-0.99

-0.98

-0.98

-0.99

-0.99

-0.99

Italy

-

-1.00

0.44

0.76

0.86

0.73

0.50

0.31

0.32

0.43

Cyprus

-

-1.00

-0.91

0.28

-0.17

-0.53

-0.62

-0.45

-0.36

-0.50

Netherlands

-

-1.00

-0.69

-0.82

-0.88

-0.89

-0.88

-0.63

-0.55

-0.61

Poland

-

-1.00

-0.88

-0.93

-0.91

-0.94

-0.94

-0.92

-0.91

-0.91

Slovakia

-

1.00

0.35

-0.17

-0.43

-0.64

-0.73

-0.81

-0.85

-0.88

Finland

-

1.00

-0.79

-0.87

-0.72

-0.58

-0.49

-0.60

-0.26

-0.47

Sweden

-

-1.00

-1.00

0.68

-0.04

-0.27

-0.26

-0.25

-0.18

-0.12

United Kingdom

-

-1.00

-0.87

-0.91

-0.95

-0.93

-0.96

-0.97

-0.98

-0.98

Norway

-

-1.00

-1.00

0.38

0.58

0.64

0.66

0.67

0.63

0.61

Average

 

-0.60

-0.49

-0.25

-0.28

-0.38

-0.43

-0.43

-0.42

-0.47

Source: own processing based on Eurostat, 2014

Similarly as in the above dependence, on average, moderate non-linear dependence can be identified in the countries studied. The only country with no positive dependence proved is Italy (0.43). Countries with proved positive dependence between the educational structure and the number of crimes committed include France, England, the Czech Republic and Poland. Commitment of crimes is probably influenced also by the average length of study. Table 3. Dependence between the total length of study in years and the number of crimes committed 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012*

Bulgaria

 

-

-1.00

-0.95

-0.97

-0.92

-0.70

-0.58

-0.01

-0.23

-0.48

Czech Republic

-

-1.00

-0.98

-0.90

-0.39

-0.56

-0.72

-0.82

-0.87

-0.92

Denmark

-

-1.00

-0.76

-0.73

-0.74

-0.71

-0.65

-0.56

-0.47

-0.59

Germany

-

1.00

-0.27

-0.63

-0.71

-0.82

-0.88

-0.91

-0.87

-0.78

Spain

-

-1.00

0.02

0.22

0.31

0.40

0.25

-0.51

-0.74

-0.83

Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová

50

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012*

France

 

-

1.00

0.74

0.83

0.93

0.95

0.95

0.90

0.86

0.66

Italy

-

-1.00

0.04

0.62

0.70

0.70

0.57

0.47

0.46

0.40

Cyprus

-

1.00

0.03

0.53

-0.03

-0.60

-0.84

-0.78

-0.77

-0.72

Netherlands

-

-1.00

-0.06

-0.64

-0.78

-0.87

-0.92

-0.92

-0.87

-0.92

Poland

-

1.00

-0.95

-0.86

-0.77

-0.75

-0.79

-0.81

-0.82

-0.84

Slovakia

-

1.00

0.66

0.17

-0.23

-0.48

-0.57

-0.66

-0.69

-0.71

Finland

-

1.00

-0.91

-0.91

-0.81

-0.72

-0.71

-0.74

-0.51

-0.57

Sweden

-

-1.00

-0.86

-0.69

-0.89

-0.97

-0.96

-0.89

-0.84

-0.84

United Kingdom

-

-1.00

-0.98

0.57

0.76

0.79

0.77

0.73

0.71

0.68

Norway

-

-1.00

-0.56

-0.71

-0.79

-0.67

-0.54

-0.61

-0.67

-0.70

Average

 

-0.20

-0.39

-0.27

-0.29

-0.33

-0.38

-0.41

-0.42

-0.48

Source: own processing based on Eurostat, 2014

On the basis of the above table, a positive influence of the total length of study may be assumed. On average, there is moderate non-linear dependence for the whole time period and the countries studied. The highest influence of the length of study on crime reduction can be observed in the case of the Czech Republic and the Netherlands. Strong non-linear dependence can be observed also in the case of Spain, Poland and Sweden. There is relatively strong non-linear dependence also in the case of the Slovak Republic. Again, Italy is specific. The correlation coefficient of this country is 0.4, i.e., moderate linear dependence, meaning that the number of crimes committed grows moderately with the increase in the number of years of study. Unemployment is one of the important factors affecting crime commitment. With its social and economic dimension, unemployment affects the whole economy as well as society. Social consequences of the failure to use people as bearers of work in the market of a given production factor is connected with psychological consequences. They lie in a negative influence on human psychological development and condition. Unemployment reduces the standard of living, leads to poverty, negatively affects family, breaks daily family customs, changes the position and authority of the unemployed in the family. Since education directly influences employability of individuals, it is necessary to examine its relation to crime commitment. In this case, the influence of education is indirect. Thus, average linear dependence of the relation is assumed.

51

Social Non-Economic Effects of Education on The Level of Crime

Table 4. Dependence between unemployment (in %) and the number of crimes committed 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Bulgaria

 

-

1.00

0.97

0.98

0.86

0.89

0.55

0.44

2011 2012* 0.34

0.10

Czech Republic

-

-1.00

-0.13

0.70

-0.14

0.25

0.20

0.01

0.03

0.00

Denmark

-

-1.00

0.94

0.89

0.82

0.49

0.59

0.41

0.29

0.06

Germany

-

1.00

-0.74

-0.35

0.26

0.65

0.74

0.82

0.83

0.79

Spain

-

1.00

-0.49

-0.61

-0.67

-0.06

-0.44

-0.73

-0.83

-0.89

France

-

-1.00

-0.95

-0.77

0.44

0.69

0.31

-0.01

-0.18

-0.39

Italy

-

1.00

-0.46

-0.91

-0.96

-0.93

-0.93

-0.91

-0.81

-0.22

Cyprus

-

1.00

-0.55

-0.47

-0.08

0.35

-0.25

-0.03

0.04

-0.34

Netherlands

-

-1.00

-0.80

-0.25

0.28

0.61

0.62

0.31

0.21

-0.13

Poland

-

1.00

0.95

0.98

0.99

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

0.99

Slovakia

-

1.00

0.23

0.46

0.63

0.77

0.79

0.60

0.54

0.48

Finland

-

-1.00

0.93

0.99

0.64

0.44

0.44

0.32

0.26

0.27

Sweden

-

-1.00

-0.97

-0.35

-0.74

-0.75

0.03

0.17

0.23

0.27

United Kingdom

-

1.00

0.85

-0.33

-0.56

-0.75

-0.81

-0.88

-0.91

-0.92

Norway

-

-1.00

-0.97

0.29

0.60

0.74

0.75

0.66

0.62

0.63

Average

 

0.07

-0.08

0.08

0.16

0.29

0.24

0.14

0.11

0.05

Source: own processing based on Eurostat, 2014

On average, the correlation analysis does not prove any direct dependence between the variables studied. This may be a result of various social security systems in the EU countries studied. Clearly, the strongest influence of unemployment and the number of crimes can be observed in Poland (up to 0.99) and Germany (0.79). In both cases there is strong linear dependence. Countries where no dependence between the variables is confirmed include the Czech Republic, Denmark, Bulgaria and the Netherlands. Non-linear dependence can be observed in the case of England, where the coefficient is - 0.92. It means that the number of crimes committed falls with the increasing unemployment rate. The following table presents the overall assessment of the influence of the factors examined on the number of crimes. The extent of influence has been calculated as the average order of the country in examining individual factors and the number of crimes. The lowest score means the highest average influence (positive dependence) between the factors examined and the number of crimes committed.

Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová

52

Table 5. Overall assessment of dependence between selected factors and the number of crimes per 1,000 inhabitants A

B

C

D

E

Average of order

Average of Influence

-0.45

-0.74

-0.32

0.02

0.00

5.40

4.00

Czech Republic

0.89

0.85

0.97

0.97

-0.25

13.00

12.00

Denmark

0.17

0.28

0.58

0.50

0.43

8.20

7.00

Germany

-0.95

-0.62

-0.94

-0.93

0.97

1.60

1.00

  Bulgaria

Spain

0.77

0.68

0.68

0.26

0.36

9.00

8.00

France

0.91

0.88

0.93

-0.44

0.54

9.60

10.00

-0.31

-0.24

0.48

-0.13

0.66

5.40

4.00

0.51

0.26

0.59

0.65

0.14

9.60

10.00

Netherlands

-0.83

-0.64

-0.44

-0.78

0.31

3.60

2.00

Poland

-0.08

-0.38

0.18

0.30

-0.46

8.20

7.00

Slovakia

0.70

0.88

0.53

0.29

0.30

9.40

9.00

Finland

-0.81

-0.66

-0.77

-0.52

0.21

3.80

3.00

Sweden

Italy Cyprus

-0.83

-0.66

0.02

0.50

-0.17

6.40

5.00

United Kingdom

0.88

0.81

0.91

-0.78

0.85

7.80

6.00

Norway

0.96

-0.22

-0.67

0.78

-0.65

10.20

11.00

A – Overall dependence between annual expenditure on private and public educational institutions calculated per student and the number of crimes B – Overall dependence between annual expenditure on private and public educational institutions in % of GDP per inhabitant and the number of crimes C – Overall dependence between the % of population with secondary and higher education and the number of crimes D – Overall dependence between the total length of study in years and the number of crimes E – Overall dependence between unemployment in % and the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants Source: own processing based on Eurostat, 2014

The countries where positive effects of investments in education, length of study, qualifications structure and unemployment are reflected to the greatest extent include Germany, the Netherlands and Finland. The countries where the least positive average influence of the factors on the number of crimes committed is reflected are the Czech Republic, Cyprus, France and Norway. In connection with the number of crimes, also dependence between the factors and the number of the incarcerated should be examined. In this case, considerable differences are observed, which can be explained by the strictness or benevolence of the judicial system and criminal legislation.

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Social Non-Economic Effects of Education on The Level of Crime

Table 6. Overall assessment of dependence between selected factors and the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants  

A

B

C

D

E

Average of order

Average of influence

Bulgaria

-0.29

-0.06

-0.20

-0.48

0.10

Czech Republic

-0.81

-0.91

-0.91

-0.92

0.00

4.20

1.00

Denmark

-0.35

-0.13

-0.22

-0.59

0.06

10.60

13.00

Germany

-0.85

-0.54

-0.80

-0.78

0.79

5.40

5.00

Spain

-0.40

-0.65

-0.51

-0.83

-0.89

8.60

9.00

France

-0.99

-0.82

-0.99

0.66

-0.39

6.40

6.00

Italy

11.40

12.00

0.43

-0.52

0.43

0.40

-0.22

12.20

14.00

Cyprus

-0.54

-0.51

-0.50

-0.72

-0.34

9.40

10.00

Netherlands

-0.93

-0.66

-0.61

-0.92

-0.13

5.20

4.00

Poland

-0.79

-0.56

-0.91

-0.84

0.99

4.60

2.00

Slovakia

-0.89

-0.70

-0.88

-0.71

0.48

5.00

3.00

Finland

-0.38

-0.11

-0.47

-0.57

0.27

9.80

11.00

Sweden

0.79

0.77

-0.12

-0.84

0.27

8.60

9.00

United Kingdom

-0.89

-0.90

-0.98

0.68

-0.92

7.60

8.00

Norway

-0.94

0.35

0.61

-0.70

0.63

7.20

7.00

A – Overall dependence between annual expenditure on private and public educational institutions calculated per student and the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants B – Overall dependence between annual expenditure on private and public educational institutions in % of GDP per inhabitant and the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants C – Overall dependence between the % of population with secondary and higher education and the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants D – Overall dependence between the total length of study in years and the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants E – Overall dependence between Unemployment in % and the number of the incarcerated per 1,000 inhabitants Source: own processing based on Eurostat, 2014

The best of the assessed countries is the Czech Republic, which, paradoxically, is in the last position in the influence on the number of crimes. This may be caused by the very nature of crimes where offenders may be granted a suspended sentence because of low gravity of the crime, or by misconfigured legislation failing to sufficiently protect society from such sociopathic behaviour. Poland and Slovakia hold the top positions. All the cases include V4 countries characterized by poor law enforcement. The poorest positive influence of the factors can be observed in the case of countries such as Italy, Denmark and Bulgaria.

54

Štefan Hronec, Beáta Mikušová Meričková, Jana Hroncová Vicianová

Conclusion Education is involved in the formation of labour force qualifications, shaping of their working-professional skills enabling them to perform complex work. It fulfils economic as well as socio-cultural functions. With its effects, education influences human personality. It is important for the formation of human values. The aim of the study was to quantitatively analyze and confirm the existence of a relationship of direct and indirect dependence between the number of crimes committed, or the number of persons sentenced, as the case may be, and selected factors connected with education, such as expenditure on education, educational structure of population, average length of study and unemployment rate (which is directly related to education) (Hronec, M., 2007). The given hypothesis assuming the existence of a relationship of mutual non-linear and linear dependence between the selected factors was partially confirmed. The countries with the greatest positive effects of investments into education, length of study, qualifications structure and unemployment observed were Germany, the Netherlands and Finland. The countries showing the least positive average influence of the factors on the number of committed crimes were the Czech Republic, Cyprus, France and Norway. In examining the dependence between the selected factors and the number of the incarcerated, distinctively dissimilar differences were observed, which can be explained by the strictness or benevolence of the system of justice and criminal legislation. The Czech Republic was the best of the assessed countries, paradoxically, in the last position in the influence on the number of crimes. This may be caused by the very nature of crimes, where offenders may be granted a suspended sentence because of the low gravity of the crime, or by misconfigured legislation failing to sufficiently protect society from such sociopathic behaviour. Also Poland and Slovakia held top positions. All the cases included V4 countries characterized by poor law enforcement.

References Benčo, J. et al. (2000). Sociálna politika a sociálny rozvoj. Banská Bystrica: EF UMB, 2000. Calvo-Armengol, A. and Zenou, Y. (2004) ‘Social networks and crime decisions: the role of social structure in facilitating delinquent behaviour’, International Economic Review, 45 (3): pp. 939 – 958.

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Emmerová, I. (2013). Children and Young Persons as Offenders and Victims of Offences and Crime Prevention at School in the Slovak republic. The New educational review. Vol. 32, No. 2 (2013), pp. 119 – 130. Emmerová, I. (2012). Suicides and Attempted Suicides of Children and Adolescents in the Slovak Republic and Possibilities of Their Prevention. The New educational review. Vol. 29, No. 3, 2012, pp. 81 – 89. Emmerová, I. (2011). Prevention of pupils´ problem behaviour in school environment in the Slovak Republic. The New educational review. Vol. 24, No. 2, 2011, pp. 162 – 172. Farrington, D.P. (2001) ‘Predicting persistent young offenders’. G.L. McDowell and J.S. Smith (eds) Juvenile delinquency in the US and the UK, UK: Macmillan Press Limited. Feinstein, L. (2002) Quantitative estimates of the social benefits of learning, 1: crime, Wider Benefits of Learning Research Report No. 5, London: Institute of Education. Hirschi, T. and Gottfredson, M. (1995) ‘Control theory and the lifecourse perspective’, Studies on Crime Prevention, 4: pp. 131 – 142. Hendl, J. (2012) Kvalitativní výzkum. Praha: Portál, s.r.o.. ISBN: 9788026202196 p. 545 Hronec, Š., Meričková, B. and Marcineková, Z. (2008). The Medicine Education Investment Evaluation Methods. E+M. Ekonomie a management. 11 (2), pp. 89 – 97. Hronec, M. (2007). The Education – Unemployment Relationship in the Slovak Republic: An Analysis with Special Regard to Economic Education. The New Educational Review. pp. 115 – 126. Hroncová, J. (2008) The Influence of Transformation Processes on the Family in the Slovak republic. The New Educational Review, 2008, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 15 – 32. Hroncová, J. (2010) Social Pedagogy in the Slovak Republic in Theory and Practice – Genesis and Present State. The New Educational Review, 2010, Vol. 22, No. 3 – 4, pp. 55 – 66. Hroncová, J.: Prof. PhDr. Ondrej Baláž, (2012) Founder of Slovak Social Pedagogy Lives to an Important Anniversary (To Be 90). The New Educational Review, 2012, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 295 – 301. Korimová, G. (2008) Theoretical and Methodological Approaches of Social Economy Development. Journal of Economics, 2008 Nol. 03, pp. 311 – 325. Levitt S.D. and Lochner, L. (2000) ‘The determinants of juvenile crime’. In J. Gruber (ed.) Risky behavior by youths, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lochner, L. (2004) ‘Education, work and crime: a human capital approach’, International Economic Review, 45 (3): pp. 811 – 843.

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Lochner, L. and Moretti, E. (2004) ‘The effects of education on crime: evidence from prison inmates, arrests and self-reports’, American Economic Review, 94 (1): pp. 155 – 189. Nemec, J., Meričková, B., Ochrana, F. (2008). Introducing Benchmarking in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Processes, Problems and Lessons. Public Management Review, 10 (5), pp. 673 – 684. Nemec, J., Meričková, B., Štrangfeldová, J. (2010). The ownership form of hospitals from the viewpoints of economic theory and Slovak practice. E+M. Ekonomie a management, 13 (2), pp. 19 – 31. Štrangfeldová, J., Hronec, Š., (2013). Socio-economic Effects of Education in the Context of Economic Return. 2013. The New Educational Review 2013 Vol. 32, No. 2. Poland, Katowice, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Silesia. ISSN 1732 – 6729. PIGOU, A.C. (1960). A Study in Public Finance. London: Macmillan & Co Ltd., 1960. No ISBN Rutter, M., Giller, H. and Hagell, A. (1998) Antisocial behaviour by young people: the main message from a major review of research, Knutsford: Social Information Systems Limited. Samuelson, P.A. (1954). The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 36, No. 4 (Nov., 1954), pp. 387 – 389.

Milena Lipnická Slovak Republic

Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of Inclusive Pre-Primary Education for Children from Marginalized Roma Communities

Abstract Analysis of the opportunities, constraints and prospects of pre-primary education of children from marginalized Roma communities was, is and will be the subject of many studies and constructive solutions at different levels of responsibility entities. All positive solutions and results in this area are a step closer to the inclusive education in kindergarten. Theoretical considerations, research findings and practical experiences of teachers are used to formulate key actions for successful pre-primary education for children from marginalized Roma communities in the process of inclusive education. Musing on inclusive education of the study was replaced by pragmatic solutions in the form of concrete measures for the reality and for the vision of an inclusive education of children from marginalized Roma communities in kindergartens. Keywords: children from marginalized Roma communities, inclusive education, kindergarten, preparatory class, preparatory year, pre-primary education

Introduction The development of humanistic and democratic values in society is reviewing the merits of selective approaches in education. Education of all children at ordinary kindergartens is no longer only a subject of professional discussions, but begins to materialize in practice, however without system state support. This may change in future and inclusive education will no longer be an exceptional phe-

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Milena Lipnická

nomenon. However, it is a matter of a gradual and long-term process of changes in thinking and opinions that will be applied in practice when adopted by most persons and institutions participating in education, until they finally become a necessary and applicable standard. Ideas, or currently rather ideals and visions of inclusive education are born or, rather, imperfectly penetrate into conventional educational procedures. They still arise from arduousness and volunteering of individuals or groups of persons from the educational, parental as well as lay public. Some inclusion ideas have already penetrated into the legislative framework of education, but most of them still remain in front of school doors, or if having entered them, then only through the “keyhole”. The aim of the study is to designate current opportunities and constraints of inclusive education for children from marginalized Roma communities and derive prospective measures from them for inclusive education to become common practice in kindergartens.

Opportunities for equality of children in pre-primary education, created in legislation Collective and equal education of children from marginalized Roma communities is supported by the Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education. It declares children rights which are the indicators of inclusive education values, in particular, equal access to upbringing and education and ban of any forms of discrimination, notably segregation. Children’s religion, world-view, nationality and ethnic and their families are respected values, similarly as the individual approach to a child, respecting the child’s age, possibilities and abilities, interests, talent and health condition. The above act supports kindergarten attendance by free education of children aged 5 prior to the beginning of their compulsory school attendance, for the children to have the opportunity to learn in the official language and their mother tongue in the extent specified in this act. The rights and principles of upbringing and education in line with the philosophy of inclusive education specified in the Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education are negated by sections of the same act, by the rules for integration (inclusion and adaptation) of children in school education. The procedures for determining children’s special educational needs, categorization of children by disadvantage types, as well as the rules for placement in schools, associated with documentation maintenance, are the evidence of it. Also, education of children with special upbringing and educational needs in separate – specialized classes

Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of Inclusive Pre-Primary

59

does no credit to inclusive education. Administrative labelling of children as those who do not have increased requirements for sources and conditions of education and those who do, is not consistent with the rights of the child to equal access to education. This directly or indirectly indicates the child’s dependence on increased funds, extended provision of services, or search for the advantages of positive discrimination. An example of it is the reduced number of children in the class, if a child with special educational needs is placed there. Then the number of children in the class may be reduced by two children at most for every child with special upbringing and educational needs. Also, the maximum number of children with special upbringing and educational needs per class is limited – to two (Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education).

Methods of compensating children for effects of socially disadvantaged environment according to legislation Legislative documents use the term children from a socially disadvantaged environment. Children from marginalized Roma communities are not distinguished in the Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education, although the adopted indicators of social disadvantage of children in the school system make it obvious that these children belong to the disadvantaged group. Marginalized Roma communities are understood as socially excluded communities of people who are disadvantaged against other people because of poverty or culture and they live in slums, parts of municipalities or towns, i.e., in an environment disadvantageous for their personal growth and living conditions. Disadvantageous social, language and cultural background produces variability of the child’s individual needs and conditions, which the teaching and specialized staff diagnose and take into account in the upbringing and educational or therapeutic process, pedagogical and specialized counselling to children and their parents, legal representatives (Lipnická, M., Rosinský, R., Rusnáková, J. et al., 2013). The Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education has prevented placing children in separate classes for children with health disabilities in favour of inclusive education, exclusively for the reason that they come from a  socially disadvantaged environment. According to the Decree No. 308/2009 on kindergarten, section 4 (4), children from a socially disadvantaged environment are placed in classes together with other children. If a class consists only of children from a socially disadvantaged environment, there may be no more than 16 children in the class.

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Milena Lipnická

Upbringing and education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment is performed using specific methods and forms and according to individual conditions, created by kindergartens. The Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education (Section 107) stipulates the following individual conditions: • education according to an individual education programme; • adjustment of upbringing and education organization; • adjustment of the settings where upbringing and education take place; • use of specific methods and forms for upbringing and education. The Ministry of Education may provide founders of kindergartens with funds to improve conditions for upbringing and education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment. It is provided by the number of children from a socially disadvantaged environment as a subsidy for food and school aids. The subsidy is specified in the Decree No. 649/2008 Coll. of the Ministry of Education to be used for pupils from a socially disadvantaged environment. Section 1 specifies that the subsidy should be used for: • teacher assistants’ salaries, premiums for social insurance and compulsory health insurance; • equipment of rooms for teaching with didactic technology, teaching aids, compensation aids; • education in specialised classrooms and other according to special regulations. Another compensation for a child’s social disadvantage is release from payment for the child in the kindergarten, if the child’s legal representative presents a document to the kindergarten head teacher that the child is a recipient of a benefit in material need and allowances for the benefit in material need (Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education, Section 28 (7)). In education of children from a  socially disadvantaged environment, co-operation of the pre-primary education teacher and teacher assistant is important. It is defined in more detail in the Methodological Instruction No. 184/2003 – 095, approved by the Ministry of Education on December 6, 2003 for the introduction of the profession of the teacher assistant in the upbringing and education of children and pupils with special upbringing and educational needs at pre-school facilities, elementary school and special elementary school. A kindergarten may employ a teacher assistant, to overcome language, social and cultural barriers of children. Quite recently, specifics of education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment have been considered in the Act No. 38/2011 amending and supplementing the Act No. 597/2008 Coll. on financing elementary schools, secondary

Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of Inclusive Pre-Primary

61

schools and school facilities as amended by later regulations and on change and supplement of certain acts. The Ministry of Education may provide a subsidy to kindergartens, but also to legal entities and natural persons, also to civic associations and foundations, for activities connected with the upbringing and education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment according to specified rules. Kindergarten founders may apply to the Ministry of Education for financing a development project in specified areas of upbringing and education where also improvement of the upbringing and education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment may be included.

