International Journal of Contemporary Applied Sciences (ISSN: 2308-1365)

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Discourse of Persuasion in Mother Teresa’s Nobel Peace Prize Acceptance Speech

Azadeh Sharif, Faiz Sathi Abdullah Universiti Putra Malaysia Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication

Corresponding Author: Azadeh Sharif Universiti Putra Malaysia Email: [email protected]

Abstract This study examined the discursive nature of persuasion in Mother Teresa‘s Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech that was delivered in Oslo on December 10, 1979. Using the multidisciplinary approach of critical discourse analysis, the study aimed to shed light on how generic move structures, linguistic means, discursive strategies and other discourse processes were used by Mother Teresa as a powerful spiritual leader to mold the beliefs, values, feelings, attitudes, intention, motivation and viewpoints of her audience in particular, and the public at large. Further, it endeavored to investigate the ideological positions of Mother Teresa as represented in her speech. The results suggest that her speech generally follows the typical move structure of the speech of acceptance of an award, a genre she uses in an attempt to influence the beliefs, values, feelings, attitudes, intention, motivation and viewpoints of the audience. She discursively engages with particular figures (e.g. religious authorities) in her speech while excluding others (e.g. political personages) and encouraging specific roles for the audience and herself. As expected, topics and themes concerning ―love‖ and ―Jesus‖ predominate together with the corresponding ideological stances of making sacrifices in love and the Christ‘s omnipresence in Mother Teresa‘s persuasive discourse in the speech. Keywords: Mother Teresa; politico-religious discourse; Nobel Peace Prize; acceptance speech; discursive strategies; persuasive discourse; rhetorical awareness

1. Introduction 1.1 Background to the Research Persuasion as the backbone of many of our communicative endeavors is defined as ―a conscious attempt by one individual to change the attitudes, beliefs or the behavior of another individual or group of individuals through the transmission of some message‖ (Bettinghaus, 1973, p. 10) in that it is a conscious or unconscious attempt by one individual to affect the beliefs, values, feelings, attitudes, intention, motivation and viewpoints of one individual or a 84

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group of individuals and to move them to action through using overt or covert oral/written means. As the ―persuasive process [that] is affected by the situational and socio-cultural context in which it takes place‖ (Virtanen & Halmari, 2005, p. 4), the act of persuasion reflects a socio-cultural need, which in the context of a public speech determines various properties of discourse, including communicative purposes, generic move structures, topics, themes, discursive strategies, and linguistic means. Put differently, the genre of the speech serves as ―a rhetorical means for mediating private intentions and social exigence‖ (Miller, 1984, p. 162) since genre represents social action as an order of discourse (Fairclough, 2001). Various speech genres (e.g. religious, political, academic, editorial, business, commercial, etc.) accomplish diverse communicative purposes. However, the genre of ceremonial speeches/speeches of special occasion (which includes the sub-genre of Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech) is said to: strengthen the bonds between speaker and listeners and among listeners themselves, building a sense of community. To achieve that sense of community, they usually create a sense of presence for particular ideas and values. They bring to the forefront of consciousness some value or belief that a group holds but may not have thought much about, which makes people aware that they share important values and beliefs…Ceremonial speeches tend to focus on values to draw people closer together. (Zarefsky, 2008, p. 430) In essence, the genre of ceremonial/special occasion speeches (as a sub-genre of public speeches) may have any of the following general purposes, singly or in combination: ―to inform, to persuade, to inspire, or to entertain‖ (Fluharty and Ross, 1966, p. 237). Speech of acceptance of an award is viewed as a sub-classification of ceremonial speeches. The Nobel Peace Prize (hereafter, NPP) is one of the five Nobel Prizes created by the Swedish industrialist, inventor, and armaments manufacturer Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. Since 1901, it has been awarded annually (with some exceptions) to those who have ―done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses‖ (Nobel, 1895). In 1979, the Norwegian Nobel Committee awarded the NPP to Mother Teresa (hereafter, MT) for work undertaken in the struggle to overcome the poverty and distress, which also constitute a threat to world peace. MT has been regarded as ―a spiritual master‖ (Maalouf, 2001, p. 21). According to Le Joly (1993, p. 7), ―in the history of Christianity, Mother Teresa has been more than a personality; she has truly proved to be an event‖. MT ―early showed a tendency for religious devotion‖ (Greene, 2004, p. 8), perhaps more so since her establishment of the Order of the Missionaries of Charity in 1950 (Maalouf, 2001) who vowed: [To] fulfill our mission of compassion and love to the poorest of the poor, we go seeking out in towns and villages all over the world even amid squalid surroundings the poorest, the abandoned, the sick, the infirm, the leprosy patients, the dying, the desperate, the lost, the outcasts; taking care of them, rendering help to them, visiting them assiduously, living Christ‘s love for them, and awakening their response to his great love (Egan, 1985, p. 42). In recent years, there has been growing interest in applying the Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) approach to public speeches (see. El-Hussari, 2010; Foxlee , 2009; Ghazali, 2006; Horváth, 2009; Pu, 2007; Wang, 2010; & Yu, 2011). CDA as a research tool seeks to 85

