Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior Edward L. Deci and

Richard M. Ryan University of Rochester Rochester, New York

PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK AND LONDON

Contents PART I: B A C K G R O U N D

1. An Introduction Motivation Theories Drive Theories Intrinsic Motivation Self-Determination Alternative (Nonmotivational) Approaches The Organismic Approach Self-Determination Theory: An Overview 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.. Historical Background Empirical Drive Theory Psychodynamic Drive Theory White's Proposal Optimal Stimulation Optimal Arousal Optimal Incongruity Needs and Affects The Need for Competence Interest-Excitement and Flow The Need for Self-Determination Intrinsic Motivation Conceptualized Self-Determination: A Brief History Self-Determination Conceptualized Summary

3 3 4 5 5 7 8 9 11 11 12 18 19 20 20 22 26 26 28 29 32 35 38 39 xi

xii

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PART II: SELF-DETERMINATION T H E O R Y

3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence The Effects of Monetary Rewards Perceived Causality: Internal to External Other Extrinsic Rewards Reward Salience and Expectancy Constraints and Other Extrinsic Factors Perceived Causality: External to Internal Perceived Competence: Increases Perceived Competence: Decreases Cognitive Evaluation Theory Proposition 1 Proposition II Proposition III Evolution of the Theory Motivationally Relevant Processes Reward Administration and Types of Tasks Reward Contingencies The Nature of the Task Summary 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation Interpersonal Contexts Performance-Contingent Rewards Positive Feedback Self-Administration The Meaning of Controlling The Meaning of Informational The Communicator and the Context Characteristics of the Perceiver/Recipient Sex Differences: Information and Control Individual Differences in the Perceiver Intrapersonal Regulation: Information and Control Proposition IV Experimental Investigations Self-Determination and Causality Summary

43 44 49 49 52 54 57 58 60 62 62 63 63 64 65 72 72 81 85

87 88 88 91 93 95 96 98 99 99 102 105 107 108 Ill 112

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5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development The Nature of Development The Organismic Integration Process Intrinsic Motivation and Development Intrinsically Motivated Behavior The Effects of the Environment The Development of Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation and Development Evidence for Internalization Internalization and the Integrative Process Individual Differences in Children's Self-Regulation . . . Internalization and the Environment Summary

113 113 116 120 121 122 127 129 132 133 140 143 147

6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation 149 Behaviors and Initiating Events Causality Orientations The Autonomy Orientation The Control Orientation The Impersonal Orientation The Development of Causality Orientations The General Causality Orientations Scale Self-Determination Self-Actualization Self-Esteem Locus of Control Self-Consciousness Other Constructs Emotions and Attitudes Behaviors Summary of Scale Development Summary

151 152 154 157 159 160 163 163 164 165 166 168 169 171 172 174 175

PART III: ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES 7. Operant and Attributional Theories Operant Theory Rewards and Response Rates "Failures" to Replicate

179 180 181 182

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Competing Responses and Boredom The Focus of One's Analysis Summary Cognitive Approaches Interpersonal Attributions Attribution Theories Attributing Motivation Self-Attributions Perceiving Intrinsic Motivation in Oneself and Others . . . Metatheoretical Considerations Summary 8. Information-Processing Theories Expectancy Theories Vroom's Model Atkinson's Model The Issue of Task Difficulty Bandura's Theory Hunt's Theory Inadequacies of the Cognitive Theories Self-Determination Theory: An Information-Processing Representation Inputs of Information Causality Orientations Self-Determined Behavior Non-Self-Determined Behavior Summary

184 185 188 189 190 191 194 200 206 208 211 213 215 215 218 221 223 225 228 229 229 231 231 239 242

PART IV: A P P L I C A T I O N S A N D I M P L I C A T I O N S 9. Education Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom Classroom Structure The Interpersonal Context: Teachers' Orientations Intrinsically Motivated Learning Extrinsic Motivation in the Classroom Reinforcement Programs Organismic Integration Factors Affecting the Teacher Pressure from Above

245 246 250 252 256 261 261 264 266 266

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Pressure from Below Summary 10. Psychotherapy

268 270 273

The Therapeutic Process as Development Maintenance and Transfer of Treatment Gains Approaches to Therapy Behavior Therapies Psychoanalytic Therapies Humanistic Therapies General Principles Summary 11. Work

274 277 284 285 286 288 291 291 293

Self-Determination in Organizations Theories Y and Z Reward Structures Research on Self-Determination in Organizations The Interpersonal Context Individual Differences Experimental Change Summary 12. Sports

294 295 298 301 302 304 306 310 313

Cognitive Evaluation Theory and Sports 315 Self-Determination and Perceived Locus of Causality .. 315 Optimal Challenge and Perceived Competence 318 Competition and Intrinsic Motivation 321 Indirect Competition 322 Direct Competition 323 Competition and Ego-Involvement 325 Sex Differences in Competitive Settings 326 Goals and Values 329 Motivation and the Experience of Sports 330 Summary 332 References

,

335

Author Index

359

Subject Index

367