Opportunities for pre-primary education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment The Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education (Section 19 (3)) states that “compulsory school attendance begins at the beginning of a school year following after the day when a child reaches the age of six and school competence.” The above Act contains also provisions changing this rule by the child’s school competence and forms of education. There are three alternatives offered to children aged 5 – 6 or to children aged 7 with the postponed beginning of compulsory school attendance. They may continue education by a developing or individual programme for upbringing and education at kindergarten. If there are reasons why a child from a socially disadvantaged environment cannot attend kindergarten, then there are two other forms of education offered according to the rules specified in legislation (cf., Chart 1 for more details). Chart 1. Opportunities for pre-primary education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment Education of children one year prior to attendance at the 1st grade of elementary school Kindergarten Zero grade of elementary school Preparatory class at elementary school for children with disabilities and at special elementary schools

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Milena Lipnická

Zero grade of elementary school The legal representative has the right to decide whether the child with postponed school attendance will attend kindergarten or the zero grade, because once in the zero grade, the child’s school attendance commences. “The zero grade of elementary school is intended for children who physically reached the age of 6, but yet not the school competence, come from a socially disadvantaged environment and on account of their social background cannot be expected to cope with the educational programme of the first grade at elementary school. The highest number of pupils in the zero grade is 16. The zero grade may be established if at least 8 pupils are to be taught there, or at least 6 pupils if the elementary school is not fully organized.”(The Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education, Section 19 (6), (8), Section 29 (5)). Education in the zero grade increases the likelihood that the child’s development and experience will be stimulated to achieve the level required for successful learning in the 1st grade of elementary school. The child is placed in the zero grade on the basis of a parent’s application and decision of the elementary school headmaster, the headmaster thus also deciding on the postponement of the child’s school attendance by one school year. A part of the legal representative’s application is a recommendation of a GP for children and youth and a recommendation of a relevant facility for pedagogical counselling and prevention. Preparatory class for pupils with health disabilities at elementary schools and special elementary schools The Decree No. 322/2008 Coll. of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic on special schools (Section 6 (1)) specifies that elementary schools for children with health disabilities and special elementary schools (A, B, C variant) have a preparatory class. Children are placed there based on diagnostic examinations and their legal representative’s consent if their health disabilities prevent them from succeeding at kindergarten or elementary school. The preparatory class is intended for pupils who turned 6 before September 1, have not achieved school competence and are unlikely to succeed in the first grade of elementary school with the educational programme for pupils with health disabilities. Passing through the preparatory class is considered completing the first year of compulsory school attendance. (Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on upbringing and education, Section 97 (3)). It is not exceptional that children from marginalized Roma communities are diagnosed and taught as children with special upbringing and educational needs on the grounds of their health disability or social disadvantage. According to Porubský (2007) there are various reasons for inclusion in this “segregated” group

Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of Inclusive Pre-Primary

63

of children, namely insufficient command of the language of instruction, delayed personality development due to the unstimulating socio-cultural conditions in which they grow up, but there are also other reasons.

Constraints of inclusive education of children from marginalized Roma communities at kindergartens The analysis of legislative documentation shows that although our education system subscribes to the basic thoughts of inclusive education, implementation under the legislative rules and regulations is still at the level of special schools, or, in a better case, integration of children with special upbringing and educational needs in ordinary schools. Inclusive education at kindergartens encounters many obstacles that restrict successful education of children from marginalized Roma communities. Constraints or barriers to development and upbringing of children from marginalized Roma communities have been a subject of many written and presented scholastic and political studies. Most frequently, they agree on those summarized in the following table. Table 1. Constraints of pre-primary education for children from marginalized Roma communities State

• Equal access to education is not followed by system solutions supporting the practice of inclusive education; • Partial reforms and measures “made to appear like” the ideas of inclusive education are not conceptual and thus problems accumulate if kindergartens decide on this way in education; • Long-term financial starvation of schools with demands on effective teaching; • Normatives for financing do not assess quality of education at individual kindergartens also by fulfilment of inclusive education indicators; • Centres of special pedagogy that should recommend forms of education for children without bias, fall under head teachers of special schools; • Lack of opportunities for teachers to get free training courses in inclusive education; • Other;

Founders

• Other than school priorities or unwillingness or inability to create favourable conditions for inclusive education; • Failure to create sufficient capacities for placement of all pre-school children in kindergartens in a certain locality, region; • Low level of pooling, conceptual and mutual assistance of towns and municipalities in providing pre-school education for children in a certain region;

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Milena Lipnická

Kindergartens

• Unwillingness to enrol children from marginalized Roma communities, also due to the need to provide for supporting and compensatory measures; • Concerns over problems with children and parents from MRC; • Financial, personnel and material unpreparedness to ensure conditions for optimum education of MRC children; • Formal school educational programmes not covering various educational needs of children; • Parents of children not coming from MRC disapproving of children from MRC and placing their children in other kindergartens if the number of MRC children in the kindergarten increases; • Unavailability of a kindergarten in the place of residence of MRC children; • Other;

Teaching staff

• Long-term stress of teachers arising from non-existent or insufficient supporting services of teacher assistants and specialists directly in kindergartens; • Teachers should cope with ´spontaneous integration´ (let alone inclusion) themselves, thus they are exposed to stress and that is why this form of education does not suit them in certain cases, it is even refused; • Concerns over diseases resulting from bad hygienic conditions as well as neglected health of children; • Teachers not trained for inclusive education; • Negative experience with some MRC people in the common life and resulting restraints concerning the work with MRC children; • Other;

Specialized staff

• Long-term lack of a required number of special pedagogues and psychologists in kindergartens; • They are concentrated mainly in counselling centres and special schools; • MRC children are diagnosed mostly individually, at counselling centres, without observation in a kindergarten class; • That is the reason why some findings and recommendations of psychologists and special pedagogues have no bearing on actual needs of the educational reality, they do not help teachers much; • Other;

Parents of MRC children

• Neglecting hygiene, nourishment and health of children that must be dealt with and compensated by appropriate measures in the kindergarten; • Irresponsible approach to stimulation and education of their children, not enrolling the children, irregular attendance at kindergarten by the children; • Problematic co-operation of parents with the kindergarten teaching staff and specialists; • Parents not kept informed about their child’s achievements on account of substituted parental care – children are accompanied to/from the kindergarten by older siblings; • Parental rights to require inclusive education for their children not applied, just on the contrary sometimes they require placement of their child in a special school; • Other;

Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of Inclusive Pre-Primary

Parents of children not coming from MRC

• Concerns over their children if educated with MRC children (e.g. infectious diseases, taking over undesired behaviours and similar); • Prejudice against MRC people based on general life experience; • Negative experience with parents of MRC children; • Concerns that the teacher will neglect their children because of increased care of MRC children; • Other;

Community

• Insufficient co-operation of community workers and field social workers with the kindergarten teaching staff and specialists.

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The constraints of inclusive education, presented above in Table 1, cause a variety of problems in children, teachers, founders and the public. Partial solutions, e.g., in the form of increased finances or education of teachers will improve only some consequences of these difficulties; however, they will not solve the substance of shortcomings in inclusive education. The Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic should adopt measures for inclusive education at kindergarten to be feasible and standard, not based only on designating what is valuable or what should be done or on the willingness and sacrifice of teachers. All kindergartens should have equal chances to create conditions for inclusive education of children and appropriate support (legislative, financial, personnel) from the state, with rules for good inclusive education.

Prospects of inclusive education of children from marginalized Roma communities at kindergartens Pre-primary education respecting values of inclusion, optimum and effective education for every child is currently rather a prospect although some isolated signs of inclusive education can be identified at schools. Measures for the inclusive education of pre-school children from marginalized Roma communities, proposed in Table 2, should be perceived as such, while the time of their implementation cannot be foreseen. The measures are derived from documents approved by governmental and non-governmental organizations as well as published opinions of several authors listed in the references hereof, and it is natural that due to the complexity of the matter they do not illustrate all necessary solutions.

Table 2. Proposed measures for inclusive education of pre-school children from marginalized Roma communities Prospective measures for inclusive education

At the level of founders

At the state level

• Improve the availability of kindergartens in the place of children’s residence, establish school districts for kindergartens; • Confer a financial benefit (reward) to good schools with inclusive education also by regional circumstances; • Extend the system of pedagogical counselling to the field of kindergartens;

Current reasons for the prospective measures • Lack of kindergartens and kindergarten districts not supported by legislation; • Normative financing per child;

• Isolated counselling services outside the field and actual needs of kindergartens; • Education of all children together at kinder• Segregated education at special gartens; kindergartens; • Introduce combined education with individu- • Education of children from a socially disadvantaged environment al and group forms in the class and out of the class with a required number of teaching staff in separate classes; and specialists and supporting, compensatory • Lack of specialists in kindergartens; measures in ordinary kindergartens; • Lower number of children in the class with • Number of children is reduced only if there are children with inclusive education also if there are children special upbringing and educafrom a socially disadvantaged environment; • Prepare and approve a state programme of tional needs; inclusive education for children at kindergartens and related methods for inclusive education there, especially concerning didactic-methodological aspects; • Forms of cooperation between the kinder• State educational programme is garten and social, non-governmental and selective – a separate one prehealth-care institutions in education and pared for children with no health full-day care of children from a socially disabilities and a separate one for disadvantaged environment to be defined in children with health disabilities; legislation; • Establishing parental centres at kindergartens for active cooperation with the pedagogues, community and public; • In cooperation with kindergarten head teachers, apply well-considered strategies to persuade MRC parents to enrol their children in kindergarten and take them there regularly; • Create positions for teacher assistants, school special pedagogues and school psychologists in every kindergarten; • Extend the services for children in kindergarten through the graduate practice of teacher faculty students, e.g., by accompanying MRC children to kindergarten;

• Low percentage of MRC children enrolled in kindergartens;

• Low number of specialists and teacher assistants in kindergartens;

At the level of family

At the level of kindergartens

Prospective measures for inclusive education

Current reasons for the prospective measures

• Change the school educational programmes • Formally prepared school educato a unique educational offer responding tional programmes not adapted to children’s various needs and conditions, to children’s various educational develop a school programme for inclusive needs; education; • Provide differentiated and cooperative teaching; • Prepare internal methods for language teaching according to the needs of MRC children; • Involve MRC parents in education and care of children at kindergarten also using good experience in other kindergartens; • Develop a system of actions to facilitate children’s adaptation; • Hold events and celebrations in kindergarten, presenting the Roma culture, talent and achievements of MRC people; • Develop and provide for an education plan for the kindergarten teaching staff and spe• Uncoordinated and insufficient cialists, including various subjects of inclusive team cooperation in kindergareducation; tens, variety of children’s educa• Ensure good team cooperation of teachers, tional needs left to teachers only; teacher assistants and specialist directly in kindergarten classes when implementing the • Compensatory and developing educational offer; programmes implemented in • Implement compensatory and developing counselling centres and specialeducational programmes with children acized classes; cording to their individual needs in kindergarten ordinary classes using a multidisciplinary approach by more professionals; • Support inclusive education of children by a concept of counselling on upbringing of children and their achievements to parents, legal representatives directly in kindergarten; • Demand and control a responsible approach of parents to pre-primary education of MRC children; • Support education of MRC children with courses on child care and upbringing for parents in kindergartens and community centres; • Parents volunteering in kindergarten;

• Some MRC parents do not enrol their children in kindergarten despite existing compensations for the social disadvantage;

At the level of non-governmental organizations

• Define the activity of counselling facilities in the school system as supporting, coordinating counselling services for education of children at ordinary schools; • Specialists should work directly in kindergartens and counselling centres should coordinate their work methodologically, advise and assist in the field; • Counselling facilities should be independent of the special education school system, the concept of their counselling services should primarily focus on inclusive education of every child; • Supervise schools on ensuring equal access to education;

• Facilitate introduction and application of innovative and alternative programmes for compensation of children’s social disadvantage also within kindergartens; • Assistance in gaining sources of financial support to ensure innovative and alterative education programmes or individual methods and strategies; • Impart new information and good practices from social work in the field to kindergarten practice; • Assistance in gaining MRC parents for, and involving them in education of children at kindergarten;

At the level of regional authorities

At the level of counselling facilities

Prospective measures for inclusive education

• Prepare educational, cultural, sports and other activities for inclusive pre-primary education of MRC children that will support their personality and social development; • Cooperate closely with kindergartens so that the offer extending, enriching children’s preprimary education is adequate and effective with respect to their educational and sociocultural needs; • Provide information about socio-cultural specifics and activities of residents of the region to schools;

Current reasons for the prospective measures • Counselling centres are often dysfunctional for practice, their specialists do not go to the field of kindergartens; • Frequently, teachers do not receive updated information about children or there are no consultations with teachers at all; • Quite frequently they deal only with diagnostics and there is no room left for intervention; • Financing per client is the reason why the number of clients is appraised rather than the quality of work with a client;

Opportunities, Constraints and Prospects of Inclusive Pre-Primary

At the level of institutions for continuing teacher education

• Free training courses in inclusive education at kindergartens for teachers and head teachers; • Establish positions of inclusive education coordinators in methodological and pedagogical centres;

At the level of higher education institutions

Prospective measures for inclusive education

• Transform objectives and contents of teacher training programmes to inclusive education; • Prepare learning texts for university training of pedagogues for inclusive education.

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Current reasons for the prospective measures

• Teacher programmes teaching special pedagogy, not inclusive pedagogy; • Texts shaped for integration of children with a disadvantage or talent, covered in terms of inclusive pedagogy.

The economist and Nobel Prize holder, Heckman (2006; in EACEA P9 Eurydice, 2009) states that good education and care of children in early childhood is one of the few effective ways to improve social and economic prospects for disadvantaged (minority) communities. Based on the cost-benefit analysis of pre-primary education based on justice and availability, Heckman points to the fact that the higher the age at which measures are introduced, the lower the rate of economic return on such investment. That is also why there is an increasingly urgent discussion in the Slovak education on the issue of introducing compulsory school attendance for children one year before their elementary school attendance so that children from marginalized Roma communities do not start their educational journey only upon entering the 1st grades of elementary school, but much earlier, upon their regular attendance at kindergarten. The joint and equal access to education enables children, parents, teachers and other participating entities to learn about oneself and others, conform to one another in relationships and confrontations with other persons, meet people and learn about their life as it is and not as selected for education by certain parameters to prevent them to bother one another. Children should not learn about the human diversity, ways of human life and culture through educational projects imitated “in the class laboratory”. Daily co-existence and cooperation should teach them about it in a natural way. This should be aimed at by all measures for effective and optimum education at various levels of responsibility in the school system and supporting out-of-school programmes.

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Conclusion It is said that the best school for man is life itself. The variety of children is a natural part of life and the school should copy it. The idea of kindergarten with a functional inclusive education is currently an ideal picture of kindergarten with pro-social behaviour, respect for rights and responsible fulfilment of duties by all participating individuals. At kindergarten of such quality, every child is equally accepted and educated, there is positive cooperation and communication in education free from sorting into “better and worse, rich and poor, healthy and handicapped, …such and other” in the negative sense. The basis for inclusive education is the uniqueness and self-realization of every child, his/her personality development in the conditions of group culture, experiencing and personal coping with inclusive co-existence and learning from childhood.

References Hapalová, M., Kriglerová, E.G. (eds.) (2013). O krok bližšie k inklúzii. Bratislava: Centrum pre výskum etnicity a kultúry, p. 119 – 126. Kolektív autorov. Vzdělávání a péče v raném dětství v Evropě: překonávaní sociálních a kulturních nerovností. Praha: Ústav pro informace vo vzdělávání, 2009. [cit. 2013.09.13] Available on the Internet: http://www.eurydice.org. Kolektív autorov. Podpora inkluzívneho modelu vzdelávania pre potreby predprimárneho stupňa školskej sústavy (2013). Prešov: Metodicko-pedagogické centrum. [2014.04.01] Available on the Internet: http://www.npmrk2.sk/dokumenty. Liesmann, P.K. (2009). Teorie nevzdělanosti. Omyly společnosti vědení. Praha: Academia, 2009. Lipnická, M. (2012). Vízia a realita inkluzívnej edukácie v materskej škole. 1. vyd. Bratislava: Metodicko-pedagogické centrum, 2012. Lipnická, M., Rosinský, R., Rusnáková, J. et al. (2013). Analýza vzdelávacích potrieb pedagogických zamestnancov a  odborných zamestnancov v  predprimárnom vzdelávaní detí z marginalizovaných rómskych komunít. Prešov: Metodickopedagogické centrum, [2014.04.01] Available on the Internet: http://www. npmrk2.sk/dokumenty Porubský, Š. Outline on Solutions of Creating the Model of Compensatory Education. In: Komac M., Varga, R. (eds.) (2007). Social Inclusion of Roma. Ljubljana:

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Institute for Ethnic Studies; Murska Sobota : Regional Development Agency Mura. Štátny vzdelávací program ISCED 0 – predprimárne vzdelávanie [08.02.2009]. Available on the Internet: http://www.statpedu.sk. Acts Act No.245/2008 Coll. of May  22, 2008 on upbringing and education and on amendment and supplement of certain acts. Act No. 597/2008, Amendment No. 38/2011 Coll. on financing elementary schools, secondary schools and school facilities. [cit.2014.04.01] Available on the Internet: http://www.minedu.sk/860-sk/zakony/ Decrees Decree No. 649/2008 Coll. of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic, on the purpose of the use of the contribution for pupils from a socially disadvantaged environment. Regulation No. 325/2008 Coll. of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic, on school facilities for educational counselling and prevention. Decree No. 322/2008 Coll. of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic, on special schools. Decree No. 320/2008 Coll. of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic, on elementary school. Decree No.308/2009 Coll. of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic, on kindergarten. [2014.04.01] Available on the Internet: http://www.minedu. sk/863-sk/vyhlasky/ Methodological Instructions Methodological Instruction No. 184/2003 – 095 approved by the Ministry of Education on December 6, 2003 for introduction of the profession of the teacher assistant in upbringing and education of children and pupils with special educational needs in pre-school facilities, elementary school and special elementary school.

Zlata Vašašová, Erika Lipková Slovak Republic

Relationship between Creativity and Perfectionism in Secondary School Students

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the relationship, including its nature, between creativity and perfectionism in secondary school students. Its research section is focused on quantitative research analysing relationships between figurative and verbal creativity on the one hand and perfectionism and perfectionist thoughts on the other hand. Our findings indicate that there is a weak positive relationship between figurative creativity and perfectionism and also a moderate positive relationship between verbal creativity and perfectionism. Keywords: figurative creativity, verbal creativity, perfectionism, relationship between creativity and perfectionism

Introduction At present, creativity is increasingly becoming a topic of interest, because everyday situations require new, original, creative ideas and solutions. Creativity is not only about socially important products, but it is part of an individual’s normal functioning. We can say that creativity is the ability of personality to create new cultural, technical, intellectual and material values in all branches of human activity (Königová, 2007). Based on research (Jurčová, 2009), when looking at creativity as the ability of personality, it is influenced by factors also including perfectionism. According to available sources, perfectionism can be considered a relatively stable personality trait considerably influencing personal and professional life of a person. In

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connection with the term perfectionism, such synonymous terms as flawlessness, exactness, precision, absolute correctness and accuracy, completeness in every case, freedom of error and mistake, lack of the slightest fault, and excellent condition are used (Winter, 2006). However, most frequently this concept is regarded as a negative phenomenon. The roots of the negative perception of perfectionism can be seen in the theory of B. Sorotzkin, who perceived perfectionism as an obsessional neurosis, thus as a faulty cognitive style leading to dichotomous thinking, overly moralistic self-evaluation and over-generalization in the individual to avoid the feeling of guilt when failing to satisfy his/her strict expectations he/she has set up for himself/herself. M. Buck (2006) relates perfectionism to self-destructive thoughts and behaviour aimed at the achievement of extremely high and unrealistic goals. Perfectionism is also perceived negatively by G. Flett and P. Hewitt (2005), who regard it as a hindrance to success, but perceive it also positively, while suggesting distinguishing three degrees of perfectionism: neurotic, unhealthy perfectionism; normal, healthy perfectionism and non-perfectionism (Winter, 2006). Some authors use the terms adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism or functional and dysfunctional perfectionism instead of the terms normal and neurotic perfectionism. Although perfectionism persists to be perceived as a negative construct, at present some authors (e.g. Rice et al; Stoeber & Eysenck, in Wigert et al., 2012) attempt to point out positive aspects of perfectionism and its influence on an individual. They associate perfectionism with performance enhancement, its positive influence on personal expectations, self-esteem, attention and effort. A question remains open whether perfectionism has an impact on creativity and if it has, whether it stimulates and supports creativity or, on the contrary, is a hindrance to creativity.

1. Relationship between creativity and perfectionism As known from professional literature, there are only a few studies addressing the relationship between creativity and perfectionism. However, many of them have shown that perfectionism is related to individual performance (Wigert et al., 2012). So far, studies have primarily focused on perfectionism as a unidimensional construct and its impact on gifted children and their creative strivings (e.g. Gallucci et al.; Joy & Hicks, as cited in: Wigert et al., 2012). These authors found that perfectionism as a unitary construct was negatively related to the need to be different and

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open to experience; two main components of creativity. They also examined the direct relationship between perfectionism and creativity, using the MPS measure. Perfectionism was negatively related to the subscale of “creative striving”. As opposed to previous research, the study by B. Wigert et al. (2012) considered the multidimensional nature of perfectionism. It showed that in general, creativity was maximized in persons with a moderate level of adaptive perfectionism. A weak positive relationship between adaptive perfectionism and creativity was proved there. On the contrary, the expected negative relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and creativity was not confirmed. Out of the perfectionism dimensions, the dimension of “personal standards“ correlated with creativity in the strongest way. The authors admitted that the non-existence of a negative relationship between creativity and maladaptive perfectionism in this research calls for further examination. Other authors, too, arrived at similar conclusions (e.g.: Rieke, Berlund & Wennberg, as cited in: Nekoie-Moghadam et al., 2012). Their findings also showed a relationship between healthy, functional perfectionism and creativity. In their research, M. Nekoie-Moghadam et al. (2012) found not only a moderate positive relationship between functional perfectionism and creativity, but also a moderate positive relationship between dysfunctional perfectionism and creativity. The latter proved to be even slightly stronger. However, it should be stressed that the majority of the research and studies conducted did not account for the multidimensional nature of perfectionism. That is also why we consider it as important to carry out quantitative research to evaluate the relationship between creativity and perfectionism as a multidimensional construct, with the aim to find out whether perfectionism hinders or, on the contrary, facilitates creativity.

2. Research Problems and Research Aim We perceive creativity as a very important phenomenon in a person’s practical life. We subscribe to the definition by M. Zelina (2004), stating that creativity is production of new, useful and acceptable ideas, solutions, thoughts and products, while we perceive it as a complex phenomenon influenced by a number of factors that contribute to it or, on the contrary, hinder it. Perfectionism may be one of such factors. We perceive perfectionism as a multifactorial construct which, on one hand, if in a healthy, functional form, may act as a driving force when delivering perfor-

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mance, achieving goals and may also influence personality development, but, on the other hand, if in an unhealthy, dysfunctional form, may even be an obstacle in pursuit of the set goals, in exceptional performance, and even in performance of everyday activities. Both forms, or types, of perfectionism were the object of our research. Our research was drafted as quantitative. Its aim was to find out whether there is a relationship between creativity and perfectionism and if there is one, whether perfectionism may be considered a  construct facilitating creativity, or, on the contrary, whether perfectionism may be considered a hindrance to creativity. Research Sample The research sample consisted of the total of 150 secondary school students, out of whom 74 were girls and 76 boys. The research comprised 3 secondary schools, each representing a different type of secondary education (art school, grammar school, school of mechanical engineering). 50 students from each type of school participated in the research. The age of the respondents ranged from 15 to 19; at the beginning of the research the average age of the participants was 17.6. The research sample was selected using quota sampling. The quota criteria included the region, type of school attended and number of respondents (50 students from each school). Research Methods Four research methods were used in the research: the subtest Sentences from Meili’s Analytical Intelligence Test (AIT, to determine the level of verbal creativity), Urban’s Figurative Test of Creative Thinking (TSD-Z, to determine the level of figurative creativity), Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS, to identify the perfectionism score and to determine functional and dysfunctional perfectionism) and Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PSI, to determine the level of perfectionism cognitions). AIT was created by R. Meili in 1928, as a tool for identifying the structure of intelligence. The test adapted by V. Smékal was published in Bratislava in 1972. Meili’s Analytical Intelligence Test consists of six subtests: Pictorial Materials, Numerical Series, Sentences, Gaps, Drawings and Analogies. The Sentences and Drawings subtests focus on creativity and activate the mobility and adaptability of thought (Svoboda, 2010). In our research, the Sentences subtest was used, by means of which the level of verbal creativity was identified in secondary school students.

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Urban’s Figurative Test of Creative Thinking began to materialize in the 1980s, thanks to H. Jellen, and it was completed by K. Urban in 1994. The author of the Slovak version published in Bratislava in 2002 is T. Kováč (Urban, Jellen, Kováč, 2002). The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, consisting of 35 items, was created by R. Frost et al. in 1992. In 1997 W. Parker used MPS for cluster analysis and identified two groups of perfectionists – dysfunctional, maladaptive perfectionists and functional, adaptive perfectionists (Frost et al., in: Bachnová, 2012). The Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory constructed by G. Flett et al. in 1998 (as cited in: Stoeber et al., 2010) is a unidimensional method consisting of 25 items expressing automatic thoughts typical of perfectionism, e.g. “I should be perfect”, “My work must be better”, “I should not make the same mistake twice”, “It would be great if everything in my life were perfect” (Stoeber et al., 2010). We added three items to the above methods, for the respondents to supply their basic demographic data. Results were processed using quantitative analysis. To test the distribution of individual variables for normality, Kolmogorov-Smirnov´s normality test was applied. Kolmogorov-Smirnov´s normality test of the distribution of individual variables for normality returned the following variables as normally distributed: the level of figurative creativity, degree of perfectionism, dysfunctional type of perfectionism, CM and PS dimensions of perfectionism and the level of perfectionism cognition, therefore Pearson’s parametric correlation coefficient was used. The variables: level of verbal creativity, functional type of perfectionism, and score in the DA, PE, PC and O dimensions of perfectionism could not be considered as normally distributed in our research. Therefore, this group of variables was applied non-parametric statistic procedures (Spearman’s correlation coefficient). All data obtained were processed using the table processor Excel and the statistical program SPSS Statistics version 17.0.