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―explore the connections between the use of language and the social and political contexts in which it occurs‖ (Paltridge, 2006, p. 179). Fairclough & Wodak (1997, p. 258) postulate that: CDA sees discourse-language use in speech and writing- as a form of ‗social practice‘. Describing discourse as social practice implies a dialectical relationship between a particular discursive event and the situation(s), institution(s) and social structure(s), which frame it: The discursive event is shaped by them, but it also shapes them. That is, discourse is socially constitutive as well as socially conditioned- it constitutes situations, objects of knowledge, and the social identities of and the relationships between people and groups of people. 1.2 Theoretical and Methodological Approaches 1.2.1 Genre Studies As Hyland (2002) puts it, ―in the last decade genre approaches have had a considerable impact on the ways we understand discourse‖. In general, genres are viewed to be ―abstract, socially recognized ways of using language‖. Genre scholarship has been significantly developed in three research traditions: (a) English for Specific Purposes (ESP), (b) North American New Rhetoric studies, and (c) Australian Systemic Functional Linguistics (Hyon, 1996). This study takes advantages of the traditions of ESP and North Rhetoric Genre studies (NRG).

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) The genre tradition of ESP ―draws heavily on Systemic Functional understandings of text structure‖ (Hyland, 2002, p. 115). In this school, ―communicative purpose and the formal properties of texts‖ are highlighted (Hyland, 2002). Scholars and practitioners of this field have considered genres as ―oral and written text types defined by their formal properties as well as by their communicative purposes within social contexts‖ (Hyon, 1996, p. 695). Indeed, in ESP genre studies, the configuration of texts is usually described as working of ―a series of moves, each of which may contain one or more steps (e.g Swales, 1990, 2004)‖ (Paltridge & Starfield, 2011, p. 107). John Swales (1990) suggested a three-level genre model in the field of ESP genres studies. According to Swales (1990), (1) communicative purpose is realized by (2) move structure. And move structure is realized by (3) rhetorical strategies: (1) Communicative Purposes: A genre comprises a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes. These purposes are recognized by the expert members of the parent discourse community and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre. This rationale shapes the schematic structure of the discourse and influences and constrains choice of content and style (Swales, 1990, p.58). (2) Move structures: The notion of move is often used to ―describe the functions, which particular portions of the text realizes in the relationship to the overall task‖ (Connor, Davis, & De Rycker, 1995).According to Connor and Mauranen (1999, p. 51) ―moves can vary in length and size from several paragraphs to one sentence, but normally contain at least one proposition‖.