3. Analyses and Interpretation of Results 3.1. Relationship between figurative, verbal creativity and perfectionism The existence of relationships between figurative, verbal creativity and perfectionism was examined with the use of correlation analysis – Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients. The correlation coefficients and their p-values are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. Correlation coefficients for the figurative and verbal creativity variables and perfectionism N = 150 Figurative creativity

Perfectionism r

0.13

p – value Verbal creativity

0.10 0.41**

R p – value

0.00

** p < 0.1

The results of correlation analysis show that the perfectionism variable is related to figurative creativity as well as to verbal creativity. While the relationship between perfectionism and figurative creativity is statistically insignificant, there is a statistically highly significant relationship between the variables of perfectionism and verbal creativity. 3.2. Relationship between figurative and verbal creativity and the level of perfectionism cognitions This relationship was examined by means of Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients. Results of the correlation analysis and their p-values are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Results of correlation analysis for figurative and verbal creativity and the level of perfectionism cognitions N = 150 Figurative creativity Verbal creativity

Perfectionism cognitions r

0.18*

p – value

0.03

R

0.36**

p – value

0.00

* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01

The above results show that there is a positive statistically significant relationship, at the significance level of p < 0.05, between figurative creativity and the level of perfectionism cognitions. The relationship between verbal creativity and the level of perfectionism cognitions proves to be positively highly statistically significant (p < 0.01).

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3.3. Correlations between verbal and figurative creativity and individual dimensions of perfectionism Correlations between verbal and figurative creativity and the dimensions of perfectionism were examined using correlation analysis – Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients. The correlation coefficients and their p-values are shown in Table 3. Table 3. Correlation coefficients for figurative and verbal creativity and the dimensions of perfectionism CM

DA

PE

PC

PS

O

Figurative creativity

N = 150 r/R

0.14

0.10

0.05

-0.10

0.21*

-0.05

p-value

0.08

0.25

0.54

Verbal creativity

R

0.38**

0.18*

0.26**

p-value

0.00

0.03

0.00

0.24 -0.05 0.56

0.01

0.54

0.41**

0.20*

0.00

0.01

* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01 Explanations: CM = score in the subscale Concern over Mistakes; DA = score in the subscale Doubts about Actions; PE = score in the subscale Parental Expectations; PC = score in the subscale Parental Criticism; PS = score in the subscale Personal Standards; O = score in the subscale Organization.

The above results show that out of the individual dimensions of perfectionism, the relationship with figurative creativity can be found only in two dimensions, i.e., PS = Personal Standards and CM = Concerns over Mistakes; while the relationship between figurative creativity and the dimension PS = Personal Standards is statistically significant, the relationship between figurative creativity and the dimension CM = Concerns over Mistakes is not statistically significant. The existence of a relationship between verbal creativity and the dimension PC = Parental Criticism is not proved. Weak positive statistically significant correlations are found between verbal creativity and the dimensions DA = Doubts about Actions, PE = Parental Expectations and O = Organization. 3.4. Relationship between Perfectionism Types (Dysfunctional and Functional) and Figurative and Verbal Creativity To examine this relationship, correlation analysis – Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation coefficients were used as above. Results of the correlation analysis and relevant p-values are presented in Table 4.

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Table 4. Results of correlation analysis for figurative and verbal creativity, and the dysfunctional and functional types of perfectionism N = 150 Figurative creativity Verbal creativity

DYS

FUN

r/R

0.08

0.10

p-value

0.32

0.21

R

0.34**

0.36**

p-value

0.00

0.00

* p < 0.05. ** p < 0.01 Explanations: DYS = dysfunctional type of perfectionism, FUN = functional type of perfectionism

The results in the table allow us to say that none of the two types of perfectionism is related to figurative creativity (there are no relationships here). On the contrary, relationships between the dysfunctional and functional types of perfectionism and verbal creativity proved to be positive, highly statistically significant.

4. Discussion Our research examined whether there is a relationship between creativity and perfectionism in secondary school students. Due to the lack of professional and research studies in this field, there were only a few opportunities to compare our results with the results of other researchers. The aim of our research was to find out whether there is a relationship between creativity – figurative and verbal – and perfectionism. The correlation analysis showed a weak positive statistically insignificant relationship between figurative creativity and perfectionism and a moderate positive statistically highly significant relationship between verbal creativity and perfectionism. As for the relationship between figurative creativity and perfectionism, we arrived at similar findings as some previous research (e.g., by Rieke; Berglund & Wennberg, as cited in: Nekoie-Moghada et al., 2012; Wigert et al., 2012). Thus, we can assert that although perfectionists in general do not display much figurative creativity, perfectionism cannot be considered as a barrier to creativity, since no negative relationship was shown here. In this connection, we find the resulting positive relationship between verbal creativity and perfectionism very interesting as well as surprising, because many experts still consider perfectionism to be expressly negative. The negative rela-

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tionship between creativity and perfectionism was found out, e.g., by S. Joy and S. Hicks, N. Gallucci et al. (as cited in: Wigert et al., 2012). On the basis of our findings we can state that the higher the perfectionism level, the higher the level of verbal creativity in the students of secondary schools where the research took place. The above findings are supported also by other results of our research, in particular the proven weak positive statistically significant relationship between figurative creativity and the level of perfectionism cognitions and the moderate positive relationship between verbal creativity and the level of perfectionism cognitions. The latter also confirms that perfectionist thoughts that should impede creativity in the subtest Sentences (Meili’s Analytical Intelligence Test) had no time to take full effect. Since some foreign research confirmed a high correlation between the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI), it is not surprising that the results in these scales and tests of figurative and verbal creativity were very similar in our research. We believe that it is essential to mention that MPS is the only method in Slovakia, not even standardized, which captures the perfectionism variable. We decided to use the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory as a supplementary method to MPS not only to capture the perfectionism variable better and bring something new to the field of this area, but also to point out the lagging study of perfectionism as such in our conditions. We decided to examine the very relationship in depth, which was why we further focused on individual dimensions of perfectionism – Concerns over Mistakes (CM), Doubts about Actions (DA), Parental Expectations (PE), Parental Criticism (PC), Personal Standards (PS), and Organization (O) – in relation to figurative and verbal creativity. We wanted to find out which components of perfectionism correlate with creativity the closest. The relationship between figurative creativity and the perfectionism dimensions showed only in two of them – PS and CM. In both cases, it concerned weak positive relationships, statistically significant in the case of the PS dimension. The relationship between the verbal creativity and perfectionism dimensions was found in the DA, O, CM, PE and PS dimensions. In the case of DA and O, the relationships were moderately positively significant. It is noteworthy that the CM and PS perfectionism dimensions correlated with both types of creativity the closest. The Concern over Mistakes (CM) dimension reflects fear of errors and subsequent negative responses to one’s own errors. The Personal Standards (PS) dimension represents setting high goals for oneself and self-assessment based on achievement/failed achievement of the set goals. The relationship between these very perfectionism dimensions and the particular types of creativity can be explained by the fact that setting high goals and demands for

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oneself while having concerns over failure to meet the demands and goals may act as a driving force and motivate the person to better and thus more creative performance. The above statement was confirmed also in the research by L. Ďuricová (2009) and B. Žitniaková-Gurgová (2012). Further, we focused on the examination of relationships between two types of perfectionism – dysfunctional and functional perfectionism and verbal creativity. Dysfunctional perfectionists are characterized by setting high goals for themselves and reluctance to accept any failure in achieving them. Also, they are accompanied with feelings of dissatisfaction with their achievement. Functional perfectionists also set high goals and demands for themselves, but they are able to accept occasional failure while enjoying their effort for achievement of the goals set for themselves (Hamachek, as cited in: Bachnová, 2012). Thus, it is not strange that a positive moderate statistically significant relationship was found between functional perfectionism and verbal creativity. What is surprising is the relationship between verbal creativity and dysfunctional perfectionism, where the correlation was even slightly higher. M. Nekoie-Moghadam et al. (2012) obtained the same result. We believe, especially with regard to this finding, that further research in this field is necessary to explain these relationships. The only explanation of the relationship found out between the dysfunctional type of perfectionism and verbal creativity may be the fact that the reluctance to accept failure could lead to an extreme effort for success and thus avoidance of failure in all types of achievement including creative achievements.

Conclusion The aim of our study was to bring new knowledge into the field of creativity, particularly to the theory of the creativity of personality, perfectionism and their relationship. We believe that this aim was reached and at the end, we would like to offer a few suggestions and stimuli for further research on this issue. In our opinion, it would be interesting to examine the issue also with a different research sample where both variables have a specific impact, e.g., various artists, actors, painters, writers, etc. New, enriching results could be obtained also by inclusion of creativity selfassessing methods in research, or work with other methods aimed at examination of perfectionism already used abroad. Last, but not least, we believe that it is important to mention that it would be useful for further research to work with a larger research sample to ensure higher representativeness of the target population.

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References Bachnová, V. (2012). Explorácia rizikových faktorov vedúcich k  excesívnemu cvičeniu u  mužov vo fitness centrách: Bakalárska práca. Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 64 pps. Buck, M. (2006). Perfekcionizmus: Kauzálny vzťah medzi myslením, emóciami a patologickým správaním. In 2. konference Škola a zdraví pro 21. století, Brno. [online]. 2006 [cit. 26. 01. 2014 ]. Available on the Internet: http://www.ped. muni.cz/z21/2006/konference_2006/sbornik_2006/pdf/028.pdf Ďuricová, L. (2009). Self-concept of University Students and Their Motivation. In: The New Educational Review. vol.17, No.1, pp.264 – 275. Flett, G.L., Hewitt, G. L. (2006). Positive Versus Negative Perfectionism in Psychopatology: A Comment on Slade and Owens´s Dual Process Model. In: Behavior Modification, Vol. 30, pp. 472 – 495. Jurčová, M. (2009). Tvorivosť v  každodennom živote a  vo výskume. Bratislava. 265 pp. Königová, M. (2007). Tvořivost: Techniky a cvičení. Praha: Grada, 2007. 188 pp. Nekoie-Moghada, M., Beheshtifar, M., Mazrae-Sefidi, F. (2012). Relationship between employees´perfectionism and their creativity. Academic Journal. . [online]. 2012 [cit. 29. 01. 2014 ]. Availabvle on the Internet: http://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1380899504_NekoieMoghadam%20et%20al.pdf Stoeber, J., Kobori, O., Tanno, Y. (2010). The Multidimensional Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory–English (MPCI-E): Reliability, validity, and relationships with positive and negative affect in Journal of Personality Assessment. University of Tokyo [online]. 2010 [cit. 26. 01. 2014 ]. Available on the Internet: Svoboda, M. (2010). Psychologická diagnostika dospělých. Portál: Praha, 2010. 344 pp. Urban, K. K., Jellen, H. G., Kováč, T. (2002). Urbanov figurálny test tvorivého myslenia. Psychodiagnostika, a.s.: Bratislava, 2002. Vozárová, L. (2011). Negatívne dopady perfekcionizmu na osobnosť človeka. In. 6. medzinárodná konferencia doktorandov odborov Psychológia a Sociálna práca, Banská Bystrica. [online]. 2011 [cit. 25. 01. 2014]. Available on the Internet:

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Wigert, B., Reiter-Palmon, R., Kaufman, J. C., Silvia, P. J. (2012). Perfectionism: The good, the bad, and the creative. In Journal of Research in Personality. [online]. 2012 [cit. 30. 01. 2014 ]. Available on the Internet: Zelina, M. a kol. (2004). Psychológia pre stredné pedagogické školy, pedagogické a sociálne akadémie a pedagogické a kultúrne akadémie. SPN: Bratislava, 2004. 160, pp. Žitniaková-Gurgová, B. (2012). Funkčný a disfunkčný perfekcionizmus v súvislostiach s Big Five / Beata Žitniaková Gurgová. In Aktuální otázky pedagogiky, psychologie a  výchovného poradenství: sborník příspěvků z  mezinárodní konference dne 1. – 2. října 2012. Olomouc: UP. pp. 230 – 237.

Lenka Slepičková, Michaela Kvapilová Bartošová Czech Republic

Ethical and Methodological Associations in Doing Research on Children in a School Environment

Abstract The new paradigm in social research on children, accepting the child as an important social actor, has its methodological and ethical specifics. In doing research on children, child-friendly research techniques are used with an emphasis on children’s rights. The attempt of the researcher to apply a new method in studying children may come into conflict with the authoritarian approach to children in the school environment, where such research most often takes place. We shall examine both the conflicts between school situations and the expectations of the new approach to children in the following material using the experience of our own research on children. Keywords: school environment, research on children, ethics in research, child as a social actor

Introduction Social research on children and childhood increasingly recognizes children as independent actors, active participants in family life, and as research subjects and co-researchers as well. According to researchers, children are not excluded from the general need for individual reflection of the actual biography given by postmodern discourse (Moxnes 2003 Greene, Hogan 2005) and are able to attach their own meaning to the events in society and formulate their own opinions, important not only for the effort to understand the lives of the children themselves (Davies 2005, James 2007).

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In the area of methodology the new paradigm has stirred extensive academic debate on the methodological and ethical aspects of such research (cf. Alderson 2000; Christensen and Prout 2002). The development of innovative research techniques with emphasis on the active involvement of children in research is the result (Bautsz-Sontag 2011). This perspective is in direct contrast to the previous (though not completely suppressed) research approach to children, which has been criticized because of its devaluation of child behavior as predictable and which used the testimony of adults to interpret child behavior (Conroy and Harcourt 2009). Although children are increasingly seen as competent social actors, they are spending more and more time in different age-structured institutions, where they are separated from the adult world and left outside the sphere of issues and decision-making of the adult members of society (Heath et al 2007: 405). These institutions apply a specific power over children (Kaščák 2008) and their normal operation is often at odds with the notion of children as independent and actively reflective participants in social life. Any attempt to accomplish a research design that respects the child as a social actor, therefore, comes into conflict with the normal research environment where considering the child to be independent and thinking on his own, with his own rights, is not the norm. The tension between the obligation of the researcher (whether or not formally given) towards both ethics and the child actor, respecting the concept of the research on the one hand and the terms of the institutions in which the research is performed on the other, is an important issue in the ongoing debate about the methodology of research on children (Heath et al. 2007). We decided to use this material to contribute to the debate on the methodological and ethical aspects of doing research on children, inspired by our own research on children and the problems we encountered in the course of it. As shown by our experience and the experience of other researchers (e.g., Morrow, Richards ,1996), individual actors in research on children may not be ready for a new approach and the school environment makes it impossible for researchers to fully apply it. In the following material, we would mainly like to reflect on how to apply the approach to children as social actors, i.e., what are the limits and possibilities of this approach, in terms of doing research in the school environment. We principally draw on our experience with qualitative research, carried out under the title “Family through the Eyes of Children”. It took place between 2011 and 2012 at two primary schools – urban and suburban. The goal was to answer the question of what importance the family holds for the child, how he sees the family, and what relationships and activities keep its members together. Our effort

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was to determine what family positions the child attributes to its individual members and to himself, and to ask what effect the gender of the child and the various family arrangements in which the child lives have on this perception. We focused on two age groups of children: pupils of the third (8 – 9 years old) and seventh (12 – 13 years old) grade. The research was conducted in classrooms during school hours, in five to six non-consecutive lessons. The research was conducted in each school for about two months. Three third grade classes and two seventh grade classes were included in the research. In total, we collected data from 84 children – 43 boys and 41 girls. In addition to the techniques commonly used in doing research on adults (interviews, focus group), we applied the techniques of cognate childhood expression (drawing, writing, games) in this research. In view of the inspiration of the new sociology of childhood, it was essential for us during the research to perceive the child informant as a valuable social actor and an equal partner in the research, and to ensure the observance of his rights (Darbyshire, MacDougall and Schiller 2005). Specifically, we decided to obtain informed consent not only from the children‘s parents, but also from the children themselves and to create and maintain during the collection of data a classroom atmosphere of mutual cooperation, where the children could freely express themselves. This effort, however, often clashed with the school environment where the research was conducted and where children are socialized under the conditions of age (or gender) power hierarchy (Jarkovská 2009).

Cooperation with child research participants and adult gatekeepers Contacting potential respondents and obtaining access to them is the first challenge in general in conducting research and in particular research with children, because this approach often requires discussion from the start with several actors – with teachers, headmasters, children and their parents. In our research we proceeded through the acquaintance of one of the researchers with the selected teacher, who arranged a meeting with the head teachers. A positive reception by the head teachers was probably facilitated by the fact that we are a group of women-researchers supported, moreover, by research institutions operating at universities. In the case of the first school , a rural one, an important role was played by the fact that the school has not yet had much experience with similar research, which is more often performed in larger urban schools.

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The literature on the ethical aspects of research with children emphasizes the specifics of informed consent from the children (Cree, Kay, and Tisdall 2002). Presenting participation in the research as entirely voluntary, regardless of the consent of the parents or teachers, entails the risk of refusal and the practical necessity of keeping the children who will not be participating in the research busy on the one hand, and on the other it means respect for the children as partners in research and for those whose decisions are presented as essential. Efforts to obtain consent from children – research participants – is an expression of respect for the opinion of all actors in the research, but the researcher can often willingly “complicate” the research because school regulations do not require this procedure. The key person, the one who as authority mediates the relationship of the children with the researchers and to a large extent defines the position of the individual actors in the research process, is usually the teacher, who announces the presence of the researchers and identifies them by name. The willingness and helpfulness of teachers and their attempt to ensure the authority and cooperation of students for the researchers, however, may be counterproductive: Researchers describing their experiences from the field (Dvořáková, in Švaříček, Šedová, 2007) reflect on the impact of the teacher introducing them as “teachers” and their passing one of the pupils into their “charge”, which probably reinforced his image as a “pet” among the others (he was an important informant for the researchers), had on their relationship to the pupils. Jarkovská (2013: 51) also describes how the teacher in the class where she collected data for her ethnographic research introduced her as a person conducting sociological research, “which is something like a psychologist” and that the children were to behave towards her and answer her questions. Such introduction basically cost the researcher space for what she wanted to do, namely discuss the research with the children and their involvement in it. The position of the researcher in a school environment is usually marked by ambivalence – trying to establish a good relationship with the students as informants, while not losing the favor of the teachers, because the possibility of remaining in that environment depends on them. The researcher can thus find himself in the role of a disruptor of the educational process if he approaches the children as the teacher’s right hand when, e.g., he supervises the children, admonishes them or even substitutes for the teacher, and the occupation of one of these positions may not be a matter of choice, rather it can result from making quick decisions such as whether to get the information necessary for school work from a particular child (Thorne 1993). Also, our research is an example of how intermediaries may unconsciously interfere with the intentions of the researchers during their entry into the environment and in the course of the research.

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In our case, one of the teachers did not want to accept the refusal of some of the children to complete some assigned tasks or the expression of their disagreement with certain techniques of data collection and tried to get them to cooperate by using authoritative means, which was contrary to our intention to let the children refuse to cooperate at any time during data collection. The chance to be alone with the children, made possible by other teachers, gave us the opportunity to conduct research without the possible influence of the teacher. On the other hand, this put us in the situation of having to take on the role of classroom authority, e.g., in an attempt to maintain order in the classroom in order to collect the data or to preclude unsafe behavior by the children. Moreover, it was difficult to explain to the children and often to the adult gatekeepers as well what the research was for, especially when its results were not “immediate”. Trying to explain the purpose of the research can result in unexpected impacts; Thorne (1993) described to the children participants in her research that she would be taking notes during the observation with the goal of writing “what kids do”. She had to change this formulation, however, because the children associated the word “do” with disciplinary infractions and stressed that they were “doing nothing”. In our attempt to explain to the children what our research entailed, we encountered the fact that the term research can represent different things (“Research is when you take blood from people,” a girl, third grade, rural school). Although we described to the children, as accurately as possible, what the research meant and what we would do with the results, it is obvious that our description, even though adapted to the child’s understanding, could only lead to a very abstract notion in children about what research is. Even one of the teachers, despite our repeated explanations of the purpose of the research, expected us to create psychological profiles of the children, which we were not able to provide. This further deepened our sense of commitment and dissuaded us from any effort to project our own conception of research. Getting the children to agree to participate in the research by requesting it in writing was ordinarily conceived as a routine and formal affair, although the possibility not to participate in the research meant relative freedom for them, albeit within class (the children not participating could quietly pursue activities of their choice, such as reading and drawing). The pupils’reluctance to decide on their participation in the research may be variously interpreted as the specific content of school time not being important to them, or that they are not used to expressing their opinion and in some respects are not taken too seriously by adult gatekeepers, which corresponds to their position in a society dominated by adults. Automatically agreeing to an outside task is also easier than devising ways and

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means of avoiding it beforehand, and so any disagreement is then reflected during the research process rather than at the beginning of it. In our research, we found indirect ways of the refusal to participate, e.g., by handing in blank pieces of paper, expressing irony or boredom, or by leaving their desks. We were not always able to fully explain the reasons for a lack of interest (despite repeated questions concerning it) and so react to it. In conditions where pupils consider schoolwork to be compulsory and do not perceive any space for rejecting it outright, it can easily happen that they will express their opposition to the research tasks only with patterns of behavior available to actors who find themselves in an uneven power struggle (e.g., through manipulation, deceit, rebellion, etc.) (Bourdieu 2000). A child’s statement of this type of refusal need not be necessarily devalued, just the opposite – the use of irony, humor, vulgarity or exaggeration shows the relationship of children to the topic, as well as their sensitivity and delicacy, which is a natural reaction in this situation. On the other hand, as pointed out by Cree, Kay, and Tisdall (2001), it is naive to assume that children will automatically be enthusiastic and willing to cooperate when the researchers want them to share their experiences, problems and outlook with them. Privacy and mystery are important for children (Clark and Moss, 2001) and like adult actors they may prefer the chance to talk about many things or remain indecisive about them. The topic raised by researchers, moreover, need not be interesting or relevant for them. Often, rather than joint interviews, children appreciate new fun activities with adults or the chance to really get to know them in everyday life, without constant questions and research tasks (Cree, Kay, Tisdall, 2001). The researcher must balance his objectives regarding the collection of data with respect for the child’s world.

Conclusion By deciding to carry out research on children within the school environment, particularly Czech basic school environment (Novotný et al. 2014), and based on the foundation of the new childhood sociology, the researcher is entering an environment where his position and objectives come into conflict with the prevailing practice – an environment typical of hierarchies, power relations between the adult and the child, where adults tend to make decisions for children and where the child’s actions are automatically trivialized (Morrow, Richard 1996). It is an institution where the rules, time, spatial arrangement and daily routine are in conflict with the researcher’s conception of the child as an independent-minded actor.

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In the Czech Republic there are no original, more extensive ethical standards reflecting the issues of doing research on children, although the existence of similar standards in other countries is common, whether at the level of institutions or as recommendations of individual authors (e.g. Christensen, Prout 1995). At the same time, the practice of establishing ethics committees at research institutions or universities to monitor compliance with ethical rules and, more generally, to guarantee the quality of research is not very common, even in research on adults. This leads to, de facto, lack of compulsion and looseness in choosing and observing ethical rules. Research practice, therefore, becomes very random and the observance of ethical rules in the course of research depends entirely on the individual commitment of researchers and gatekeepers. The codification of ethical rules for research on children can be an opportunity for the systematic documentation of a wide range of problems of this type of research and their availability (Christensen, Prout, 2002: 491). However, the observance of ethical principles in practice is rarely straightforward and a variety of situations that may occur during the research process can never be fully captured by pre-established standards. Some research procedures that have proven successful in a particular environment may have a different effect and be counterproductive in another context. For example, efforts to obtain childres informed consent in a signed form are usually seen as a way of highlighting the competency of children and their independent decision-making. In this context, however, some authors speak of evoking a  sense of obligation in children’s by having them sign their consent, which can then be seen as a burden in the course of research (Hill 2005). The problem related to blurring the boundary between research activities and school obligations may be partially resolved by sensitive communication with child participants, by explaining the purpose of the research and highlighting the fact that the answers are neither right nor wrong. A solution can also be the use of participatory, imaginative and collective research techniques (focus group, drawing, etc.) that weaken the asymmetry of the relationship between the researcher and child (Mahon and Glendinning 1996). At the same time, it is necessary to devote a certain amount of time to establishing a trusting relationship with children (Punch 2002) and determining what techniques they themselves prefer and why. The ethnographic approach is generally recommended as particularly suitable for capturing children‘s experiences because it helps the researcher to “better deal with ethical dilemmas that occur in various research situations” (Eder and Corsaro 1999: 528). Excluding the impact of the power superiority of the adult researcher over children is impossible in research (Jensen and McKee 2003), because the differen-

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tiation of adults/children is one of the main organizational principles of the school environment and the researcher overlapping these categories can be a source of confusion and discomfort for the examined subject. As one of the possible solutions to this ambivalence, Warming (2011) recommends the conscious assumption of the role of “the last adult” (e.g., by submitting to the authority of other adults and refusing to proceed as such an authority); according to him, this role allows the researcher to gain greater access to the world of children and to more naturally engage in children’s activities than would be possible if we left the definition of his role as an adult person to the judgment of the children participants in the research themselves. Getting closer to the ideals of the new paradigm in the research on children could be possible through an ethnographic approach, also including involved observations and extended stays with the children in school beyond mere strict, time-limited data collections during several visits at schools, or meeting them in a less formal setting, such as on a school trip or lessons in the countryside. This would allow the researcher not only to get to know the children better, but to adapt or invent research techniques based on the immediate context and immediate reactions of individual children. Although this procedure makes it possible to obtain more valid data, at the same time it creates familiar dilemmas and completely new ones. It is obvious that the helpfulness of teachers to researchers is limited, i.e., it depends on running the school – fulfilling the duties of the teachers and education of the children. The prolonged and intense presence of the researcher in the classroom implies a major impact not only on the ordinary course of instruction, but also on the lives of the children who form a relationship with the researcher, and this raises the question of to what extent this procedure is at all legitimate. What actually is the role of the researcher and how should it be played out in the classroom? How to balance out the relationship between teachers and children over the long term? How to ensure that he shapes a relationship with the children if, in his view, this relationship is something purely instrumental and limited? It is clear that none of the possible methods of research on children in the school environment (or elsewhere) offers simple and unequivocal ethical and methodological rules and they can only encompass efforts to minimize various risks associated with current research conditions. Support for this research was provided by the Czech Science Foundation (GAČR grant no. 404/11/1033).