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(3) Rhetorical Strategies: Exploring rhetorical strategies in the genre analysis model is referred to as exploring ―the level of form‖ (Askehave and Nielson, 2005, p. 123). More specifically, a particular communicative intention is realized by the rhetorical strategies (verbal as well as visual) (Askehave and Nielson, 2005). New Rhetoric Genre Studies (NRGS) In this school, genre is regarded as ―a socially standard strategy, embodied in a typical form of discourse that has evolved for responding to a recurring type of rhetorical situation‖ (Coe & Freedman, 1998, p. 137). In NRGS, methodologies aim at ―uncovering something of the attitudes, values and beliefs of the communities of text users that genres imply and construct‖ (Hyland, 2002, p. 114). In fact, this area of genre studies ―with its emphasis on the socially constructed nature of genre and on unpacking the complex relations between texts and contexts, provides important insights and support for ideological views of genre‖ (Hyland, 2002, p. 114). Australian School of Genre Studies The Australian School of genre studies often known as ‗the Sydney School‘ of genre studies (Hyon, 1996) is based on the work of Systemic Functional Linguistics such as Halliday, Hasan, and Martin (see e.g. Halliday 1985a, 1994, Halliday &Hasan, 1989; Martin, 1989). In the area of Australian systemic functional linguistics approach to genre, Martin‘s (1984) definition of genre has been particularly influential. Martin (1984) describes genre as ―a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our culture‖ (p. 25). In fact, for Martin (1984) ―genres are how things get done, when language is used to accomplish them‖ (p. 250).Sydney School scholars put great emphasis on ―explicating textual features, using Hallidayan schemes of linguistic analysis‖ (Freedman &Medway, 1994, p.9). Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a functional theory in linguistics which views text as social interaction and considers language as systems of meaning potential in human interaction that are realized by various structures. SFL consists of four strata: context, meaning, sound and lexico-grammar. Halliday (e.g. 1985b/1989, 1994) argued that language is structured to make three main kinds of meanings simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings. They are referred to language meta-functions. According to Halliday (1971, p. 332) through ideational function ―the speaker or writer embodies in language his experience of the phenomena of the real world; and this includes his experience of the internal world of his own consciousness: his reaction, cognitions, and perceptions, and also his linguistic acts of speaking and understanding‖. Through the interpersonal meta-function ―users of language establish, negotiate and assume their position in social relationships‖ (Halliday, 1994, p. 68).And ―the textual strand of meaning, is concerned with the potential the clause offers for its constituents to be organized differently, to achieve different purposes‖ (Eggins, 2004, p. 298). The Lexico-grammar level concerns the syntactic organization of words into utterances. This stratum of SFL consists of three sub-systems: transitivity, mood and modality and theme/rheme. In lexico-grammar level, ideational meaning is realized through Transitivity, interpersonal meaning through mood and modality, and textual meaning through the structures of theme /rheme. The present study mainly focuses on transitivity system. 87

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1.2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) CDA aims at analyzing ―opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control as manifested in language‖ (Wodak, 1995, p.204). Fairclough (1995a) views CDA as a ‗three-dimensional‘ framework. (1) Description is the stage which is concerned with formal properties of the text; (2) Interpretation is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction by seeing the text as the product of the process of production and as a resource in the process of interpretation; and (3) Explanation is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context, with the social determination of the process of production and interpretation, and their social effects (Fairclough, 1995, p. 98). Moreover, Fairclough (2001, p.2) in his approach places ―emphasis upon ‗commonsense‘ assumptions, which are implicit in the conventions according to which people interact linguistically, and of which people are generally not consciously aware‖. These assumptions are called ideologies by Fairclough. For Wodak and Reisigl (2009, p. 88), ideology is seen as ―an (often) one-sided perspective or worldview composed of related mental representations, convictions, opinions, attitudes and evaluations, which is shared by members of a specific social group‖. CDA is an approach the interpretive and explanatory nature of which distinguishes it from other approaches. Rogers (2004, p. 2) points out that CDA ―includes not only a description and interpretation of discourse in context, but also offers an explanation of why and how discourses work‖. Moreover, Titscher et. al. (2000, p.147) state that ―CDA conceptualizes languages as a form of social practice and attempts to make human beings aware of the reciprocal influences of language and social structure of which they are normally unaware (Fairclough, 1985; van Dijk, 1993b; and Wodak, 1989)‖. There are various approaches to CDA; however, the present study focuses on Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA).