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References Alderson, P. (2000). “Children as Researchers: The Effect of Participation Rights on Research Methodology.“ Pp. 241 – 257 in P. Christensen, A. James (eds.). Research with Children: Perspectives and Practises. London: Falmer Press. Bautsz-Sontag, A. (2011). “Change of Creative Expression in Pre-School Children’s Way of Presenting Family Relationships, Stimulated by Open Bibliotherapeutic Workshops–Analysis of Selected Case Study Passages.“ The New Educational Review 24 (2). Bourdieu, P. 2000. Nadvláda mužů. Praha: Karolinum. Christensen, P., A. Prout. (2002). “Working with Ethical Symmetry in Social Research with Children.“ Childhood 4: 477 – 497. Clark, A., P. Moss. (2001). Listening to young children: The mosaic approach. London: National Children‘s Burelu. Cincera, J. (2014). „To Think Like a  Scientist: an Experience from the Czech Primary School Inquiry-Based Learning Programme.“ The New Educational Review 35 (2): 118 – 4130. Conroy, H., D. Harcourt. (2009). “Informed agreement to participate: Beginning the partnership with children in research.“ Early Child Development & Care 179 (2): 157 – 165. Cree, V. E., H. Kay, K. Tisdall. (2002). “Research with children: sharing the dilemmas.“ Family Social Work 7: 47 – 56. Darbyshire, P., C. MacDougall & W. Schiller. 2005. Multiple methods in qualitative research with children: more insight or just more? Qualitative Research, 5(4), 417 – 436. Davies, B. (2005). “Emerging trends in researching children and youth: a review essay.“ British Journal of Sociology of Education 26 (1): 145 – 153. Eder, D., W. Corsaro. (1999). “ ‘Ethnographic Studies of Children and Youth: Theoreticaland Ethical Issues’.“ Ethnographic Studies of Children and Youth 28 (5): 520 – 31. Greene, S., Hogan, D. (2005). Researching children´s experience. Approaches and Methods. London: Sage. Heath, S., V. Charles, G. Crow, R. Wiles. (2007). „Informed consent, gatekeepers and go-betweens: negotiating consent in child- and youth-orientated institutions.“ British Educational Research Journal 33 (3): 403 – 417. Hill, M. (2005). Ethical Considerations in researching children´s experiences. In Researching Children´s Experiences, Approaches and Methods. Greene, S., D. Hogan (eds.). Sage: London, s. 61 – 85.

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James. A. (2007). Giving Voice to Children´s Voices: Practices and Probléme, Pitfalls and Potentials. American Anthropologist 109 (2): 261 – 271. Jarkovská, Lucie. 2009. Školni třida pod genderovou lupou. Sociologický časopis 4: 727 – 752. Jensen, A.-M., L. McKee. 2003. Children and the Changing Family: Between Transformation and Negotiation (The Future of Childhood). London: Routledge. Kaščák, O. (2008). “O moci školy a bezmocnosti detí.“ Studia Paedagogica 13: 127 – 139. Mahon, A., Glendinning, C. (1996). Researching Children: Methods and Ethics. Children and Society 10: 145 – 154. Morrow, V. a Richards M. (1996). “The Ethics of Social Research with Children: An Overview.“ Children & Society 10(2):90 – 105. Moxnes, K. (2003). “Children coping with parental divorce: what helps, what hurts?“ Pp. 90 – 104 in A. M. Jensen, L. McKee (eds.). Children and the Changing Family. Between Transformation and Negotioation. London: Routledge Falmer. Novotný, P. et al. (2014). “School as a  Professional LEARNING Community: A Comparison of the Primary and Lower Secondary Levels of Czech Basic Schools.“ The New Educational Review 35 (1). Punch, Samantha. (2002). “Research with Children. The Same or Different from Research with Adults?“ Childhood 9 (3): 321 – 34. Švaříček, R., K. Šeďová a kol. 2007. Kvalitativní výzkum v pedagogických vědách: Pravidla hry. Praha: Portál. Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play : girls and boys in school. Buckingham: Open University Press. Warming, H. (2011). Getting under their skins? Accessing young children‘s perspectives through ethnographic fieldwork. Childhood, 18 (1), 39 – 53.

Grażyna Szafraniec Poland

Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

Abstract The article demonstrates the research results that the author collected while carrying out the programme in Psychopedagogical diagnostics with students of the Faculty of Pedagogy. In the course of acquiring competences in the field of diagnostics, students become familiar with a number of diagnostic tools. The aim of one of the classes in the cycle was to familiarize the students with S. Popek’s Creative Behaviours Questionnaire. The implementation of a teaching objective formulated in such a manner concurrently enabled a cognitive objective: an accurate determination of levels of creative and imitative attitudes in 20 – 30-year old undergraduates of pedagogy. The author deemed it imperative for each student to evaluate the results of the Questionnaire in person. On the meta-analysis level it was considered significant to examine the distribution of creative and imitative attitudes of educationalists in compliance with nationwide norms. The research was conducted on the premises of three universities in three different cities in Silesia. The study group encompassed 116 persons and the non-random selection was determined by the membership in a group of full-time and part-time programmes. Keywords: creative behaviours, conformity, non-conformity, heuristic behaviours, algorithmic behaviours

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Introduction The author conducts classes with students of the pedagogy programme. For many years, while carrying out the programme on Psychopedagogical diagnostics or elective courses Art therapy, Non-verbal techniques in therapy, Dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia and etc., she has been conducting comparative studies with the use of the Creative Behaviours Questionnaire (S. Popek, 2004). The publication, aside from the tool description, constitutes an excellent source of psychological knowledge on a human’s creative inclinations. KANH Creative Behaviour Questionnaire, completed by teachers, is widely used in the diagnosis of special aptitudes of young people, especially students of art schools. In the described studies the author applied the KANH questionnaire as a reliable method of self-analysis of one’s own attitudes by in-service teachers, or those intending to work as teachers after completing higher education. As a valued lecturer, being invited to classes at various universities, the author has the ability to conduct a comparative analysis, resulting also from her own cognitive curiosity: Which university has the highest level of creative attitudes among the pedagogy students?

Research Methodology On the meta-analysis level it was considered significant to examine the distribution of creative and imitative attitudes of educationalists in compliance with nationwide norms. The research was conducted on the premises of three universities in three different cities in Silesia. The study group encompassed 116 persons and the non-random selection was determined by the membership in a group of full-time and part-time programmes. The groups in the state university included no fewer than 20 students. Creative Behaviours Questionnaire allows for efficient determination of the proportions in the scope of personality and intellectual traits. It measures conformity and non-conformity, algorithmic and heuristic behaviours, creative and imitative attitudes. The imitative attitude is signified by the dominance of results in the K and A scale. Creative attitudes result from the dominance of N and H scales. The indicators of conformity are: dependence, passivity, adaptive rigidity, stereotypicality, deference, weakness, timidity (fear), subordination, inability to cope on one’s own, inhibition, defensiveness, weak resistance and perseverance, irresponsibility, lack of criticism, intolerance, and a low sense of one’s self-esteem.

Grażyna Szafraniec

96

The indicators of non-conformity are: independence, activeness, vitality, adaptive flexibility, originality, consequence, courage, dominance, self-organization, spontaneity, expressiveness, openness, resistance and perseverance, responsibility, criticism, tolerance, and high sense of one’s esteem. The indicators of algorithmic behaviours are: directed perceptiveness, mechanical memory, imitative memory, convergent thinking, reproductive learning, directed learning, learning through understanding, intellectual rigidity, cognitive passivity, low reflexivity, imprinting, low construction ability and skill, verbal imitativeness, lack of technical ingenuity, and lack of artistic inclinations. The indicators of heuristic behaviours are: independence of observations, logical memory, creative imagination, divergent thinking, reconstructive thinking, independent learning, learning through comprehension, intellectual flexibility, cognitive activity, high reflexivity, intellectual independence, creativity, high construction ability and skill, verbal creativity, technical skill, and artistic inclinations. Each group of students learns about the Creative Behaviour Questionnaire during the Psychopedagogical diagnostics classes. Each student fills in the questionnaire on their own, learns about various methods of analysis, both arithmetic and visual, calculates their own scores. The calculations are checked and corrected. During the subsequent classes, a chart of the whole group is presented anonymously with the use of letters or numbers to indicate the different participants of the questionnaire. Each participant can check their position, the dominance of each of the scales, the scope of this dominance, as well as the dominance of attitudes. The participants do not know to whom each symbol refers. They are not exposed to risk or ridicule. The chart constitutes purely visual information on how each participant fares compared to the rest of the group. Table 1 below presents norms for four scales of KANH Creative Behaviour Questionnaire. Table 1. Norms for the KANH scale STEN

LEVEL

CONFORMITY

ALGORITHMIC BEHAVIOURS

NON-CONFORMITY

HEURISTIC BEHAVIOURS 26 – 30

10

HIGH

20 – 25

22 – 25

27 – 30

9

HIGH

18 – 19

20 – 21

25 – 26

25

8

HIGH

16 – 17

18 – 19

23 – 24

22 – 24

7

HIGH

13 – 15

16 – 17

21 – 22

20 – 21

6

AVERAGE

11 – 12

14 – 15

19 – 20

19

5

AVERAGE

8 – 10

13

18

17 – 18

97

Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

STEN

LEVEL

CONFORMITY

ALGORITHMIC BEHAVIOURS

NON-CONFORMITY

HEURISTIC BEHAVIOURS 15 – 16

4

LOW

6–7

11 – 12

16 – 17

3

LOW

4–5

9 – 10

13 – 15

13 – 14

2

LOW

3

8

12

11 – 12

1

LOW

0–2

0–7

5 – 11

5 – 10

Research Results Chart 1 below and subsequent charts present results for selected groups. The results were visualised in various ways, on purpose. The tool offers a multitude of possibilities for processing the results and comparing the intra- and extramural groups of various majors (in this case – pedagogy), of various colleges. Group 1. N=9, Private higher education institution, intramural group, bachelor degree studies, year III semester VI Chart 1. Results for scales K and A for group 1

Imitative attitude

K

20 15

13

13

4 1

9

12

2

3

7 4 4

12 5

13 3 6

A 15

15

13

10

8

9

18 6 7

Chart 2. Results for scales N and H for group 1

Creative attitude 19

17

15

9

16

17

17

11

1

2

3

4

14

N

H

16 15

16 18

19

15

21

5

6

7

10 8

18 9

Grażyna Szafraniec

98

Table 2. Individual results in group 1, sum of scales K and A, N and H Group 1

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

K+A

19

22

32

11

25

16

24

28

34

sten

4

4

7

1

5

3

5

5

7

level

l

l

h

l

a

l

a

a

h

N+H

35

32

26

25

36

30

37

28

34

sten

5

4

2

2

5

3

6

3

5

level

a

l

l

l

a

l

a

l

a

In this small group it was determined that the creative attitude is dominant among 7 people, in person 1, by 16 pts. In subsequent cases this dominance is higher by 10, 14, 11, 14, 13, 9 points. The dominance of the imitative attitude is present only in one person (case 3). The balance of attitudes occurs in the case of person 8. Generally speaking, in group 1 there are four people who exhibit an imitative attitude at a low level, 3 people – at an average level, 2 people – at a high level. It was found that 5 cases exhibit a creative attitude at a low level, while 4 people exhibit a creative attitude at an average level. It is impossible to interpret these charts without a table containing the following data: Table 3. Norms for the dominance of scale N over K, scale H over A. Differences N-K RAW RESULT

Differences H-A

STEN

RAW RESULT

STEN

LEVEL

+ 22 +30

10

+16 +25

10

HIGH

+17 +21

9

+13 +15

9

HIGH

+15 +16

8

+11 +12

8

HIGH

+11 +14

7

+7 +10

7

HIGH

+9 +10

6

+4 +6

6

AVERAGE

+5 +8

5

+1 +3

5

AVERAGE

+2 +4

4

-2 0

4

LOW

-2 +1

3

-6 – 3

3

LOW

-4 – 3

2

-8 – 7

2

LOW

-15 – 5

1

-15 – 9

1

LOW

In group 1 the difference in the results for scales N and K was as follows:

99

Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

Table 4. Differences N-K in group 1 Group 1

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

N-K

12

6

5

7

7

12

15

-3

8

sten

7

5

5

5

5

7

8

2

5

level

h

a

a

a

a

h

h

l

a

3 people exhibited a high dominance of non-conformity, 5 people – average, 1 person – low. In group 1 the difference in the results for scales H and A was the following: Table 5. Differences H-A in group 1 Group 1

H-A sten level

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

4 6 a

2 5 a

-11 1 l

7 7 h

4 6 a

2 5 a

2 5 a

3 5 a

9. 1 5 a

1 person exhibited a high dominance of heuristic behaviours, 7 people – average, 1 person – low. Table 6. Mean of results for scales N, K, A, H in group 1 GROUP 1

N

K

A

H

Mean for group

16

8.1

14.3

15.4

sten

4

5

6

4

level

l

a

a

l

The highest mean in group 1 was found in factor N – non-conformity. Its level is low. Conformity and algorithmic behaviours are average, heuristic behaviours are low.

Grażyna Szafraniec

100

Group 2. N=24, Private higher education institution, extramural studies, year III Chart 3. Creative and imitative attitudes – results for group 2, private higher education institution, extramural studies imitative

creative

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10

Marta K.

Katarzyna J

Beata

Dominika

Justyna

Mariola

Sylwia G

Ania B

Kasia G

Hania

Dominika

Monika K

Maria Z

Adrianna

Urszula

Joanna B

Dorota B

Magda M

Kasia MP

Kasia

Joanna W

Kinga

Beata Ś

0

Beata G.

5

9 people were found to exhibit a dominance of an imitative attitude. One person shows a balance between these attitudes. 14 people exhibit a dominance of a creative attitude. In group 2, the sum of scales K and A was as follows: Table 7. Sum of results for scales K and A in group 2 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

K+A 40 37 35 20 37 37 25 33 30 33 26 29 30 30 29 35 26 22 29 36 38 32 41 27 sten 9

8

7

4

8

8

5

7

6

7

5

6

6

6

6

7

5

4

6

7

8

7

9

5

level h

h

h

l

h

h

a

h

a

h

a

a

a

a

a

h

a

l

a

h

h

h

h

a

In group 2 it was found that 2 people exhibit an imitative attitude at a low level, 10 – at an average level, 12 – at a high level. In group 2, the sum of scales N and H was the following: Table 8. Sum of scales N and H in group 2 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

N+H 33 33 29 40 37 34 27 37 42 25 37 26 42 36 33 46 38 43 26 37 26 33 40 39 sten 5

5

3

6

6

5

3

6

7

2

6

3

7

5

5

8

6

7

3

6

3

5

6

6

level a

a

l

a

a

a

l

a

h

l

a

l

h

a

a

h

a

h

l

a

l

a

a

a

101

Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

In group 2 it was found that 6 people exhibit a creative attitude at a low level, 14 people – at an average level, 4 people – at a high level. Group 3. N=23, Public higher education institution, University of Silesia, year IV of intramural studies, unified Master’s degree Chart 4. Results of imitative attitudes, N=25, Public university, year IV of intramural studies Imitative attitude

A

K

50 40 30

19 12

20 15 10

10 11 16

9 0

A

B

7

14

15

10 11 10 12

C

D

F

G

11 10

16 9 H

16

12

9

9

E

13

8 7

I

J

3 K

8 6 L

13 10 M

3 N

9

12

9

7

8

O

P

9 Q

10

8

18

5 S

R

10

9

T

U

11 14

8

V

W

Chart 5. Results of creative attitudes, N=25, Public university, year IV of intramural studies H

Creative attitude

N

50 40 30 20 10 0

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

Grażyna Szafraniec

102

Table 9. Results for group 3, compared to sten norms Group 3 A B C D E F

G H I

J

K L M N O P Q R S

T U V W

K+A

24 28 19 21 18 24 27 18 29 17 11 14 22 16 16 24 37 18 13 22 19 25 19

sten

5

5

4

4

3

5

5

3

6

3

1

2

4

3

3

5

8

3

1

4

4

5

4

level

a

a

l

l

l

a

a

l

a

l

l

l

l

l

l

a

h

l

l

l

l

a

l

N+H

42 32 46 35 24 34 31 29 32 36 35 36 40 42 35 34 24 46 41 27 36 42 34

sten

7

4

8

5

2

5

4

3

4

5

5

5

6

7

5

5

2

8

7

3

5

7

5

level

h

l

h

a

l

a

l

l

l

a

a

a

a

h

a

a

l

h

h

l

a

h

a

One person exhibited a dominance of an imitative attitude by 13 points (person Q). Balance of attitudes was not exhibited by any person. In general, in group 3 it was found that 15 people exhibit an imitative attitude at a low level, 7 people – at an average level, 1 person – at a high level. Also, in group 3 it was found that 7 people exhibit a creative attitude at a low level, 10 people – at an average level, 6 people – at a high level. In group 3 the difference in the results for scales N and K was as follows: Table 10. Group 3 – difference in the results for scales N and K 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

N-K

14 -1 11 8 -1 8

0

6

1 11 15 9 12 18 9

8 -7 14 15 4 10 7

9

sten

7

3

7

5

3

5

3

5

3

7

8

6

7

9

6

5

1

7

8

4

6

5

6

level

h

l

h

a

l

a

l

a

l

h

h

a

h

h

a

a

l

h

h

l

a

a

a

8 people exhibited a high dominance of non-conformity, 9 people – average, 6 people – low. In group 3 the difference in the results of scales H and A was as follows: Table 11. Group 3 – difference in the results for scales H and A 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

H-A 4

5 16 6

7

2

4

5

2

8

9 13 6

8 10 2 -6 14 13 1

7 10 6

sten

6 10 6

7

5

6

6

5

7

7

9

6

7

7

5

3

9

9

5

7

7

6

a

h

a

a

a

a

h

h

h

a

h

h

a

l

h

h

a

h

h

a

6

level a

h

a

11 people exhibited heuristic behaviours at a high level, 11 people – at an average level, 1 person – at a low level.

103

Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

Table 12. Mean for group 3 in four dimensions of the KANH scale GROUP 3 Mean for group

N

K

A

H

17.35

9.52

11.39

25.83

sten

4

5

4

10

level

l

a

l

h

In group 3 the highest mean is exhibited in terms of the H factor – heuristic behaviours, which is at a high level. It turned out that non-conformist and algorithmic behaviours were at a low level, while conformity was at an average level. Group 4. N=16, Public higher education institution, University of Silesia, year V of extramural studies, unified Master’s degree Table 13. Results for group 4, compared to sten norms

Kazia

Beata

Aneta

Agnieszka

Anna

Patrycja

Elżbieta

Ilona

Kasia

Beata

Mariola

Agnieszka

Kasia

Joanna

Dorota

Dominika

Group 4

K

14

16

11

16

12

13

14

15

12

11

8

10

6

17

7

5

A

16

13

16

18

16

15

17

21

20

16

16

11

15

21

13

12

K+A

30

29

27

34

28

28

31

36

32

27

24

21

21

38

20

17

Sten

6

6

5

4

5

5

6

7

7

5

5

4

4

8

4

3

level

a

a

a

l

a

a

a

h

h

a

a

l

l

h

l

l

N

24

17

25

18

17

17

18

29

16

14

18

25

22

10

21

24

H

23

14

21

15

19

23

20

20

17

17

17

19

18

14

18

20

N+H

47

31

46

33

36

40

38

49

33

31

35

44

40

24

39

44

sten

8

4

8

5

5

6

6

9

5

4

5

8

6

2

6

8

level

h

l

h

a

a

a

a

h

a

l

a

h

a

l

a

h

One person (Joanna) was found to exhibit a dominance of an imitative attitude. A high level of an imitative attitude was also determined in two other people (Ilona and Kasia). Ilona also presents a high level of a creative attitude. In general, group 4 consists of 5 people with a  low-level imitative attitude, 8 people with an average-level imitative attitude and 3 people with a high-level imitative attitude. Group 4 was also determined to exhibit 3 low-level creative attitudes, 8 average-level and 5 high-level creative attitudes.

Grażyna Szafraniec

104

Chart 6. Results for all of the scales of the KANH questionnaire in group 4 conformity

30

algorithmic beh

non-conformity

heuristic beh.

25

20

15

10

5

Dominika

Dorota

Joanna

Kasia

Agnieszka

Mariola

Beata

Kasia

Ilona

Elżbieta

Patrycja

Anna

Agnieszka

Aneta

Beata

Kazimiera

0

Such a breakdown of results makes it possible to specify which scale dominates. Charts with names of participants allow for quick identification of a student that distinguishes themselves in each of the studied scopes. In group 4 the difference in the results for the N and K scales was the following: Table 14. Group 4 - difference in results for the N and K scales Group 4

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

N-K

10

1

14

2

5

4

4

14

4

3

10

15

16

-7

14

19

sten

6

3

7

4

5

4

4

7

4

4

6

8

8

1

7

9

level

a

l

h

l

a

l

l

h

l

l

a

h

h

l

h

h

6 people exhibited a high dominance of non-conformity, 3 people – average, 7 people – low. In group 4, the difference in the results for the H and A scales was as follows:

105

Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

Table 15. Group 4 - difference in the results for the H and A scales Group 4

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

H-A

7

1

5

3

3

8

3

-1

-3

1

1

8

3

-7

5

8

sten

7

5

6

5

5

7

5

4

3

5

5

7

5

2

6

7

level

h

a

a

a

a

h

a

l

l

a

a

h

a

l

a

h

4 people exhibited a high dominance of heuristic behaviours, 9 people – average, 3 people – low. Table 16. Mean results for group 4 GROUP 4

N

K

A

H

Mean for group

19.69

11.69

16

18.44

sten

6

6

7

5

level

a

a

h

a

In group 4, the highest mean was determined for non-conformity, which is at an average level. Average conformity and heuristic behaviours, high level of algorithmic behaviours. Group 5. N=11, Private higher education institution, semester V, extramural, first cycle degree Chart 7. Results for the imitative attitude in group 5 A

Imitative attitude

50 40 30 20 10 0

21

18

16 10

4

12

15

11 3

19

A

B

C

D

K

15

14

13

E

F

14 19

G

16 13

11

13

7

7

12

H

I

J

K

Chart 8. Results for the creative attitude in group 5 H

Creative attitude

N

50 40 16

30 20 10 0

20 18

7

14 23 11 A

18

16

B

21 C

15 D

22

22

E

F

11

9 10 G

19

16

21

H

I

13

13

15

J

K

Grażyna Szafraniec

106

Two people exhibited the presence of an imitative attitude. One person exhibited the presence of a balance of attitudes. Table 17. Results for group 5, compared to sten norms Group 5

A. 

B. 

C. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

G. 

H. 

I. 

J. 

K. 

K+A

22

31

14

37

18

28

40

27

20

18

28

sten

4

6

2

8

3

5

9

5

4

3

5

level

l

a

l

h

l

a

h

a

l

l

a

N+H

25

39

37

22

40

42

19

34

40

24

28

sten

2

6

6

1

6

7

1

5

6

2

3

level

l

a

a

l

a

h

l

a

a

l

l

In group 5 it was found that 5 people exhibit a low level of imitative attitude, 4 people – average level, 2 people – high level. In terms of creative attitude, 5 people exhibit a low level, 5 people – an average level, 1 person – a high level. In group 5 the difference in results for the N and K scales was the following: Table 18. Difference of the N-K scales in group 5 Group 5

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

N-K

-1

8

17

-4

8

9

-9

3

14

6

11 3

sten

3

5

9

2

5

6

1

4

7

5

4

level

l

a

h

l

a

a

l

l

h

a

l

In group 5 a high level of non-conformity dominance was exhibited by 2 people, an average level – by 4 people, while 5 people are characterized by a low dominance of non-conformity. In group 5 the difference in the results for the H and A scales was as follows: Table 19. Differences for the H-A scales in group 5 Group 5

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

H-A

4

0

5

-11

14

5

-12

4

6

0

-3

sten

6

4

6

1

9

6

1

6

6

4

3

level

a

l

a

l

h

a

l

a

a

l

l

In group 5 only 1 person exhibited a dominance of heuristic behaviours at a high level, 5 people exhibited an average dominance, 5 people – low.

107

Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

Table 20. Mean results for group 5, for the N, K, A, H scales GROUP 5

N

K

A

H

Mean for group

17.16

12.18

13.55

14.64

sten

4

6

5

4

level

l

a

a

l

In group 5 the highest mean concerns non-conformity, it is at a low level. Low heuristic behaviours. Average conformity and algorithmic behaviours. Group 6. N=8, Private higher education institution, extramural, first cycle degree, 5th semester Chart 9. Results for group 6, private higher eduation insitution, extramural studies, first cycle degree, 5th semester 50

imitative attitude

45

creative attitude

40 35 30

34

31

25 20

27

26

25

26

26

15

16

10 5

36

23

38

41

35

40

31

46

Marta

Karol

0 Viola

Agnieszka Agnieszka

Sandra Agnieszka S. Aleksandra

Viola

Agnieszka

Agnieszka

Sandra

Agnieszka

Aleksandra

Marta

Karol

Table 21. Results for group 6, compared to sten norms

34

25

26

27

31

26

26

16

sten

7

5

5

5

6

5

5

3

level

h

a

a

a

a

a

a

l

N+H

36

23

38

41

35

40

31

46

sten

5

1

6

7

5

6

4

8

level

a

l

a

h

a

a

l

h

dominance of creative attiude

2

-2

12

14

4

14

5

30

Group 6 K+A

Grażyna Szafraniec

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Group 6 was found to exhibit 1 imitative attitude at a low level, 6 imitative attitudes at an average level and 1 imitative attitude at a high level. In terms of creative attitudes, group 6 was found to exhibit 2 low level, 4 average level and 2 high level creative attitudes. Group 7. N=19, Private higher education institution, Career Counseling, extramural, first cycle degree, 5th semester Chart 10. Results for group 7 – creative and imitative attitudes imitative attitude 50 45

creative attitude

46

45 38

40

38 34 35

35

40

44 41

40

37 34

41

36 32

32

32 29

30 25

22

21

20 15

41

27 2424

23

34

33

35

29 30 27

27

21

18

18

16

15 9

10 5 0

A 23 B 22 C 21 D 28 E 23 F 24 G 30

H

I 27 J 26 K 22 L 21 Ł 22 M 21 N 22 O 26 P 22 R 40 S 47

Table 22. Results for group 7, compared to sten norms SYMBOL, name, age

K

A

K+A sten level

A. Kasia 23

7

8

15

2

B. Julia 22

7

11

18

C. Marta 21

10

11

21

D. Monika 28

17

18

E. Daria 23

8

F. Dana 24

13

G. Małgorzata 30 H. Ania I. Malwina 27

Dominance N+H sten level of creative attitude

N

H

l

25

20

45

8

h

+30

3

l

19

19

38

6

a

+20

4

l

17

17

34

5

a

+13

35

7

h

20

18

38

6

a

+3

14

22

4

l

21

16

37

6

a

+15

10

23

4

l

19

15

34

5

a

+11

14

18

32

7

h

19

21

40

6

a

+8

8

13

21

4

l

21

19

40

6

a

+19

3

6

9

1

l

25

21

46

8

h

+37

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Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

SYMBOL, name, age

K

A

K+A sten level

J. Aneta 26

14

18

32

7

K. Monika 22

13

16

29

L. Joanna 21

6

12

18

Ł. Sabina 22

11

16

M. Monika 21

9

N. Justyna 22

12

Dominance N+H sten level of creative attitude

N

H

h

19

17

36

5

a

+4

6

a

22

19

41

7

h

+12

3

l

25

16

41

7

h

+23

27

5

a

12

12

24

2

l

-3

15

24

5

a

18

14

32

4

l

+8

15

27

5

a

17

16

33

5

a

+6 +28

O. Łukasz 26

7

9

16

3

l

24

20

44

7

h

P. Adriana 22

20

14

34

7

h

15

14

29

3

l

-5

R. Marcelina 40

16

14

30

6

a

15

12

27

3

l

-3

S. Dorota 47

16

19

35

7

h

19

22

41

7

h

+6

In group 7, it was found that 9 people exhibit an imitative attitude at a low level, 5 people – at an average level, 5 people – at a high level. Creative attitude is present in group 7 among 4 people at a low level, among 9 people at an average level and among 6 people at a high level. Table 23. Mean results for all of the KANH scales for group 7 GROUP 7 Mean for group

N

K

A

H

19.58

11.1

13.53

17.26

sten

6

6

5

5

level

a

a

a

a

In group 7 the highest mean was exhibited in terms of non-conformity. It is also an average level compared to Polish national norms. Group 7 achieves an average level also for the scales indicating conformity, algorithmic behaviours and heuristic behaviours.

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Group 8. N=6, Private higher education institution, extramural, first cycle degree, 5th semester Chart 11. Creative and imitative attitudes in group 8, private higher education institution, extramural studies imitative attitude

creative attitude

47

50 43

45

39

40

38 33

35

33

30 25 20

24

22

20 16

35

16

15 10 5 0

Kasia

Ania

U

Kasia 40

Sylwia

Karolina

Table 24. Results for group 8, compared to sten norms Group 8

Kasia

Ania

K+A

16

20

U 16

Kasia 40 Sylwia 22

24

Karolina

sten

3

4

3

4

5

8

level

l

l

l

l

a

h

N+H

43

47

39

33

33

35

38

sten

7

8

6

5

5

5

level

h

h

a

a

a

a

dominance of creative attitude

27

27

23

11

9

-3

In the small, six-person group 8, one person was found to exhibit a dominance of an imitative attitude. In group 8, the imitative attitude was found to be exhibited by 4 people at a low level, by 1 person at an average level, by 1 person at a high level. The creative attitude is exhibited by 4 people at an average level and by 2 people at a high level. Nobody exhibits a creative attittude at a low level. All of the gathered results are presented in the chart below:

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Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

Chart 12. Results of measuring creative attitudes in the studied group of 116 people – students of pedagogy Creative attitudes of pedagogy students measured with the KANH questionnaire

creative attitude imitative attitude balance of attitudes

The breakdown of results in terms of creative attitudes is shown in Chart 13. 28 people (24.14%) exhibit a high level of creative attitude, 56 people (48.28%) – an average level, 32 people (27.59%) – exhibit a low level of creative attitude. Chart 13. Creative attitudes – breakdown of results in the studied group N=116 Creative attitudes high

28

32

average low

56

Chart 14. Breakdown of creative attitudes in the studied groups 30 low 25 average 20 high 15 10 5 0 group one

group two

group three

group four

group five

group six

group seven

group eight

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The breakdown of results in terms of imitative attitudes is shown in Chart 15. 45 people (38.79%) exhibit a low level of imitative attitude, 44 people (37.39%) exhibit an average level, 27 people (23.27%) exhibit a high level. Chart 15. Imitative attitudes – breakdown of results in the studied group N=116 Imitative attitudes low 27

45

average high

44

Chart 16. Breakdown of imitative attitudes in the studied groups 30

high

25

average

20

low

15 10 5 0 group one

group two

group three

group four

group five

group six

group seven

group eight

Conclusion Many publications are dedicated to the model of a pedagogue, personality traits that are considered to be indispensable, important when working with children and young people. Getting to know students’ personalities, both when it comes to in-service teachers as well as future ones, has been of crucial importance to the author of this paper since the beginning of her professional career. A number of classes (including elective ones) allow the author to measure and evaluate the level of conformity and non-conformity, algorithmic and heuristic behaviours, creative and imitative attitudes among students, not to mention intra-individual and intergroup comparisons. A  number of students study for their exams in

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Diagnosing Creative Behaviours of Pedagogy Students

a mechanical way, not understanding what they read. Their knowledge is superficial, derived from the notes of others, not based on an independent study of literature. A candidate with a high level of imitative attitudes will not be applying innovation activities in his or her pedagogical work. In group 1, e.g., there was not even a single person with a high level of creative attitude. A high level of imitative attitude is present in as many as half of group 2. The data gathered with the use of the KANH Creative Behaviour Questionnaire are especially useful when conducting elective classes during which students create, paint with their fingers, perform many art therapy techniques; they have the opportunity to develop their musical, plastic, motor, and theatrical talents. The results presented in the text encompass a group of 116 students of pedagogy. Thus, the results should be satisfactory. 94 people (81%) were found to exhibit a dominance of creative attitude over imitative attitude. It was found that only 19 people (16.38%) exhibit a dominance of imitative attitude over creative attitude. 3 people (2.5%) were found to exhibit a balance between the attitudes. The highest rate of high creative attitudes was found among students of Silesian University (28.2%). In private school 1, the rate of high creative attitudes was 21.42%. In private school 2, the same rate was only 18.37%. Creative attitudes of the students of those three Silesian higher education institutions are presented in a comparative chart below: Chart 17. Creative attitudes of students: breakdown according to the type of higher education institution Creative attitudes University

Creative attitudes Private school no.1

Creative attitudes Private school no.2

high

high

high

average

average

average

low

low

low

The lowest rate of high imitative attitudes was found among the students of Silesian University (10.26%). In private high education institution 1, the rate of high imitative attitudes was 25%. In private institution 2, the same rate was 32.65%. Imitative attitudes of students of those three Silesian institutions are presented in a comparative chart below:

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Chart 18. Imitative attitudes of students: breakdown according to the type of higher education institution Imitative attitudes University

Imitative attitudes Private school no. 1

Imitative attitudes Private school no. 2

low

low

low

average

average

average

high

high

high

The studies performed with the use of the KANH Questionnaire are valuable insofar that they do not lead to ascribing negative labels, as is the case with other tools. Each of the measured scopes, as well as expressions of conformity and algorithmic behaviours turned out to be of use when performing mental and manual activities (Popek, 2004, p. 56). Other findings of studies on pedagogy students can be found in the author’s publication concerning the method of finger painting (Szafraniec, 2012).

References Popek, S. (2004). Kwestionariusz twórczego zachowania KANH, published by Marie Curie Skłodowska University, Lublin. Szafraniec, G. (2012). Malowanie palcami – analiza diagnostyczna, published by the University of Silesia, Katowice.

Andrea Jindrová, Hana Vostrá Vydrová Czech Republic

Lifelong education at the Faculty of Economics and Management at the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague

Abstract Lifelong learning is not an aim but a means for continuous and permanent development and successful advancement of each individual. Not only does it bring competitive advantage at the labour market, but it also helps to solve problems and provides new knowledge and contacts. Thanks to lifelong learning any individual has an opportunity to get educated at various stages of his life in accordance with his own interests and needs and his value at the labour market is increasing. Lifelong learning differs from school education by a variety of means, methods and motivation. The paper describes and analyses one of the main stages of lifelong learning, which is the adult education at the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague (CULS). The main aim of this paper is to provide basic information on the lifelong education at the faculty of Economics and Management of the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague. Selected statistical methods of quantitative research were used in order to analyse the above-mentioned issues. The data were obtained from a questionnaire survey and analysed using the one- dimensional as well as multidimensional statistical methods. The basis for the analysis itself were the data about students in the courses of lifelong education in the combined form of studying at the Faculty of Economics and Management (FEM) of CULS in Prague between the years 2004 – 2012. Keywords: adult education, lifelong education, labour market, qualitative data, test

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Andrea Jindrová, Hana Vostrá Vydrová

Introduction The aim of this paper is to define and characterize lifelong education at the Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague according to the age and sex of the students. The evaluation of this form of education was based on real data. The basis for the analysis itself were the data about students in the courses of lifelong education in the combined form of studying at the Faculty of Economics and Management (FEM) of CULS in Prague between the years 2004 – 2012. Defining the term of lifelong education The development of lifelong learning should be integrated into all areas of education. The main goal of lifelong learning is mainly the enhancement and modernisation of primary, secondary and tertiary education and implementation of individualised and differentiated education. In this context it is necessary to mention the fact that the term lifelong education is often confused with lifelong learning. However, lifelong learning is a complex of activities that form the experience and skills of a person throughout his life and not only in adulthood, as it is with lifelong education. It can be concluded from the above-mentioned that the lifelong education of adults represents only one stage of lifelong learning. (Vychová, 2008). As Vychová (2008) also mentions, these two terms can be used as synonyms at a certain level of generalisation. Lifelong education focuses mainly on acquiring new and developing the existing skills and knowledge. Adult education commences after the systematic school education is finished and when the person begins his first employment. The highest level of the education completed either in the classic full-time studying or in the form of lifelong education is closely related to one’s position at the labour market. (Jachimczak, 2012). Adult education covers professional (qualification) education, education of citizens as well as interest education. The concept of lifelong education was defined for the first time at the UNESCO conference in 1970 by Paul Legrand. (Brdek, Vychová, 2004). Two years later, in 1972, an international survey on the state of education was carried out and it emphasised each individual’s right to education throughout his life. The results of the survey proved the necessity of combining formal and informal education as well as the importance of the quality rather than quantity of education. The strategy of lifelong learning, which was presented in the OECD report in 1973, defined lifelong education as “education continuing after joining the labour market “. (UIV, 2000). At present this definition is not valid anymore and it should rather be called further education or adult education. (Vychová, 2008). In 1979 the ability

Lifelong education at the Faculty of Economics

117

of individuals to analyse and process new knowledge was regarded as the driving force of society (Botkin et al., 1979). Due to the economic crisis in the seventies and eighties of the last century the importance of the above-mentioned priorities was on its decrease. Among the most prominent figures in the area of adult education in the CR at that time were Vladimír Jochmann and Josef Fischer, who founded the subject of study called Adult Education at Palacký’s University in Olomouc in 1977. In the 1990s more attention was paid to lifelong education. It was caused by the new concept of solving a significant amount of social and economic problems. At that time the term of education was substituted by the term learning and it was understood to be an activity that takes place in schools. In the UNESCO report lifelong education was considered to be the means of incessant personal development and a means that enables the individual to adapt to the ever-faster changes in society (UNESCO, 1996). The year of 2000 was critical in the area of education. All over the world intensive globalisation processes were in progress and these were made faster due to the advances in information technologies and their universal application. In his paper, Chang (2002) deals with the history of adult education and emphasises using the Internet as a teaching aid for lifelong education. Other authors also highlight using information technologies in lifelong education as well as in distant form of studying - Rodriguezrosello (1993) and Lloyd, Moore and Kitching (2001). Pilch and Stochmialek (2008) also stress the usage of new information and communication technologies, i.e. the Internet, in adult education. According to Pilch and Stochmialek (2008), this is caused by the great importance of ICT in contemporary society. The evaluation of adult education applying new methods and forms under special circumstances is presented in the paper by Kosová (2010). Lifelong education at CULS Lifelong education at CULS in Prague is an important part of the educational activities of the university. Within the framework of lifelong education programmes the faculties and departments offer a variety of courses designed for different target groups (employees, seniors, graduates etc.). The realized courses are aimed at improving qualifications for job performance, preparing for entrance tests or as a matter of interest. At CULS the courses designed to enhance one’s qualifications are organised as courses of lifelong education in the form of combined studies. The combined study uses elements of full-time study as well as distant study. A student has less contact classes with a teacher, studies individually in a virtual environment, has

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Andrea Jindrová, Hana Vostrá Vydrová

special teaching aids available and is connected online to the teachers and faculty via the Internet. The course of lifelong education is an exceptional (paid) study, organised in accordance with the law No. 147/2001 of the Code, which amends the law No. 111/1998 of the code – Act on universities (§ 60 Lifelong education). The participants in the course are not university students according to the law on universities, but rather participants in lifelong education. The course of lifelong education in the combined form is accessible to anybody who has fulfilled the condition of successfully completing secondary education for the Bachelor’s degree study and to anybody who has successfully obtained the Bachelor’s degree for the Master’s degree study. The content of the courses is based on the accredited subjects that are taught in the full-time programmes of the university. The participants in the course obtain “Proof of studying in a lifelong education course“ and having completed the course they can get a certificate if required. The study includes contact classes in six subjects every semester. All the subjects comprise eight hours of lectures that take place in the consultation centre and a four-hour consultation that can take place also in the consultation centre. The FEM publishes textbooks for combined study and also virtual studying materials in the LMS Moodle platform and these serve as support for self-study. (Dömeová et al., 2011). Having graduated the students obtain a degree, i.e., Bc or Ing, just as the students of regular study.

Research Methodology The analytic part of the paper is focused on the development in the numbers and structure of the students in the consultation centres, which are in the competence of FEM CULS in Prague. The consultation centres are in Hradec Králové, Cheb, Jičín, Klatovy, Litoměřice, Most, Šumperk and in SezimovoÚstí. The centres had been founded in cooperation with one or the other local secondary or higher education institutions or other kinds of organisations (e.g., Chamber of Agriculture). The analysis of the data was based on reduction, organisation, synthesis and summarisation of information applying the exploratory analysis of data. It is a research analysis of data and it is significant that it is based on a complex of graphical and semi-graphical methods and computing processes which yield numerical values of important characteristics of the sample under study. It is based

Lifelong education at the Faculty of Economics

119

on methods that are used for initial recognition of the data matrix structure and searching for hypotheses for further testing. In the case of quantitative variables, the basic elementary characteristics used in analysing time series were selected in order to monitor the development of the selected indicators related to lifelong education. The analysis of the quantitative variables was based on the testing of the bi-variate correlation of the indicators applying the chi-squared test of mutual independence. The construction of the measures of correlation intensity was based on computing the Pearson coefficient of contingence (Pecáková, 2008). The processed data were obtained with the consent of the vice-dean for pedagogy. The statistical computing was done the IBM SPSS statistical software, version 20. The significance level in testing the statistical hypotheses was set at α=0.05.

Research Results Between 2004 and 2012 FEM CULS in Prague offered programmes of lifelong education in the consultation centres at the Bachelor’s level (B) and also at the successive Master’s level (SM). There were two subjects in particular: • Public Administration and Regional Development (PARD) • Business and Administration (BA) The primary description of the data was based on the computing of absolute and relative frequencies. The description was used to get an overview of the development of numbers of students at the Bachelor’s level in particular consultation centres. (Table 1). The first year under study was the year of 2004, when FEM CULS in Prague had two consultation centres: in Cheb (42.1 % of the total number of students) and in Most (57.9 % of the total number of students) only studying the PARD subject. In the following years more centres were opened. The most consultation centres (eight) were opened in 2008. Table 1. Numbers of students admitted to lifelong learning courses over 2004 – 2012 Bachelor’s degree study form

Andrea Jindrová, Hana Vostrá Vydrová

120 Centres

Subject

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

103

97

77

32

Hradec Králové

BA

126

Cheb

BA

121

Sezimovo Ústí

BA

Hradec Králové

PARD

Cheb

PARD

57 40

236

369

383

177

80

84

83

76

69 46

Jičín

PARD

51

47

Klatovy

PARD

96

275

260

267

122

126

111

95

Litoměřice

PARD

110

119

272

297

141

171

144

86

Most

PARD

157

218

232

220

50

52

53

38

Šumperk

PARD

59

90

53

69

82

66

Sezimovo Ústí

PARD

63

43

25

526

675

557

411

Total

67

55

95

679

68

171

93

1133

1460

1534

Source: own processed data

In order to get a complete overview it is necessary to add the information about the successive Master’s level studies in the consultation centres of FEM CULS in Prague (Table 2). The largest number of students at the successive Master’s level was studying in Litoměřice from 2009 to 2012. Most students attended the consultation centre in Litoměřice in 2012. In contrast, the lowest number of students in the year of 2012 studied in Cheb (4.8 % of the total number of students). Table 2. Numbers of students admitted to lifelong learning courses over 2004 – 2012 in Successive Master’s degree study form Centres

Subject

2009

2010

2011

2012

Hradec Králové

BA

117

98

Hradec Králové

PARD

135

152

152

162

Cheb

PARD

108

69

82

50

Jičín

PARD

66

78

71

83

Klatovy

PARD

128

120

123

136

Litoměřice

PARD

178

194

180

167

Most

PARD

124

108

81

82

81

106

117

148

157

168

157

887

959

1080

1052

Šumperk

PARD

Sezimovo Ústí

PARD

Total Source: own processed data

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Lifelong education at the Faculty of Economics

Figure 1 presents the total numbers of students. There is a considerable increase at the Bachelor’s level from 2004 to 2008. In 2009, a significant decrease in the numbers of students at the Bachelor’s level was registered and it continued till 2012. In contrast, in 2008 the first consultation centres for the successive Master’s degree were opened and students showed significant interest in those. The subjects leading to the Master’s degree were increasing till 2011. In 2012 there was a moderate decrease in the number of students. Figure 1. Total numbers of admitted students in the lifelong education courses 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 2004

2005

2006

2007

Master

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Bachelor

The average age of students in the consultation centres in 2004 at the Bachelor’s level of study was 32.08 (Table 3). The value of median for the age of students is 30 years of age. The range of age of the students at the Bachelor’s level of study in the consultation centres went up from 22 to 60. On the contrary, in 2012 the average age of students at the Bachelor’s level increased to 32.98, which represents almost a year of difference. The value of median for the age of students is 31 years of age. The range of age of the students changed significantly as both limits (the lowest age as well as the highest age) dropped by five years. The range of age in 2012 was in the interval from 17 to 55. This decrease in age suggests that after completing their secondary studies students start their employment and at the same time they start studying in the consultation centres and improve their qualifications. The average age of students at the successive Master’s level of study was 34.07 in 2009. The range of age of the students was in the interval from 22 to 57. In contrast, in 2012 the average age was 32.98 and the range of age was in the interval from 22 to 56. In this form of study the decrease in the age is significant.

Andrea Jindrová, Hana Vostrá Vydrová

122

Table 3. Age of the students Start of studying

Type – code

Mean

Median

Minimum

Maximum

2004

Bachelor’s level

32.08

30

22

60

2005

Bachelor’s level

30.90

30

19

56

2006

Bachelor’s level

31.55

31

19

57

2007

Bachelor’s level

32.83

32

19

57

2008

Bachelor’s level

33.00

33

19

64

2009

Successive Master’s level

34.07

33

22

57

Bachelor’s level

31.12

31

19

55

2010

Successive Master’s level

33.61

33

22

55

Bachelor’s level

31.28

31

19

55

Successive Master’s level

33.68

33

22

59

Bachelor’s level

31.87

31

19

53

Successive Master’s level

32.98

32

22

56

Bachelor’s level

31.32

31

17

55

Successive Master’s level

33.56

33

22

59

Bachelor’s level

32.03

31

17

64

2011 2012 Total

Source: own processed data

The ratio of men and women at the Bachelor’s level of study is balanced in 2004. In the consultation centres 52.6 % of women and 47.4 % of men studied in 2004. Over time, the lifelong education studies become the domain of women. In 2012, 61.8 % of women and 38.2% of men studied in the consultation centres. The highest ratio of women in the consultation centres was in 2009, when the number of women studying in the consultation centres reached 63.3 %. There are more women also at the successive Master’s level of study. In the first year (2009) 60.3 % of women and 39.7 % of men studied in this form of study. The highest ratio of women at the successive Master’s level of study was in 2011 and reached 67.9%. In the last year under study (2012), the ratio of women was 65 % of the total number of students. The same tendencies were observed in the Bachelor’s form of study in the consultation centres of FEM CULS in Prague. Further analysis of the data was focused on the relationship between the students’ gender and age. In order to get clearly arranged data and for logical reasons the relationships between gender and age were again processed for the Bachelor’s and Master’s levels of study separately. Most of the students who start studying belong to the interval of 27 – 36 years at the Bachelor’s level (3269 students) and also at the Master’s level (1663 students).

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Lifelong education at the Faculty of Economics

There were 4932 students who started studying at this age (44.6 % of the total number of students). On the other hand, the least numerous group in both forms of study is the group at the age of 57 and older. The most significant differences between men and women are in the group of students up to 26 years of age. In this age interval, 861 men and 1 976 women started studying in the consultation centres (Table 4). Table 4. Contingency table of relationship between gender and age Bachelor’s level Gender

woman

Master’s level

Total

do 26

27 – 36

37 – 46

47 – 56

57 and more

659

1472

654

122

7

2914

man

Total

Gender

Age intervals

1252

1797

926

176

5

4156

1911

3269

1580

298

12

7070

Age intervals do 26

27 – 36

37 – 46

47 – 56

57 and more

202

674

457

93

0

man woman

Total

Total 1426

724

989

689

147

3

2552

926

1663

1146

240

3

3978

Source: own processed data

From the above-mentioned analyses it is obvious that there are statistically significant differences between men and women and their representative frequencies in the particular age intervals at the Bachelor’s level of study (p-value 0.000) as well as at the Master’s level of study (p-value 0.000).

Discussion During the period under study it was possible to study courses at the Bachelor’s (B) as well as successive Master’s (SM) level in the consultation centres of FEM CULS within the framework of the lifelong education programme. The first year under study was 2004, when FEM CULS had two consultation centres in Cheb and in Most and the only subject studied then was PARD. On the other hand, most consultation centres, eight, were opened in 2008 (Hradec Králové, Cheb, Jičín, Klatovy, Litoměřice, Most, Šumperk, SezimovoÚstí). The ratio of men and women at the Bachelor’s level of study was balanced in 2004. In the consultation centres there were 52.6 % of women and 47.4 % of men.

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Over time, there are more and more women studying at lifelong education courses. In 2012 there were 61.8 % of women and 38.2 % of men studying in the consultation centres. The highest ratio of women in the consultation centres was in 2009, when the number of women studying in the consultation centres reached 63.3 %. Most of the students who start studying belong to the interval of 27 – 36 years at the Bachelor’s level (3269 students), and also at the Master’s level (1663 students). There were altogether 4932 students who started studying at this age (44.6 % of the total number of students). On the other hand, the least numerous group in both forms of study is the group at the age of 57 and older. In this interval only 15 persons started studying in both forms of study during the period under study. The distant type of study is a new trend in education. One of the advantages of distant study is its flexibility. Except for the compulsory consultations, the process of learning is to a large extent based on self-studying, in contrast to full-time studying. (Chang, 2002). It is apparent from the above-mentioned evaluation that the employed students are interested in the lifelong form of education. As mentioned in the paper by Dömeová et al. (2010), the students in the consultation centres of FEM CULS in Prague are predominantly women (61 % – 70 %). Most of the students are employed full-time or women on maternity leave. The main advantage of the combined form of study is that it is more flexible than full-time study as far as timing is concerned. According to experience, the time flexibility is most important for women with families. (DePew and Lettner-Rust, 2009)

Conclusion The paper is focused on the lifelong education at the FEM of the CULS in Prague. From the above-mentioned analyses it can be concluded that the structure of the students at the Bachelor’s level as well as Master’s level of study was changing during the period under study. From the moment when the consultation centres were established, increased interest in obtaining the Bachelor’s degree was recorded (between 2004 and 2008). In the following period a decrease in the numbers of students was recorded. The successive subjects of the Master’s level of study were opened in the consultation centres in 2009 for the first time. Since that time the interest in this form of study has been quite stable. In conclusion, it can be said that lifelong education is one of the priorities of contemporary society as the population is aging steadily. This is closely related to the needs of the people at productive age to manage new knowledge and informa-

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tion technologies and their interest in education and programmes that will enable them develop their creative skills, help them deal with the demands of modern society and fulfil their needs and interests. Lifelong education is an important part of life and getting qualifications of each individual. The demand for economic growth and positive development of society has direct consequences for the education system. Mainly lifelong education has been becoming more easily accessible especially at higher levels and as a result education is also significantly longer.

Acknowledgements: The authors of the paper gratefully acknowledge the support of the FEM, CULS, via IGA grant, no. 20141028.

References Brdek, M., &Vychová, H. (2004).Evropskávzdělávacípolitika/programy, principy a cíle. Prague: ASPI Publishing, s. r. o. Botkin, J., & Elmandjra M., &Malitza M. (1998).No Limits to learn, Bridging the human gap. Retrieved 5/02/2013, from http://www.elmandjra.org/limits.pdf Chang, F.C. (2002). Intelligent assessment of distance learning. Information Science, 140 (1 – 2), 105 – 125. DePew, K.E., &Lettner-Rust H. (2009).Mediating Power: Distance Learning Interfaces, Classroom Epistemology, and the Gaze. Computers and Composition, 26 (3), 174 – 189. Dömeová, L. &Vostrá-Vydrová, H. , &Jindrová, A. (2011).Comparison of full time and combined studies with gender aspect. Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, 4 (1), 31 – 45. Dömeová, L. &Vostrá-Vydrová, H., &Jindrová, A. (2010) Women in distance studies. In Proceedings 7t International Conference on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education 2010.Prague: CULS, FEM, Department of Systems Engineering, 2010. FEM, (2012).Pokynděkana k organizacikurzů CŽV v akademickémroce 2013/2014, Retrieved 13/04/2013, from http://www.pef.czu.cz/cs/?r=4057 Hendl, J. (2005). Kvalitativnívýzkum: základnímetodyaaplikace. Vyd. 1. Prague: Portál. Jachimczak, B. (2012). Education at a higher level in life plans of schoolchildren with disability who complete their education at a vocational level. New Educational Review, 27 (1), 316 – 323.

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Pecáková, I. (2008) Statistika v terénníchprůzkumech. 1. vyd. Praha: Professional Publishing. Pilch, M. &Stochmialek, J. (2008).Information and communication technologies in the process of adult education - Possible benefits and threats. New Educational Review, 14 (1), 170 – 183. Lloyd, R.M., & Moore, C.J. , &Kitching, N. (2001).Online CPD for engineers. IEE Colloquium (Digest), 46 (PART I), 20/1 – 20/2. Kosová, B. (2010) Andragogical reflections on teachers’ lifelong education and leasing. New Educational Review, 20 (1), 173 – 182. Rodriguezrosello, L. (1993). Research-and-Development on Advanced Learning Technologies in Europe.IFIP Transactions A-Computer Science and Technology, 35, 3 – 14. UNESCO (1999).Learning: The Treasure Within. Retrieved 2/05/2013, from http:// www.unesco.org/delors/treasure.htm UIV “Ústav pro informacevevzdělávání” (2000).Celoživotníučení: Příspěvekškolskýchsystémů v členskýchzemíchEvropskéunie. Výsledkyprůzkumu EURYDICE. Brussels: EURYDICE. Vychová, H. (2008). Vzdělávánídospělýchvevybranýchzemích EU 1.vydání, Prague: Výzkumnýústavpráce a sociálníchvěcí. Zákon č. 111/1998 Sb. - Zákon o vysokýchškolách, § 60 Celoživotnívzdělávání. Retrieved 13/04/2013, from http://zakony-online.cz/?s123&q123=all

Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Katarzyna Kowalczewska-Grabowska Poland

Health Pedagogy at the University of Silesia (Katowice, Poland) Diagnosis and evaluation

Abstract In our article we outline the development of the specialized Health Pedagogy programme at the University of Silesia, and students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of educational experience. Our presentation employs quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Using the institution monograph method we present quantitative data on the content of the learning programme and learning outcomes in Health Pedagogy. Document analysis covers 12 years, beginning with 2001 when the specialization was introduced in the University of Silesia. Using content analysis we present the learning outcomes, including knowledge, skills and competencies acquired by graduates in the first and second cycle degree programmes, according to the Bologna process. To complete these findings we present individual cases, based on interviews, as examples of the occupational path of our graduates. Keywords: professional development, health pedagogy, academic education, academic standards, qualifications framework

Introduction Some people stay healthy despite the influence of a high number of stressors, and when ill, they recover from illness much faster. Antonovsky argued that this results from the “sense of coherence” (SOC) of a human being. In the case of disease, some people are able to identify health resources available to them, and

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undertake intense health-oriented actions. The sense of coherence is defined as “a global orientation that expresses the extent to which one has such a pervasive, enduring though dynamic feeling of confidence that: 1. the stimuli deriving from one’s internal and external environments in the course of living are structured, predictable and explicable; 2. the resources are available to one to meet the demands posed by these stimuli; and 3. these demands are challenges worth investment and engagement” (Antonovsky, 1987). On the basis of his observations, Antonovsky concluded that under the influence of external factors one’s sense of coherence may be enhanced. Therefore, it may be positively influenced both by various life events, as well as by the professional help of a pedagogue/health educator. In this way the need for educating professionals who deal with health promotion and education is justified. All over the world, university departments and specializations related to health have been established. The education system in Canada aims to professionalise health educator as an occupational category, through cooperation between universities with health-related institutions and authorities (Vamos & Hayos, 2010). The Canadians’ goal is to increase the health literacy of their society. University graduates are encouraged to take jobs in the area of public health. In the USA a teaching philosophy for public health education that combines theory and practical skills is being sought for. Syllabi are to be a kind of a road-map for students, to help them understand how they should study and to what extent their knowledge will translate into practical skills. Teaching purposes should be based on “Responsibilities and Competencies for Health Education Specialists”, a document published by the National Commission for Health Education Credentialing in 2010 (Ratnapradipa &Abrams, 2012). In Poland, health pedagogy, health education and health promotion are not universally recognized. Courses in health promotion are provided, but mainly in medical schools. In the recent years, specializations related to health promotion and health education have also started to appear in the humanities in public and private colleges, although they are still rare. The University of Silesia is one of the two Polish universities offering a specialised degree in Health Pedagogy. For this reason, we have undertaken the following diagnosis and evaluation of how the specialist programme functions and how it has been implemented.

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Research Methodology The purpose of the research was to diagnose and evaluate the Health Pedagogy specialization, initiated at the University of Silesia in 2001 in the Department of Education. By the academic year 2012/2013 it had been completed by 248 students of the 5-year-programme, 80 graduates of the first cycle degree programme and 21 graduates of the second cycle degree programme. The goal of the research was to obtain answers to the following research questions: • How has the University of Silesia Health Pedagogy programme evolved since 2001? • How do learning outcomes relate to the Bologna process? • How is the programme evaluated by the students? • What career destinations do students achieve? • How is the programme of Health Pedagogy at the University of Silesia related to Antonovsky’s theoretical framework? The researchers employed a monographic method focusing on one institution. The analysis centred on documents (document analysis method) and content (content analysis method). The analysed documents included three didactic programmes/syllabi: • for the 2001/2002 academic year- Health Pedagogy specialization was opened at the Department of Education; • for the 2007/2008 academic year- adoption of a two-tier system of higher education based on the Regulation of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (13 June 2006) on naming the fields of study; • for the 2012/2013 academic year- introduction of the required learning outcomes based on the Regulation of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (4 November 2011) on the required learning outcomes. Health Pedagogy learning outcomes in the first and second cycle degree programme were analysed with the use of the content analysis method. The analysis was conducted on the basis of the documents prepared by the Education Department within the Faculty of Education and Psychology. Knowledge, skills and social competences required as the learning outcomes of the Health Pedagogy programme were thoroughly examined. The research was supplemented by individual case studies based on 12 freeform interviews with graduates of the specialised programme.

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Research Results The development of the University of Silesia Health Pedagogy programme since 2001 and the relation between its learning outcomes and the Bologna process The Bologna process imposed numerous and significant changes on higher education systems. Not only did it introduce ECTS, the two-tier system and quality assurance, but it called for didactic purposes of: • tailoring graduates to the needs of the labour market; increasing their socalled “employability”; • preparing graduates to live in a democratic (also European) society as active citizens; • developing and sustaining the foundations of advanced knowledge to contribute to the growth of knowledge-based society and economy; and • the personal development of students. For many years the Polish system of higher education has made efforts to meet these requirements. Bologna process regulations indicated the direction of changes, which is reflected in the evolution of the specialised Health Pedagogy programme at the University of Silesia. In accordance with the teaching programme of the Department of Education of the University of Silesia, the broad purpose of Health Pedagogy specialization is to provide students with the necessary interdisciplinary knowledge of social factors that determine health and disease and the skills required to arrange healthpromoting activities in a variety of environments and institutions. These activities include offering institutional and non-formal health education and aid in local communities and at various management levels. The university courses prepare students to work in institutions and centres dealing with educational aspects of health promotion. To obtain answers to the research questions, a thorough analysis of the Health Pedagogy programme was conducted based on the above aims. The analysis showed that introduction of a two-tier system resulted in a significant increase in specialization hours (885 instead of 810), but the number of ECTS credits decreased (from 122 to 90). This correlation appeared in the first cycle degree programme. When the next changes were introduced, i.e., learning outcomes at the first cycle degree programme, the number of teaching hours of specialization subjects was reduced to 750, which translated into decreasing the number of ECTS credits (to 77). The analysis of the didactic programmes/syllabi for the second cycle degree programme proved that the number of hours after

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the introduction of the learning outcomes increased from 360 teaching hours to 405, which unexpectedly resulted in a reduction of ECTS credits (from 60 to 51) (Table 1). Table 1 Number of hours and ECTS in individual didactic programmes/syllabi in Health Pedagogy Start of specialization Academic year 2001/2002

Adoption of a two-tier system Academic year 2007/2008

5-year-programme (only specialization subjects)

Subject

Total number of hours

1st cycle

Introduction of the required learning outcomes Academic year 2012/2013

2nd cycle

1st cycle

2nd cycle

h

ECTS credits

h

ECTS credits

h

ECTS credits

h

ECTS credits

h

ECTS credits

810*

122

885

90

360

60

750

77

405

51

* a number of hours without: pro-seminar, seminar, elective subject, monographic lecture (total number: 1125). In the next didactic programmes these subjects were not included in specialization subjects Source: Didactic programmes/syllabi

After the adoption of a two-tier system, mid-term internships were removed from the list of specialized subjects. They were re-introduced to the didactic programmes/syllabi at the time of adopting required learning outcomes, but only in the case of the first cycle degree programme. In the new programme the mid-term internships were not considered as specialization subjects, but were located in the general course offers. Table 2. Learning outcomes [related to knowledge] at Health Pedagogy specialization (first and second cycle degree programme) Cycle

K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ K_ W01 W02 W03 W04 W05 W06 W07 W08 W09 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14 W15 W16 W17 W18 W19

1

11

2

6

2

4

1

5

1

2

4

1

-

4

1

3

5

2

2

-

1

1

1

2

2

3

-

3

5

1

1

-

1

1

3

1

Source: Analysis of documentation of the Department of Education of the University of Silesia

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Table 3. Learning outcomes in the Health Pedagogy specialization (first and second cycle degree programme) Cycle

K_ U01

K_ U02

K_ U03

K_ U04

K_ U05

K_ U06

K_ U07

K_ U08

K_ U09

K_ U10

K_ U11

K_ U12

K_ U13

K_ U14

1

2

4

5

1

1

5

1

-

3

-

3

-

1

-

2

7

2

1

1

1

1

1

-

1

-

1

1

Source: Analysis of documentation of the Department of Education of the University of Silesia

Table 4. Learning outcomes in the Health Pedagogy specialization related to social competencies (first and second cycle degree programme) K_ K01

K_ K02

K_ K03

K_ K04

1

2

5

3

-

2

1

1

1

-

Cycle

K_ K05

K_ K06

K_ K07

K_ K08

-

-

3

1

1

1

3

-

Source: Own study on the basis of documentation of the Department of Education of the University of Silesia

Learning outcomes, specified in descriptions of individual subjects, were also the subject of research (Table 2, Table 3, Table 4). Their implementation resulted from the need to meet the requirements of the Bologna process. The content of the learning outcomes has to comply with the required outcomes, prepared by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. The analysis of the learning outcomes, specified by the Ministry for the Department of Education showed that out of 19 outcomes at the first cycle degree programme 2 are not planned for implementation, i.e. • K_W12 – connected with designing and conducting research; these outcomes are achieved at seminars and during classes of a methodologyrelated subject (obligatory classes at the Education Department) • K_W19 – related to knowledge of ethical principles and norms planned for implementation within the framework of obligatory classes. K_W01 is the learning outcome related to knowledge, which was included in descriptions of the modules 11 times. It focuses on the knowledge of basic terms used in the specialized Health Pedagogy programme related to education, health prevention and promotion as well as the areas where they can be applied. Out of 16 learning outcomes related to knowledge to be mastered at the Education Department in the second cycle degree programme, 3 are not planned for implementation within the framework of specialization subjects: • K_W02 – related to the place of education in the system of science and its relationship to other disciplines;

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• K_W03 – related to the development of education and its historical and cultural determinants; • K_W14 – related to the education system. These outcomes are planned for implementation within the framework of obligatory subjects in the Department of Education, i.e., General Education and Comparative Education. Due to the specific nature of the specialization, K_W11 is the most frequently selected learning outcome. It relates to the regularities and irregularities of development. Out of 14 learning outcomes related to skills to be gained at the Education Department in the first cycle degree programme, specified by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, 4 are not planned for implementation within the framework of specialization subjects: • K_U08 – related to presenting one’s opinions, suggestions and ideas; • K_U10 – related to designing and implementation of educational activities; • K_U12 – related to implementation of principles and norms in practice; • K_U14- related to analysis and evaluation of activities. Out of 12 learning outcomes related to skills gained at the Health Pedagogy specialization at the Department of Education in the second cycle degree programme, 2 are not planned for implementation: • K_U08 – related to implementation of acquired knowledge in practice; • K_U10 – related to designing and implementation of educational activities. K-U01 is the learning outcome associated with skills, which is most often included in a syllabus in the second cycle degree programme. It relates to analysing and interpreting social phenomena. Naturally, it results from the specific nature of the specialization as well as the required content. Legislators provided for 8 learning outcomes to be reached at educational studies. Unfortunately, 3 of them were not included in the description of modules in the first cycle degree programme. All relate to following the code of professional ethics. In the second cycle degree programme two learning outcomes were omitted: • K_K04 - related to prudence, maturity and involvement in work; • K_K04- related to the responsibility for preservation of national heritage of culture. K_K07 relating to active involvement in educational activities and care for the environment was the learning outcome which was most often included in the programme.

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Evaluation of the programme by former students In interviews conducted between March and June 2014, all the respondents claimed that participating in the specialized Health Pedagogy programme was inspiring and contributed to their personal development. For instance, the graduates stated: Kasia: “thanks to my studies I developed emotionally, socially, intellectually, and as far as interpersonal relations are concerned. It helped me to clarify my view on life, develop my organizational skills. I could also display my intelligence and creativity”. Iwona: “…the knowledge on health which I acquired at the university I use and implement in my daily life with those close to me”.

Most of the responses showed that the skills and knowledge acquired at the university are at least partially useful in professional and daily life. In particular, the respondents strongly appreciated interpersonal skills and the ability to conduct classes on health education for various age groups. They also emphasized that they gained broad knowledge on a variety of issues related to health. On the other hand, the respondents mentioned some missing skills, mainly related to the identification of group processes, group integration or, more generally, practical skills, which were to be developed during internships: Aleksandra: “I think that I have appropriate knowledge and skills to be a health educator. The scope of the programme focused on health issues and was quite broad. That is why I gained wide knowledge. In addition, in the classes focusing on health education methodology I learnt how to effectively conduct classes on health, tailored to different age groups.”

The encounter with the reality of the employment situation appeared to be quite difficult for most of the respondents. Only three of them have jobs in accordance with their education (one of whom works abroad) and three others stated that their job was partially related to their specialization. Kasia: “I may say that what I do at work is partially associated with my university studies. A large part of my work is related to my interests that I developed during my studies. For example, my interest in physical exercise. In my professional life I also use

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interpersonal skills gained in the university classes. However, I will have to supplement my knowledge by continuing education”.

As many as four respondents have jobs completely unconnected with their education. Two of them are unemployed. The income of the majority of the respondents is one of the lowest in the country, with the exception of the person who works abroad. Two respondents refused to provide any kind of information about their income. As subjectively assessed, despite their difficult professional situation, the respondents do not appear to feel the need to actively start changing it, e.g., by setting a company to conduct educational activities. At present, only one person is self-employed. All the respondents claim that they want to develop their professional skills. However, not all of them want to work in a profession for which their academic degree prepared them. They indicate other areas in which they have already developed their skills or plan to do so: human resources, pre-school education, early childhood education, physiotherapy, psychology, speech therapy or occupational counselling. One person plans to make an academic career and two respondents would like to set up and develop their own business (Mateusz: “For my employers, development of employees is the key issue. I would like to take advantage of it in order to obtain new skills and knowledge”).

Discussion Higher education, focusing on social sciences, could play a significant role in preparing professionals to work in health promotion and health education. In Poland, however, there is no favourable environment for incentives related to health promotion or education and the profession of health educator is not attractive. At present, out of 18 long-established universities in Poland only 6 have opened a health-related specialization in their Department of Education (Health counselling or Health Promotion), and only 2 universities have fully specialised Health Pedagogy programmes. However, global trends suggest that the profession of health educator will become more attractive in the future as our research results have indicated. For many years, the Health Pedagogy specialization at the University of Silesia has been modified and improved. The elaborate, detailed and comprehensive didactic programmes/syllabi from the 2012/2013 academic year now effectively meet the students’ educational needs and the potential requirements of the labour

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market. Introduction of the standard learning outcomes has resulted in clarifying the knowledge, skills and social competencies to be gained by learning the selected subjects and contributed to the removal of repetitive and inadequately presented content.

Conclusions The Health Pedagogy programme is coherent with Antonovsky’s salutogenesis theory. It focuses not only on medical aspects, but also on issues related to the psychological and social determinants of health. However, practical aspects are insufficiently dealt with. They are of great importance in enabling in practice the implementation of skills gained at the university. Analysis of the learning outcomes in the specialised Health Pedagogy first cycle degree programme showed that in the future, knowledge-related outcomes should be more equally distributed. The skills-related outcomes not included in the specialization modules descriptions are implemented within the framework of obligatory programme. However, the graduates conclude that what is on offer in the specialised subjects should be further elaborated in order for health educators to be better prepared professionally and comprehensively for practical implementation of knowledge on-the-job. Learning outcomes for competencies in the first cycle degree programme should be more clearly spelled out in the specialist Health Pedagogy programme. These issues are extremely important in a job which requires setting and sustaining satisfying social relations. Starting with the 2012/2013 academic year, didactic programmes/syllabi of the first cycle degree programme have provided 60 didactic hours (30 hours x 2) of internships at the Health Pedagogy specialization. Unfortunately, the University does not pay for the students who are accepted for the internship programme and therefore local institutions are not actually interested. Those institutions that do recruit students do it as voluntary service. Academic teachers appointed each year are responsible for finding internship opportunities for students. Most of the teachers are theorists who do not cooperate with these institutions on a daily basis. Therefore, they select institutions at random and only some of them agree to accept students. As long as responsibility for students and cooperation criteria are not clear, the problem of internships will not be solved, and the students will not have a chance to encounter real professional situations.

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Unfortunately, in Poland the Classification of occupations and specializations does not include the profession of health counsellor or health educator. Legal provisions provide for specialists in hygiene, occupational safety and environmental protection. Two other occupations are related to health education, namely a health promoter and a specialist in public health. Therefore, it is a difficult task for graduates of the Health Pedagogy specialist programme to find a job and make use of their qualifications. Polish society still associates health with medicine. Promoting a healthy lifestyle is seen as a responsibility of a doctor or a nurse. This perception also applies to the graduates who participated in the research analysed above.

References Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unravelling the Mystery of Health. How People Manage Stress and Stay Well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ewles, L., Simnett, I. (2003). Promoting Heath. A practical guide. Edinburgh: Bailliere Tindall. Heszen-Niejodek, I. (2004). Poland: Psychology in country under transformation, in M. Stevens & D. Wedding (Eds) Handbook of International Psychology. New York: Brunne-Routledge. Heszen-Niejodek, I., Sęk, H.  (Eds). (2007). Psychologia zdrowia. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. Jensen, B.B., Simovska, V. (2005). Involving students in learning and health promotion process – clarifying why? what? and how?, IUHPE – Heath Promotion and Education, 3–4, 150–156. Kennedy, A., Gask, L., Rogers, A. (2005). Training professionals to engage with and promote self-management, Health Education Research, 5, 567–578. Ratnapradipa, D., Abrams, T. (2012). Framing the Teaching Philosophy Statement for Health Educators: What It Includes and How It Can Inform Professional Development, The Health Educator, 1, 37-42. Regulation of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of 13 June 2006 on naming the fields of study Regulation of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of 4 November 2011 on the required learning outcomes. Syrek, E. (2009). Pedagogika zdrowia – zarys obszarów badawczych. in E. Syrek & K. Borzucka – Sitkiewicz Edukacja zdrowotna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne.

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Tappe, M.K., Wilbur, K.M., Telljohann, S.K., Jensen, M.J. (2009). Articulation of the National Health Education Standards to Support Learning and Healthy Behaviors Among Students, American Journal of Health Education, 4, 245–253. Vamos, S., Hayos, J. (2010). Putting Health Education on Public Health Map in Canada – The Role of Higher Education, American Journal of Health Education, 5, 310-318.

Pedeutology

Roman Švaříček Czech Republic

Verbal and Visual Strategies of Teachers’ Work on Identity

Abstract The paper describes qualitative research which studied six teachers from their professional beginnings to the present position of an experienced – expert – teacher. The research method used is life story, through which the teacher’s career is reconstructed. The key research question is: What strategies of work on identity did a teacher use to become an expert teacher? The most important motor of change and particularly of a teacher’s development was his/her decision and commitment to the development of his/her identity (Pittard, 2003). Snow and Anderson (1987) labelled this process as work on one’s identity. I will discuss only verbal and visual strategies, which the teacher uses to influence the environment at school in general (verbal distancing, gossip, and strategy of uniqueness). The paper concludes with a discussion of how necessary the verbal and visual strategies directed towards the school space are for the teacher’s professional identity. Had they no power, teachers could not influence decision-making processes. Keywords: expert teacher, identity, professional development, work on identity

1. Expert Teachers and Identity There are various theories describing the teacher’s development and progress. They study, e.g., changes in the teacher’s interpersonal styles throughout his/her career (Wubbels, Levy, 1993), the development of the teacher’s professional career (Foley, 2004), the constitution of various evolutionary phases in the teacher’s life (Steffy et al., 2000), development of schools as professional learning communities

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(Novotný at al., 2014), the development of skills and knowledge (Minstrell, & Anderson, 2002). The presented research argues that the basic driving force of the teacher’s development is his/her work on his/her professional identity by various strategies directed towards the classroom space1 as well as the school space. According to Berliner (1987), an expert’s work performance is highly qualified and it deals with issues of educational reality with great precision; for this reason, expert methods and actions could be included in teacher training courses. This text views an expert as a qualified, experienced, and good teacher who is also a professional authority for those around him/her. Thus, the expert status of the teacher is socially defined through identification in the environment; this is why we aimed to study how the teacher can actively build his/her expert identity. According to Snow and Anderson (1987), their professional identity is imputed to others in order to see them as social objects. It is not proclamations, but identity is imputed according to information on external look, behaviour of individual, his talks and place and time of this behaviour. The research showed how common this story-telling about a particular teacher is, on the one hand (it is the core of social interactions among teachers), and on the other hand that it is always mediated. The analysed teachers use strategies of work on their professional identity directed towards the school space in order to implement changes and influence their professional identity. Social interactions in the school space have a substantial influence on the teacher as well as his/her identity: at the beginning, teachers are ascribed the professional identity of a beginning teacher by those around them (management, colleagues, parents, and pupils), which entitles him/her to make mistakes and lack perfect qualifications for his/her profession. This identity is merely temporary, the carriers of this identity are aware of that and they make a decision to work on their progressive teacher identity and then an expert teacher identity employing strategies directed towards the school space. In order to be able to describe these strategies, I decided to focus on school micropolitics, i.e., to study the use or strategic use of power in a given organization. According to Blase (1989) there are two basic purposes of using power in a school environment: effort to gain influence (pro-active orientation) and protection of one’s self and the group of teachers one belongs to (reactive orientation). I am speaking about politics because at school negotiations also take place: we can find there pretence, hypocrisy, gossiping and creation of power alliances. Kelchtermans 1 I do not deal in this text with a strategy of work on identity directed towards the classroom, but I consider it a part of the development of the teacher’s professional identity (cf., Lefstein et al., 2013).

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and Ballet (2002) define the teacher’s micropolitical action as “such action that is directed towards establishing, protection, and reconstruction of required working conditions” (p. 108). A micropolitical perspective of school then enables to view teachers’ actions as strategies or tactics leading to securing interests of individuals and groups. This means that the teacher’s power and authority in class is such as his/her pupils give them, and similarly the teacher’s power at school is such as other actors at the school grant them. All analysed teachers were aware of the way their colleagues speak about them and how they are seen by them. In short, teachers observe what professional identity they are ascribed by those around them.

2. Research Methodology This study is based on three-year empirical research where I used a qualitative approach (biographic and narrative design, with the use of life history) to study professional and personal career of an experienced teacher, an expert teacher. The research question was: What strategies of work on identity did a teacher use to become an expert teacher? The use of narrative and biographical design is justifiable because the analysed teachers are experts with long-time professional careers, which cannot be separated from their personalities.2 In my view, narrative research is suitable for capturing the complexity of the teacher’s work and his/her behaviour in the classroom (Lyons, Laboskey 2002), which is often complicated and unpredictable. To identify an expert, the following characteristics were chosen as the starting point: sufficient qualifications, minimum 10 years of practice, the head teacher’s and colleagues’ recommendations, long-term excellence of pupils (for more about an expert teacher, cf., Švaříček, 2007). I studied 6 teachers, 3 of whom were teachers at Czech primary schools and 3 at the lower secondary school. Biographical interviews with expert teachers, observations of the teacher’s inclass performance and school, a biographical questionnaire, and interviews with other actors at the school (head teacher and colleagues) were chosen as the main

2 Narrative research on the teaching profession brings an insight into the profession itself (Clandinin & Connely, 1998) as well as the teacher’s work in the classroom (cf., Schratz et al, 2013).

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data collection method.3 The aim of switching between methods was to let the teachers look back, reflect upon their career, and motivate them to thematize their experiences.4

3. Verbal and Visual Strategies of Teachers’ Work on Identity Experts teachers are ascribed an expert’s social identity on the grounds of attributes (external manifestations) of the previous teacher’s identity: working several hours overtime every day, but at school, not at home, dedication to the teaching profession, discussing new methods with colleagues, participation in activities beyond duties following from the teacher’s role (interest groups, projects, theatre, computer room, study room), participation in seminars and courses in further education, professional literature on one’s desk and permanent expressing of a desire for better teaching methods. The existence of audience leads to the teacher’s different behaviour: the teacher assumes an expert’s identity in front of the audience, although he/she does not believe to have reached the expert level in his/her development. Pupils and their parents are inseparable audiences of the teacher’s performance and they participate in creating the teacher’s social identity. From their perspective, incompleteness or imperfection is then an inseparable part of the teaching profession: their identity is not created once and for all. The teacher must work on his/her identity all the time: there is still the ideal teacher, who produces tension for teachers leading to change. Teachers are actively disappointed with numerous issues at their school because now the ideal teacher’s identity is a catalyst of information. The teacher’s felt professional identity determines whether he/she holds or does not hold power in the school space. Teacher Kateřina graphically documents this relationship in the following example, when she tried to pass what she learned at a training course to her colleagues after three years of practice in her teaching career. Seen from their perspective, she was merely “stealing their time” and she was giving them advice “of an inexperienced teacher that has no clue”.

3

An in-depth biographical interview was the basic data collection method. Although I conducted interviews with six expert teachers, the interviews were not standardized or structured. I conducted a series of interviews (6 to 8) with each expert, all up to one and a half hour long. There were 68 resulting interviews. When they were transcribed, together with other methods they gave about 3 million characters. 4 Cf., research on expert teachers using a stimulated recall interview (Tůma et al., 2014).

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“When I had those 40 hours or so of teacher pedagogical-psychological skills, there were a lot of moments that were interesting for myself, so I presented that to the head teacher and he figured that it would be great if the others learned something from it, too… I don’t know if somebody else had to, how good I was at presenting it or not, but I didn’t mean to harm anyone and some were taking it personally, that I was attacking them… The impression was like that they never experienced that somebody would say something like that and if they were my age [4 years of practice], they would never dare to say anything like that, and then we haven’t even said “hello” to each other for almost six months.”5

Teacher Kateřina clashed with a different group of teachers, to which she did not belong, and which she labelled as “passive teachers”. Events like these unite teachers’ groups, because it is not only the clash that takes place; passive teachers are reassured that they have chosen the right path, and so are the active ones. In the following lines, I will focus on various expert teacher strategies that the analysed teachers tried to use to influence the school space. 3.1. Verbal distancing During the series of biographical interviews I was captured by the frequent mutual observing among teachers. They kept speaking about other groups and teachers even when asked about their own ideas and opinions. In particular, the teachers’ comparisons were expressed in their distinguishing between groups of teachers according to the ideological differentiation into engaged and passive teachers (the “old” and “modern” schools). Experts would classify some of their colleagues among the “ossified teachers”, “teachers that would sit through it”, “ripe teachers”, “established teachers”, and “old-school teachers”.6 Due to this strategy of negative and positive self-definition against their own group and other groups, teachers strengthen their professional identity. I call this strategy verbal distancing and I regard it as a part of building one’s professional and, particularly, group identity. The analysed teachers self-defined themselves against passive teachers most often. It is a duel between innovators and tradition-keepers. We could talk about the social competition strategy, because group members try to impose the concept 5

Research participants’ quotes have the following form: a smaller font-size, a narrower block alignment, and inclusion of the speaker’s name (e.g., Teacher Aneta); the initial R refers to the author and interviewer at the same time. 6 The analysed teachers similarly differentiated between schools: “a classic” and “a place where they make efforts to try something new”.

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of their own group on the other group. In her research on a Portuguese elementary school, Lopes (2002) describes similar clashes between innovators and traditionalists. The traditionalists feel guilty because they could be innovators if they wanted to, while the innovators feel self-conscious because they promote methods whose usefulness for pupils has not yet been proved, Lopes concludes. R: “You mentioned that being a teacher is different from having another profession. How does it influence you?” Teacher Vendula: “Female teachers are, like, systematists, they are just there, in the classroom, they’re like machines. See, they’ve got twenty-five items there and now they’re working very precisely, but they only see those people as items and they only consider them as means for some kind of evaluation, some tables, charts and so on, well, that’s…”

The studied teachers use some techniques of verbal distancing in front of their pupils in the classroom as well. Through the work at his/her professional identity using the verbal distancing strategy, the teacher shows his/her identity to the others, which is important for the socially ascribed professional identity. 3.2. Gossip I discovered the use of gossip as a strategy to influence the social space of a school while analysing teacher Petr, when I was also interested in the opinions of other people in the school about his work (I asked similar questions the other participants in my research, too). I found out that teachers evaluated their colleagues and their teaching methods without having seen them teaching. For this reason, their evaluation may be called gossip. The following example illustrates the use of gossip. R: “And did you have the feeling that [teacher Petr] has an utterly different attitude to children than yourself?” Teacher Aneta (2 years of practice): “In his attitude, I didn’t much… I’m not criticising it now. There are two different attitudes and it depends on the person. He is exactly this authoritative type that comes to the classroom, screams and it must be quiet there and that’s it. I rather speak about it with the children…” […another interview…] R: “And how many times did he come to your lesson?” T: “Well… (a longer pause)… When I remember it now, in fact he didn’t come even once to me… And I have never gone to see him…”

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Teacher Aneta describes teacher Petr’s teaching style. He was her tutor, although she has never gone to see his lessons. The research showed how stories about a certain teacher are common on the one hand (it is the core of the social interactions among teachers), but on the other hand that it is mediated. Teacher Aneta presents this information as if it was based on her knowledge of the true state of affairs. For this reason, her evaluation may be called gossip. Further research showed that gossip makes an indispensable part of the school and also, that gossip is very difficult to grasp for the researcher. A detailed analysis of the school’s life and operation showed that gossip does not emerge accidentally, but that it expresses the effort to manage and control the school space. In their recognized text on the function of gossip in an organization, Noon and Delbridge state: “Gossip is the process of informally communicating value-laden information about members of social setting.“ (Noon, Delbridge, 1993, p. 25). I consider this definition most suitable, because: first, it shows the processuality of gossip; second, it states a certain intentionality of the communicated piece of information; and third, it gives evidence that gossip is not a random and isolated phenomenon, but a part of a broader social process where individuals’ and groups’ interests clash. Gossip is influenced by the following aspect of the school: teaching takes place behind a closed door and for this reason teachers are not eye-witnesses of a lot of events. They cannot see their colleagues and cannot be seen by them; they cannot see the head teacher and his/her day’s work in the office and for this reason they make up a lot of legends, rumours, and gossip. School is thus characterized by absence of supervision over teachers, which some authors (Hoy, Miskel 2001) call “structural looseness”: a lack of coordination between various activities, different goals of various groups, a complex decisionmaking process, and absence of control. According to Ball (1987), this is a school’s characteristic: there are no mechanisms of direct control over teachers’ work, or they are merely formal. I identify this aspect as one of the institutional aspects of school that allows for gossip and increases its presence. 3.3. Strategy of uniqueness The strategy of uniqueness is used by teachers that have specific skills or knowledge, in other words, the analysed experts. The analysed teachers used this strategy after three years of practice, because before they had not possessed skills that would have been unique in the given context. The exclusiveness of the teacher’s skills is primarily caused by the context and for this reason, some

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experts lost the opportunity to apply this strategy after they switched schools. It is a visual strategy that complements the above-mentioned verbal strategies. Teachers have developed a habit to present information in two different channels, by words and gestures, which increases the probability to be understood by their pupils (Šalamounová, 2013). Expert teachers intentionally show their engagement and involvement to their audience, which co-creates their ascribed expert professional identity. Teachers use a lot of various ways to do so: working overtime at school, participation in staffroom discussions on innovations, using new special teaching aids and new methods. Work beyond standard requirements and repeated comments about this work were a very frequent way, too. Teachers stated that it was common for them to stay overtime at school, till 7 pm. However, this does not happen often in the Czech education, so it did not need to be emphasized much that a teacher stayed at school till late night hours. A similar story told “by the way”, was sufficient. The aim of declaring one’s diligence and willingness to stay at school beyond requirements is again to gain certain advantages, such as material support and socially ascribed identity of a hard-working or engaged teacher. The analysed teachers showed their determination in this way, so that they could assert their interests. In his questionnaire for approximately 700 teachers, Blase (1989) identified a similar strategy and called it a visibility strategy. According to Blase, the aim of this intentional behaviour is to show a given teacher’s attractiveness for other actors in the school, particularly the head teacher. Some experts use material means and aids to demonstrate the uniqueness of their position. To materialize his expertise, teacher Petr uses a strategy that I call the magician’s box. It is an actual box full of various aids (stamps, markers, pencils, post-its, cards and the like). It does not include any unusual objects. “This is my diary. This is a string, because I always hang something somewhere, like motivational stamps, smileys, a stamp. It is a kind of rarity, but it animates, motivates them, and there I go. We give smileys… Kids are like crazy about it, I’ve also got a super-stamp, kids like want to have it on their forehead…”

Similarly to a magician’s or a shaman’s props (such as a black hat, a wooden wand or a glass ball), teacher Petr’s object are of symbolic character.

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4. Conclusion Teachers get to know themselves through their interactions with their pupils and colleagues and reflecting upon these interactions. Their self-knowledge is thus mediated; it is not direct as in the case of contemplation or other methods. The studied teachers look into an imaginary mirror where they do not see themselves, but merely their image mediated by other people and their “another self ”. As follows from the above-stated, the teacher’s identity is a result of a long-term effort. It is a creation of a rational behaviour and a result of self-reflection, rather than a set of given or innate qualities.7 Snow & Anderson (1987) call the process of identity management and creation identity work.8 The studied teachers gradually begin to develop new strategies of work on their identity, but they stick to two directions of their intentional behaviour: first, they increase teaching efficiency (a strategy directed towards the classroom) and second, they improve the conditions at school (a strategy directed towards the school). Teachers, thus, establish friendly relationships, form other teachers with similar ideological profiles, protect their group, and primarily put forward their fundamental, ideological, and personal interests. The studied teachers have developed various strategies of gaining power at school (verbal distancing and open conflicts) and they become targets of strategies applied by various other teachers (gossip). The research shows that in the heterogeneous institution, teachers use verbal and visual strategies of identity work so that they can establish friendly relationships, form teachers with a similar ideological profile, protect their opinion group, and put forward their own or their group’s interests.

References Ball, S.J. (1987). The micro-politics of the school: towards a theory of school organization. London: Methuen. Berliner, D.C. (1987). Ways of thinking about students and classrooms by more and less experienced teachers. In Calderhead, James. Exploring Teachers’ Thinking. London: Cassell, 60–83.

7 8

Cf. Snow, & Anderson (1987); Pollett, & Jasper (2001). Pittard (2003).

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Blase, J.J. (1989). The Micropolitics of the School: The Everyday Political Orientation of Teachers Toward Open School Principals. Educational Administration Quarterly, 25(4), 377–407. Clandinin, J.D., Connelly, M.F. (1998). Stories to Live by: Narrative Understanding of School Reform. Curriculum Inquiry, 28(2), 149–164. Foley, K.R. (2004). Science Teacher Educator Change: A Case Study Report. Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Hoy, W.K., & Miskel, C.G. (2001). Educational Administration: theory, research and practice. 6t edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Kelchtermans, G., & Ballet, K.  (2002). The micropolitics of teacher induction. A narrative-biographical study on teacher socialisation. Teaching and Teacher Education, n. 18, 105–120. Lopes, A.  (2002). Constructing Professional Identities in Portuguese Primary School Teachers. Identity, 2(3), 241–254. Lefstein, A., Israeli, M., Pollak, I.  & Bozo-Schwartz, M.  (2013). Investigating Dilemmas in Teaching: Towards a New Form of Pedagogical Scholarship. Studia paedagogica, 18(4), in print. Lyons, N., Laboskey, V.K. (2002). Why narrative inquiry or exemplars for a scholarship of teaching? In Lyons, Nona, Laboskey, Vicki K. Narrative Inquiry in Practice. New York: Teachers College, 11–27. Minstrell, J., & Anderson, R. (2002). Comments from the Point of View of Teachers. Issues in Education, 8(2), 189–195. Noon, M., & Delbridge, R.  (1993). News From Behind My Hand: Gossip in Organizations. Organization Studies, 14(1), 23–36. Novotný, P., Pol, M., Hloušková, L., Lazarová, B., & Sedláček, M. (2014). School as a Professional LEARNING Community: A Comparison of the Primary and Lower Secondary Levels of Czech Basic Schools. The New Educational Review, 35(1), 163-174. Pittard, M.M. (2003). Developing Identity: The Transition from Student to Teacher. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of American Educational Research Association. Polletta, F., & Jasper, J.M. (2001). Collective Identity and Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 283–305. Schratz, M., Schwarz, J.F., & Westfall-Greiter, T. (2013). Looking at Two Sides of the Same Coin: Phenomenologically Oriented Vignette Research and Its Implications for Teaching and Learning. Studia paedagogica, 18(4), in print.

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Snow, D.A., & Anderson, L.  (1987). Identity Work Among the Homeless: The Verbal Construction and Avowal of Personal Identities. The American Journal of Sociology, 92(6), 1336–1371. Steffy, B., Wolfe, M., Pasch, S., & Enz, B. (2000). Life cycle of the career teacher. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Šalamounová, Z. (2013). Žákovská gestika ve vyučování jako proces zviditelňování myšlení. [Pupil Gestures in Education as a Process of Making Thinking Visible]. Studia paedagogica, 16(1), 89–118. Švaříček, R. (2007). Zkoumání konstrukce identity učitele. [Research on teacher’s identity reconstruction]. In Švaříček, Roman, Šeďová, Klára a kol.: Kvalitativní výzkum v pedagogických vědách. Pravidla hry. [Qualitative Research in Educational Sciences: Game Rules]. (Praha: Portál), 335–355. Tůma, F., Píšová, M. Najvar, P., & Janíková, V. (2014). Expert Teachers’ Interactive Cognition: An Analysis of Stimulated Recall Interviews. The New Educational Review, 35(2), 289–302. Wubbels, Th. Creton, H., & Tartwijk, J. van. (1992). Effective Interpersonal Teacher Behavior in the Classroom. In Bashi, J., Saas, Z. (ed.). School Effectiveness and Improvement. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 174–187.

Acknowledgements: This article is an output of the project Teacher and pupils in dialogic teaching (GA13-23578S) funded by the Czech Science Foundation.

Andrysová Pavla, Martincová Jana, Hana Včelařová Czech Republic

Pedagogical Condition at Undergraduate Teacher Preparation

Abstract Within the academic preparation of future teachers we quite often notice that the students expect pedagogical or didactic disciplines to give them practical advice and guidelines for their teaching, which is logical. However, every experienced pedagogue knows how unrealistic such expectations are. The study of pedagogical sciences offers information basis, but its knowledge does not guarantee pedagogical mastery to any teacher. Our aim is to enrich the existing form of pedagogical programmes by adding a new dimension of personality development, which we want to achieve through psychosomatic disciplines. Completing this kind of preparation should enable the students to develop the so-called pedagogical condition. Graduates in Teacher Training programmes should then be not only academically educated professionals, but also authentic, self-reflecting personalities, capable of taking responsibility for their action. Keywords: pedagogical condition, psychosomatic preparation, undergraduate teacher preparation, pedagogical environment, psychodidactic dimension, personal dimension, communicative dimension

Introduction In the introduction we present the results of the research that involved the students of Bachelor’s programme Preschool Teacher Training, during three years (2010 – 2013). On the basis of the presented findings we offer a model of preparation with its verification that would make the undergraduate preparation of future pedagogues more effective and develop their pedagogical condition.

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Picture 1. Aspects of pedagogical condition

Somatic dimension

Psychological dimension Pedagogical condition

Social dimension

Pedagogical condition inteacher preparation is what we understand as promptness, tuning of the student towards holistic perception of the social situation, it is an ability to react adequately to its actual requirements using all previous theoretical and practical knowledge but also its transformation for the given situation that is always unique and non-recurrent in its way; it is a capacity to see and solve situations in the existing context (Valachová, 2009, p. 515). Within the psychosomatic disciplines we would like the graduates in pedagogical programmes to achieve a psycho-somatic-social understanding in the pedagogical environment. Moreover, we take pedagogical condition as a prerequisite for preventing and dealing with disciplinary problems using the capacity to make the students take an interest. Psychosomatic condition can be obtained with the study of psychosomatic disciplines. According to Vyskočil (2000), it is “a sort of maturity, readiness, preparedness, and sometimes a need, an impulse, a drive to act, perform, behave, feel in public in a direct, immediate, spontaneous, creative and productive, free and responsible way.“ Pedagogical condition is a holistic problem and task. It is defined as a kind of maturity, preparedness, readiness, and sometimes a need, an impulse, a drive to enter the social or educational contact with students, to act, behave, feel in a direct, immediate, spontaneous, creative and productive, free and responsible way (Švec,

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Vyskočilová, 2007). This condition involves physical and psychical, as well as moral readiness to act. Kliková (2003) defines condition as a capacity to shift affinity and autonomy in interpersonal relations, as a bodily perception and vocal readiness that enables to tolerate and, to a certain extent, control stress which is caused by an annoying state of one´s own inconsistence, fragmentation, unpreparedness in advance. According to her, condition means keeping one´s attention that is different from the attention of common rational and customary behaviour.

1. Methods and results of the research Our research work had 3 research phases: identification of the pedagogical condition factors, measuring the level of pedagogical condition, formation of an experimental programme, and verification of its impact on the level of pedagogical condition. In the introduction to the research we set the basic research questions: Which factors determine pedagogical condition? What is the level of pedagogical condition factors in the research group? How to develop pedagogical condition in pedagogical preparation? The questions correspond with the research aims, with the primary research aim of identifying the pedagogical condition factors. The secondary aims evolved during the research implementation and they were set as follows: measuring the level of pedagogical condition, and the application of the programme in which we expected to develop pedagogical condition. The research group comprised 50 students; in the second and third phases of the research they were divided into two groups (A and B), each of them had 25 respondents. This group involved undergraduate students of pedagogical preparation, Bachelor´s programme, full-time. The students were divided by reason of implementation of the experiment for which we set these hypotheses as follows: H1: The average points obtained in the factor of psychodidactic dimension are different in the control and experimental groups. H2: The average points obtained in the factor of communicative dimension are different in the control and experimental groups. H3: The average points obtained in the factor of personality dimension are different in the control and experimental groups. The following part of the article describes the identification of the factors which are used in the hypotheses, as well as the methodological basis for the research implementation. In the following part we outline the results found in the individual phases of the research.

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In the first research phase we found out which variables determine pedagogical condition. This identification was carried out with a quantitative approach using the technique of standardized observation. Standardized observation was provided with the use of an observation sheet created by the authors. The observation took place on two levels. Within the first observation a video was recorded of the students who had to prepare a performance intended for preschool children as a part of their curriculum requirements. Based on the analysis of these videos, the basic variables determining pedagogical condition were established. During the second observation the students were video recorded again, this time in pedagogical practice. Then the direct interaction between the students and preschool children was evident and the variables established in the prior observation were analyzed. These specific variables were analyzed as follows: emotional stability, energy, nonverbal communication, responsibility, originality, adequacy, spontaneity, self-confidence, sociability, creative thinking, verbal communication, continuity, and illustrativeness. After the identification of the variables, the second phase of the research followed. It concentrated on the assessment of the level of the individual variables in the particular group. In terms of the level of the variable, the assessment used in higher education institutions in the country is applied. We classify the level with 6 grades (cf., Table 1).Within the frequency of occurrence it is discussed whether the variable is present during the teaching practice of the student and whether it is used repeatedly or not. The frequency of occurrence and the overall level is quantified with the points obtained. Each variable gets points on a scale of 0 to 10. In total 13 variables factors were identified. Table 1. Classification of the level of pedagogical condition Points obtained

Classification of the level o f pedagogical condition

10 points

Excellent level (A)

9 points 8 points 7 points 6 points 5 points and less

Very good level (B) Good level (C) Satisfactory level (D) Pass (E) Fail (F, Fx)

For the interpretation we used an observation sheet designed on the basis of the first phase of the research. There were 50 respondents who were the participants of

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the observation. The students were divided into 2 separate groups: A and B. They were the students of the same study programme. This division was organized to make the administration of the research more effective. At the end the following medians of the points obtained in each of the factors were found. The table characterizes the level of pedagogical condition of the whole sample. The average values show that the sample varies from a satisfactory to an unsatisfactory level of pedagogical condition. In order to be able to continue work with the variables in a more complex manner, we carried out a factor analysis to identify factors determining pedagogical condition. Table 2 presents the coefficients and correlations between individual variables. Table 2. Descriptive statistic – the measure of variables Descriptiv Statistic Variable Adequacy Continuity Ilustrative Nonverbal com. Sociability Verbal com. Self-confidence Emocional Stability Responsibility Originality Spontaneity Energy Creative Thinking

N Average platných 50 6.64

Min

Max

St. dev.

3.00

9.00

1.35

50

6.74

4.00

9.00

1.44

50

5.98

2.00

9.00

1.38

50

5.58

3.00

8.00

1.21

50

5.22

1.00

8.00

1.50

50

6.16

3.00

8.00

1.30

50

5.56

2.00

9.00

1.70

50

5.52

2.00

8.00

1.57

50

5.52

2.00

9.00

1.89

50

4.06

1.00

7.00

1.58

50

5.96

1.00

9.00

1.74

50

5.22

2.00

8.00

1.43

50

3.92

2.00

6.00

1.21

On the basis of the above analysis, we created the following factors: personality, psychodidactic and communicative dimensions. The concrete variables that compose these factors are shown in Picture 2. The results of the factor analysis make it clear that creative partner personality is formed by self-confidence, emotional stability, responsibility, originality, energy and creative thinking. Creative partner personality is described further in this article.

0.33

-0.03

0.18

0.11

-0.16

-0.10

0.11

-0.02

-0.08

0.07

0.07

0.45

-0.11

0.04

0.07

-0.01

0.12

-0.05

-0.15

-0.27

0.06

0.19

Ilustrative

Nonverbal com.

Sociability

Verbal. com.

Self-confidence

Emotional Stab.

Responsibility

Originality

Spontaneity

Energy

Creative Think.

1.00

0.10

0.02

-0.05

-0.24

0.02

0.01

-0.17

-0.01

-0.13

-0.09

0.09

0.02

0.07

0.22

0.19

0.27

0.09

0.32

0.47

1.00

-0.09

-0.03

0.14

0.08

0.18

0.09

-0.02

0.00

-0.03

0.40

1.00

0.47

-0.13

0.18

-0.16

-0.01

Self-confid ence

0.10

0.21

0.18

0.22

0.01

0.19

0.12

1.00

0.40

0.32

-0.04

0.58

0.04

0.26

0.15

0.39

1.00

0.12

-0.03

0.09

-0.01 -0.17

0.11

0.07

0.33

0.04

1.00

0.36

Continuity

-0.11

0.36

1.00

Adequacy

0.45

Verb. com.

Variable

Adequacy Continuity Ilustrative Nonver. Sociability com.

Factor Analysis p < ,05000, N=50

-0.05

Respons.

0.05

0.36

0.04

0.46

0.56

1.00

0.39

0.19

0.00

0.27

0.01

0.12

0.25

-0.02

0.34

1.00

0.56

0.15

0.01

-0.02

0.19

0.02

-0.10 0.11

0.12

Emot. stab.

Table 3. Factor analysis of variables

0.42

0.25

0.21

1.00

0.34

0.46

0.26

0.22

0.09

0.22

-0.24

-0.02

-0.15

Original.

0.03

0.07

1.00

0.21

-0.02

0.04

0.04

0.18

0.18

0,07

-0.05

-0.08

-0.27

Spontaneity

0.12

1.00

0.07

0.25

0.25

0.36

0.58

0.21

0.08

0.02

0.02

0.07

0.06

Energy

1.00

0.12

0.03

0.42

0.12

0.05

-0.04

0.10

0.14

0.09

0.10

0.07

0.19

Creative Think.

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Andrysová Pavla, Martincová Jana, Hana Včelařová Picture 2. Factors of pedagogical condition

We view the relation between originality and responsibility as essential since within the proposed programme of pedagogical condition we put emphasis on the development of the capacity to act being aware of the responsibility for one’s own actions and at the same time with consummate ease. This fact is also evident in Vyskočil´s definition of psychosomatic condition that emphasises the ability to act in a creative and at the same time responsible way.

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Communicative dimension is formed by nonverbal communication, sociability and verbal communication. In our approach verbal communication is primarily formed by the following skills: the art of sharing and communicating, the art of managing and feeling dialogue, the art of listening and answering in intra- and inter-personal communication. Nonverbal communication is formed chiefly by the knowledge that utterance is realized by means of basic types of expressive signs, i.e., expression, miming, pantomime and gestures, and that these distinctively support our verbal communication. The relation of verbal and nonverbal communication to sociability expresses succinctly the capacity to manage the situation (be in the situation) which is understood as the resulting success of the individual as the active creative one who in an intra- and inter-action with the members of the situation produces a unique, non-recurring, authentic creation. The connection of all three aspects – verbal communication, nonverbal communication and sociability – shows that it is impossible to separate one aspect from another and develop it by itself. The cultivation of all these aspects is necessary for the development of pedagogical condition. Psychodidactic dimension is understood as parallel to expertness, in this case the knowledge and capacity to apply didactic principles. Thus, it means adequacy, continuity and the golden rule of didactics – illustrativeness. After the identification of the level of the factors, the third phase of the research followed. Since we found out that the total level of pedagogical condition of the respondents was insufficient, on account of these findings we proceeded to perform an experiment. It was an application of methods developing pedagogical condition. The experiment was carried out for three years at the university. The respondents were divided into two groups, an experimental one and a control one. Each group consisted of 25 respondents. The control group received training in a traditional form, i.e., they received theoretical knowledge in lectures, and within seminars the students were given continuous tasks and activating methods were used. In the experimental group we used methods which are specified below.

2. The methods applied in the experimental programme How to develop pedagogical condition? We found the inspiration for pedagogical condition development at the Department of Authorial Creativity and Pedagogy in The Theatre Faculty of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague.

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In the curriculum of the department there are the following psychosomatic disciplines in which the students are developed: dialogic interaction, recitation, vocal training, movement training, and author writing and reading. The supporting pillar of this conception is dialogic interaction with the inner partner. Picture 3. The relation between psychosomatic disciplines pedagogical condition

dialogic interaction

vocal training

author reading

movement training

recitation and speech training

The experimental programme involved the following disciplines: vocal training, author reading, movement training, recitation and speech training, and the integrating discipline that will be described later, dialogic interaction with the inner partner. 2.1. Dialogic interaction with the inner partner It is a special kind of dialogue of the individual with oneself when he or she has to capture the dynamics of his or her feelings using words, voice, movement, and other means. In the presence of the others one learns to be oneself. Dialogue should not be mere conversation, verbal replies, but real behaviour growing out of body involvement (Hančil, 2005, p. 37). Dialogic interaction is principal, but at the same time it is also the most controversial discipline that conceals a number of paradoxes. A person becomes aware of them gradually. One of the biggest paradoxes is hidden in the “assignment”: “Try dialogic interaction with yourself. With yourself as a partner/partners.” The student tries to be the one who acts in a spontaneous and authentic way, and immediately after that the one who in the same spontaneous way reflects the previous action and proceeds with another action in relation to it (Čunderle, Roubal, 2001, p. 91). The cardinal meaning of this conception is education forming a creative and partner personality, it cannot be only about techniques for mastering voice,

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speech, movement, etc.; but it is about searching for a way of becoming and – with Fromm´s verb – of being one´s own voice, one´s own speech, one´s own movement, etc., of recognizing one´s personality dispositions, accepting them, being in harmony with them, and developing them (Čunderle, 2001). On the road to oneself, one is also on the road to other people. A holistic personality is someone who enters relations confidently. We come out of the premise that dialogic interaction in this conception develops a partner attitude to oneself. The capacity for a partner attitude to oneself is what we understand to be a prerequisite for the development of a partner relationship between the educator and the educated (Andrysová, 2011, p. 106).

3. The final comparison of the experimental and control groups at the level of pedagogical condition For the final comparison of the experimental and control groups that took part in the experiment of the development of pedagogical condition, we used the T-test method for independent samples. This method enables us to compare the average number of obtained points in the groups. T-test was calculated with division in accordance with the identified factors (psychodidactic dimension, communicative dimension and personality dimension). H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between the average number of obtained points in the psychodidactic dimension in the experimental group and the control group. HA: There is a statistically significant relationship between the average number of obtained points in the psychodidactic dimension in the experimental group and the control group. Table 4. T-test for the psychodidactic dimension factor

Psychodidactic dimension Avarage Group A vs. Avarage Group B

T-test for independent samples Average Average t sv group 1 group 2 6.60

6.31

0.98 48

p 0,33

N N Stan. dev. Stan. dev. p group 1 group 2 group 1 group 2 Variance 25

25

0.95

1.16

0.34

The calculated values confirmed the null hypothesis, thus, at the level of psychodidactic factor there is no statistically significant relationship between the experimental and control groups. This finding could have been influenced by several aspects. All the students, regardless of whether they belonged to the

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experimental or control groups, obtained the same academic knowledge in the field of didactics and psychology. H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between the average number of obtgained points in the communicative dimension in the experimental group and the control group. HA: There is a statistically significant relationship between the average number of obtained points in the communicative dimension in the experimental group and the control group. Table 5. T-test for the communicative dimension factor

Communication Dimension Average Group A vs. Average Group B

T-test for Independent Samples Average Average t sv group 1 group 2 6.65

5.29

5.01

p

N N Stan. dev. Stan. dev. p group 1 group 2 group 1 group 2 Variance

48 0.00

25

25

0.85

1.06

0.28

The second hypothesis assumed that there is a difference between the experimental and control groups in the factor of communicative dimension. This difference was statistically significant at the significance level 0.05. Therefore, we confirmed the alternative hypothesis, and we can state that during the implementation of the programme the experimental group developed the communicative dimension of pedagogical condition. H0: There is no statistically significant relationship between the average number of obtained points in the personality dimension in the experimental group and the control group. HA: There is a statistically significant relationship between the average number of obtained points in the personality dimension in the experimental group and the control group. Table 6. T-test for the personality dimension factor T-Test for independent Sample Average Average t sv group 1 group 2 Personality Dimension Average group A vs. Average group B

5.72

4.82

3.61

p

N N Stan. Stan. p group 1 group 2 dev. dev. Variance group 1 group 2 48 0.00074 25 25 0.76 0.99 0.19

Within the third hypothesis we studied the differences between the experimental and control groups in the factor of personality dimension. The alternative hypothesis was confirmed again, therefore, we can view statistically significant

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differences between the averages of both groups. This means that during the implementation of the programme to develop pedagogical condition, the level of pedagogical condition increased in the factor of personality dimension in the experimental group. The study shows that the above-described programme influences the development of pedagogical condition in the communicative and personality dimensions. As we have already mentioned, no relationship can be seen in the psychodidactic dimension, since both experimental and control groups received the same academic training.

Discussion We can see that abroad there are trends towards complex development of students who study to work in caring professions. The aim is mostly to boost movement activity with artistic elements. This is confirmed in the studies by Nikitin, 2003 and Blaisdell, 2003, who put emphasis on the role of including movement in vocational training. Thus, they want to balance the intellectual activities of the studies. Body training “to keep pace with the mind“ requires that students divide their time between physical activities and reading books, reviewing work by every one of them, and visiting exhibitions, dancing and theatre performances, etc. Their objective is to achieve the highest clarity of physical and emotional body expression, because the individual always moves in relation to the surrounding area (Blaisdell, 1993). We focus on the complex development of the individual that puts emphasis not only on academic knowledge, but chiefly on abilities and skills that are part of pedagogical condition. Even though these trends are evident in pedagogical preparation, we focus on developing the future pedagogue as a partner creative personality. We take account of the variables which can be also found in many foreign studies discussing the so-called Ideal Teacher. Of course this title is exaggerated, however, research studies society´s demand for a teacher who has a major influence on the learning and education of an individual. And which characteristics have been identified? The teacher is expected to have: • expertise, • pleasant verbal utterance with no trace of bad mood, speaks clearly and comprehensibly, has a so-called clear voice. Verbal utterance is assessed not only in oral but also in written communication,

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• many studies emphasise humour – according to students, teachers should have a sense of humour, it helps them to better attract the students´ attention and they seem much friendlier, • flexibility – the teacher can react flexibly to the situation in class, • self-confidence, which is related to the teacher’s self-concept, • openness – this quality is connected with the teacher‘s willingness to share their feelings or opinions with the students, • capacity to solve problems with the students, • good personal hygiene and attractive appearance – this feature is very often part of the teacher´s characteristics because the students expect the teacher to have a clean and tidy appearance (Dawn, 2011). Other studies reveal the following qualities, abilities and skills: creativity, inventiveness, reliability, flexibility, responsibility, intelligence, good communicative and organizational skills, capability to motivate students, solve problems, and last but not least, it is not only about a good teacher, but also about a good educator (Al Balushy, 2012). In our article we want to draw attention to the necessity of preparation that respects and integrates all the given elements. Where can we see the innovation of the proposed preparation? Up to this time schools have shaped the students considering the demands of their future job. It is, however, also possible to conceive study with students as confident personalities deciding about their vocation themselves, and instead, try to develop their pedagogical condition so that they would gradually get a capacity for personal self-fulfilment. Thus, we move the scope of vocational requirements to the student’s individuality. This direction is substantiated especially at the time when graduates’ success at the labour market (it concerns the students of humanities in particular) depends on the labour market demand that requires an attained degree rather than taking account of the study programme the person graduated from. The aim of this conception is to prepare teachers who will be able to create norms considering a given situation rather than abiding by the given norms permanently, because they themselves realize best what they want to achieve in their work, they know the reasons for it, and they take responsibility for their decisions. They direct their actions with respect to norms, but also with respect to existence. The graduates should be people whose actions will represent a conscious, communicative and creative approach.

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References Al Balushy, Z. ( 2012). Am I an Ideal Teacher? Humanising Language Teaching Magazin, Year 14; Issue 3. Andrysová, P. (2011). Psychosomaticky pojatá příprava sociálních pedagogů. In Kolektiv autorů. Psychosomatické disciplíny v teorii a praxi. Praha: Nakladatelství AMU ve spolupráci s Brkolou. Blaisdell, M. L. (1993). Academic Integration: Going Beyond Disciplinary Boundaries in Preparing Faculty for New Conceptions of Scholarship, ed. Laurie Richlin. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Čunderle, M., & Roubal. J. (2001). Hra školou. Dvakrát o Ivanu Vyskočilovi. Praha: Nakladatelství Studia Ypsilon. Dawn (2011). Characteristics of ideal teacher. Dostupné z: http://www.dawn.com/ news/601289/characteristics-of-the-ideal-teacher Hančil, J. (2005). Otevřený svět dialogického jednání. In VYSKOČIL, I. a kol. Dialogické jednání s vnitřním partnerem. Brno: JAMU. Kliková, A. (2003). Dialogické jednání jako dramatizace ideje. Dostupné z: cts.cuni. cz/soubory/reporty/CTS-03 – 23.doc Nikitina, S. (2003). Movement Class as an Integrative Experience: Academic, Cognitive, and Social Effects. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 37, č. 1, pp. 54 – 63. Švec, V., & Vyskočilová, E. (2007). The pedagogical conditioning student teachers: The foundations of their preparedness for changes in the roles of teachers. In Totems and Taboos: Risk and Relevance in Research on Teachers and Teaching. ISATT Konference: Abstracts by Session. Ontario: Brock University, July 5 – 9. Valachová, P. (2009). Možnosti rozvoje pedagogické kondice v  pregraduální přípravě sociálních pedagogů. Possibilities of development of pedagogice condition in pre-gradual preparation of social educators. In Zborník z konferncie IV. Medzinárodná konferencia doktorandov odborov Psychológia a Sociálna práce. Nitra: FSVaZ UKF. Vyskočil, I. (2000). Úvod. In Psychosomatický základ veřejného vystupování jeho studium a výzkum: sborník z konference 14. a 15. října 1999. Praha: AMU.

Anna Romanowska-Tołłoczko, Bianka Lewandowska Poland

Emotional Intelligence as a Predisposition to Pursue the Teaching Profession

Abstract One of the significant predispositions of the teacher is the ability to cope with emotions, which is recognized as emotional intelligence. The study was conducted among the students of the Academy of Physical Education in Wroclaw (263 individuals). In a group of students some were selected who declared their intention to work as teachers (95 people); the remaining students were the control group. According to the collected data, emotional intelligence of most of the students is average, and the belief concerning the level of this competence is overestimated in many cases. This result is particularly unsatisfactory for those associating their future with the teaching profession, for they are expected to have better interpersonal skills. Keywords: emotional intelligence, professional predisposition, teacher, student

Introduction Psychological competence of the teacher as an important determinant of the quality of teaching and education is an interesting and important subject of scientific reflection and empirical research (Kobylecka, 2005; Barberry, 1990; Żukowska, 1970). These competences can be developed and strengthened by the teacher at every stage of their professional life, with conscious work and various forms of education. However, it should be remembered that the competences are based on more stable, and thus more difficult to train, individually different psychological dispositions that

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can be described as professional skills. Predispositions of teachers and candidates to the profession should be diagnosed as early as possible, enabling them both to select and systematically develop their professional qualifications. One of the significant predispositions of the teacher, regardless of the specialty, is the ability to cope with their own and other people’s emotions (Przybylska, 2006; Zabłocka, 1998). Today, this area of expertise, but also the ability (or disposition conditioned by genetic endowment and early stages of development) is recognized as emotional intelligence. Variously conceptualized, still subjected to theoretical categorisation and empirical verification, it may be defined as a  set of features allowing for monitoring the feelings and emotions, and utilising of this information for controlling their own and other people’s behavior (Mayer et al., 1999). According to Salovey, Mayer and Caruso, emotional intelligence constitutes a quaternary construct. The first component is the perception and expression of emotions, the ability to perceive and recognize emotions in oneself and others. The second component is the ability to assimilate emotions to support cognitive processes. The third component, understanding emotions, includes knowledge about the experience of the emotional sphere. The fourth component, managing emotions, is the capability of the conscious regulation of one’s own and other people’s emotions and moods. The importance of this kind of emotional intelligence in the work of the teacher is quite obvious, as it is also confirmed by empirical studies. It is a disposition which not only determines the communication and educational skills (Barberry, op.cit.), but is also positively associated with the sense of mission and job satisfaction, and resistance to stress and burnout, which are relevant risks (Bajcar et al., 2011). Emotional intelligence as a psychological construct has a multilayer structureon more primal abilities, such as perception and adequate recognition of emotions in one’s own experiences, or the faces of other people, there are mounted more complex skills- like the ability to use emotions in decision-making and creative thinking, the ability to understand and differentiate the specificity of individual feelings, or the ability to manage moods and motivate oneself and others. All of these components fit well into the optimum personality profile of the teacher who, watching and understanding the variables and individually varied emotional life of his students, builds adequate and effective rules of cooperation and communication, but also as an educator- skillfully exciting the interest and cognitive curiosity, effectively motivating both himself and the students to explore and capture new knowledge and skills. Emotional intelligence is especially useful in educational interactions, which are currently the biggest problem for teachers, and at the same time they are paid insufficient attention in pedagogical education (cf., Romanowska-Tołłoczko et al., 2011).

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As already mentioned, the competences that make up emotional intelligence can be developed to some extent, which should take place primarily in the course of study preparing for the teaching profession, but it is equally important to educate teachers who are already professionally active. Interpersonal effectiveness can and should be shaped by all kinds of stimuli relating to social behavior. Having the competence to effectively manage emotional life is, therefore, what helps teacher candidates to start the profession and to reach satisfaction, therefore, the important and practical questions seem to be: what is the average level of emotional intelligence in candidates for the teaching profession, or does a person choosing this profession make an accurate self-diagnosis of the level of their emotional competences and what standardized tools can support them through an external evaluation of these competences? Nowadays, for the measurement of emotional intelligence various psychological tools are used, diagnosing a variety of its aspects. First of all, it is worth distinguishing between the tools based on self-report that de facto test the level of the conviction of possession of selected competences, and the tools that include various forms of tests- tasks which check the actual level of competence (Śmieja et al., 2008). Although in the process of constructing and verifying the accuracy of the self descriptive tool, the authors try to achieve a satisfactory level of compliance of results with those of other tools, but the measurement is imperfect so much as that it is based on subjective beliefs or even mere declarations of a subject (depending, among other things, on the subject’s need for approval, and his/her perceived validity of tested variable, e.g., mental health). The more reliable, but requiring more time, is regarded as a measuring type of test tools. It seems that the use of both types of tools, i.e., basing on the self, and using measuring tests, in one group of subjects, increases the reliability of the results obtained, and furthermore allows for the compliance of their beliefs about their own level of competence with the factual level (only to some extent, as the components of the various tools measured may not overlap). In order to answer the above questions regarding the diagnosis of emotional intelligence as the test of the suitability of candidates for teachers, the study with the participation of university students from the Academy of Physical Education was designed and conducted. The faculty prepares the students for the teaching profession in Physical Education, but among its students only some declare their willingness to work in this profession. This creates the opportunity to compare the candidates for teachers with other students in terms of their level of predisposition, the self-diagnosis in this area and its convergence with career plans.

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Methodology For the empirical verification of the above problems, the following specific research questions were formulated: 1. What is the average level of emotional intelligence (EI) measured by three different tools, among the students of the Academy of Physical Education, a group of students of Physical Education and students of other faculties (Physiotherapy and Sports) and in the subgroups of students planning and not planning to pursue the teaching profession? 2. Does the average measurement of EI, in a group of students declaring their willingness to work as a teacher, differ significantly from the results of the students who do not declare such plans? 3. In the study group and subgroups, is there a correlation between the EI results, measured with a tool basing on the self-description, and the results obtained from the studies conducted with executional tools? The study was conducted in 2014 among the students of the Academy of Physical Education in Wroclaw. 263 first and second year students (129 women and 134 men) from three departments were examined: Physical Education, Physiotherapy, and Sports, studying in the intra-mural mode. In the group of students of the Faculty of Physical Education, there were those who declared their intention to work as a teacher (95 people) and a group of people not declaring such an intention (50 persons); other students were the control group. In the study, the following measurement tools of emotional intelligence were applied: 1. Questionnaire of Emotional Intelligence (INTE) The INTE questionnaire (Jaworska et al., 2008) is used to measure emotional intelligence, understood as the ability to recognize, understand and control one’s own emotions, and the emotions of others, as well as the ability to effectively use emotions for influencing one’s own and others’ actions. The INTE consists of 33 items of self-descriptive character, in which the subjects assess themselves on a five-point scale. Only the overall score of this scale was analysed, which is an indicator of emotional intelligence, understood as a set of cognitive abilities, by which one uses his/her emotions when solving problems. They are related to the ability of raising awareness of one’s own emotions, the understanding of their causes and consequences, which may result in the disclosure of their feelings, but at the same time controlling them when the situation demands it, as well as recognizing and understanding the emotions experienced by other

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people. The overall result obtained in the scale of the test is in the range of 33–165 points. 2. Emotional Intelligence Scale- Faces (SIE-T) The scale of SIE-T (Matczak et al., 2005), is used to assess the ability to recognize facial expressions, which is regarded as one of the basic components of emotional intelligence. The scale has an executional character. The test material consists of 18 photographs of faces (male and female in equal proportions). Individual photographs are assigned sets of six names of emotions. The test determines whether the face visible in the photograph expresses the enlisted emotions. The total number of test items is 108 (18 x 6 photographs of emotions). The tool is intended to study adolescents over 16 years of age and adults, and can be used in group studies. The overall result can take a value between 0-108 points. 3. Two-dimensional Emotional Intelligence Inventory (DINEMO) The DINEMO Questionnaire (Matczak et al., 2006) is designed to measure basic components of emotional intelligence, such as the ability to access their own and others’ emotions, respecting them and understanding their functions. These abilities are evaluated on the basis of how the respondent interprets the different situations that cause emotions and how willing he/she is to respond. The DINEMO consists of 33 items, including descriptions of various situations which are sources of emotions. In each case there are four different ways to respond. The subject selects the reaction which is his most typical in each instance. The inventory allows for the interpretation of the results for the two factorial scales and obtaining a general result (ranging from 0 to 33 points). The scales included in the DINEMO are “OTHERS,” which measures the ability to recognize, understand and respect other people’s emotions (results are in the range of 0-21poins), and “I”, which measures the ability to become aware of, understand, respect and express one’s own emotions (results are in the range of 0-14 points).

Results and interpretation The average results obtained in the study group and subgroups of students (by gender) are presented in Table 1. In the DINEMO study the average scale score in the whole group, as well as the results of the subscales of “I” and “OTHERS”, compared with standartized studies, both women and men appear to be at an average level. Similarly, the results in the subgroups of students declaring and not

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declaring planning to join the teaching profession are average. The study scale SIE-T has also produced average results as in the whole group and subgroups the values determined in clinical standardization are close to medium. The average results of the self-report scale INTE in almost all the subgroups also oscillate around the average performance in the population. The values indicating the standard deviation of the results focus mostly around the specified medium. Only the average score in the group of men of the Sport major achieves a very high level.

Table 1. Average results of the three emotional intelligence tools for particular groups of students; n-number of the group, r- the average score for the group, f- the average score for women, m- the average score for men, σ- standard deviation Group

Measurement tool of EI

DINEMO „I”

DINEMO „Others”

DINEMO General Result

INTE

SIE-T

Students of Physical Students of Physical All Education who plan Education who do surveyed to join the teaching not plan to join the students profession teaching profession (n = 263) (n = 95) (n = 50)

Students of Physiotherapy (n = 71)

Students of Sports (n = 47)

r

8.72

8.46

8.48

9.08

8.95

σ

1.99

2.07

2.05

1.86

1.92

f

8.76

8.80

8.50

9.15

8.58

m

8.63

812

8.46

8.89

9.08 12.43

r

12.79

13.12

12.48

12.81

σ

3.47

3.44

3.73

3.20

3.7

f

13.82

14.68

13.83

12.53

14.25

m

12.16

11.60

11.1

13.57

11.79

r

19.90

19.97

19.36

20.26

19.78

σ

4.10

4.06

4.77

3.69

4.04

f

20.73

21.78

20.61

20.21

20.33

m

19.21

18.20

18.65

20.42

19.8

r

130.69

126.48

126.14

123.19

55.91

σ

86.74

11.85

13.8

11.8

25.23

f

126.15

128.49

124.22

121.90

130

m

135.89

124.52

127.22

126.74

165.06

r

74.08

74.45

73.18

73.63

75.00

σ

9.97

8.85

12.23

10.57

8.59

f

74.94

74.49

75.44

72.98

76.83

m

74.02

74.41

71.90

75.42

74.35

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In an attempt to answer the second research question, the results obtained in these two subgroups of students of Physical Education: planning and not planning to pursue the teaching profession were statistically analyzed using the NIR test (Least Significant Difference) in Statistica 10.0 program. As demonstrated by the results of this analysis, for any of the three tools used in the measurement result of the IE WF group of students declaring their intention to exercise the teaching profession, there is no significant difference from the measurement result of the IE WF group of students who do not have such plans. Table 2. Indicators of significance of differences in mean scores of emotional intelligence obtained in the groups of students demonstrating and not showing an intention to work as a teacher Measurement tool of EI

Indicator of significance of differences between groups

DINEMO “I”

0.961361

DINEMO “Others”

0.289274

DINEMO General Result

0.390015

SIE-T

0.467494

INTE

0.981834

During the verification of the third question, the statistical analyses (the correlation factor of r-Pearson at the significance level p