1.2.3 Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) As the interrelations between discourse and society is complex, it cannot be analyzed adequately unless linguistic and sociological approaches from critical discourse point of view are combined. In fact, ―mediation between the social and the linguistic‖, is required (Weiss & Wodak, 2003, p.7). Hence, DHA as a theoretical foundation provides a vehicle which reconciles and bridges sociological and linguistic categories. According to Wodak and Meyer (2009, p. 29) ―DHA unfolds a four-step strategy of analysis: after (1) having established the specific contents or topics of a specific discourse; (2) the discursive strategies are investigated; then (3), the linguistic means (as types) and the specific, context-dependent linguistic realizations (as tokens) of the discriminatory stereotypes are examined (4)‖. The remarkable feature of the DHA is its attempt to ―integrate systematically all available background information in the analysis and interpretation of the many layers of a written or spoken text‖ (Wodak, 2006, p.15). Moreover, DHA approach ―considers intertextual and interdiscursive relationships between utterances, texts, genres and discourses, as well as extra-linguistics social/ sociological variables, the history of an organization or institution, and situational frames‘‘ (Reisigl and Wodak, 2009, p. 90). Intertextuality means that ―texts are linked to other texts; both in the past and in the present‖ and ―interdiscursitivity signifies that discourses are linked to each other in various ways‖ (Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p.90). Hence, analyzing intertextuality will help to reveal ―a set of voices which are potentially 88

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relevant, and potentially incorporated into the text‖ (Fairclough, 2003, p. 47) by the speaker to achieve particular goals. And analysis of interdiscursitivity ―seeks to compare the dominant and resistant strands of discourse (Meyer, 2001, p. 28). 1.3 Brief Review of Previous Studies on Mother Teresa Review of literature shows some studies on ceremonial speeches of MT. The studies conducted by Kuseski (1988) and Juarez (2007) worth mentioning here. MT‘s NPP acceptance speech (1997) was examined by Kuseski (1988) based on the ―Five Dogs‖ section of Kenneth Burke‘s essay, ―Mind, Body, and the Unconscious,‖ in Language as Symbolic Action as a critical method for the analysis. In fact, Kuseski (1988) attempted to find out the portrayal of the key term ―love‖ in MT‘s speech according to the five levels of meaning, which Burke assigned to words. They include Primal (refers to ‗repressed‘ or forgotten‘ context of situation), Lexical (explains a specific referent), Jingle (physical utterance), Entelechial (the principle of perfection), and tautological (textured meaning). The findings of Kuseski‘s (1988) study indicate that MT begins her NPP acceptance speech with portrayal of entelechial (ideal, perfect) love at two levels: theological (celestial, the love of God) and the love reflected in human action. And that tautological picture of love in practice was portrayed by MT by means of lengthy series of illustrations. Also, Kuseski (1988) found that primal love; the first love, the love of mother and child was cited numerously in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech and that lexical love (dictionary definition of a term) in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech was portrayed by means of offering near-clichés, definition of love by examples. Juarez (2007) was relatively better in examining religious rhetoric of MT‘s speeches and letters. Juarez (2007) found that ―the rhetoric of Mother Teresa seeks to achieve one goal: to persuade others to give to the poor‖ (p. 51). However Juarez‘s (2007) study mainly sought to identify three rhetorical tools of persuasion: redefinition, identification and the focus on antithetical ideas in her message. Some of the findings of Juarez‘s study are as follows: 1)In the rhetoric of MT, terms such as ‗love‘, ‗poverty‘, ‗children‘ and ‗giving‘ are expanded and given new meanings (redefinition), 2) MT attempts to help audiences conceptualize the division between themselves and the poor, to lead the audiences to feel connected with the poor, to identify (find) the poor. The use of narratives is the main method of constructing identification in her discourse (identification), and 3) MT mostly focused on the opposing point as a tool for clarification and persuasion toward other extremes, such as motherhood vs. abortion; life vs. abortion and poverty vs. peace. Further, Juarez (2007) concluded that, MT‘s discourse revolves around diverse moral and theological topics, however, ―the ‗call to give‘ is the major theme highlighted‖ (p. 35). The findings of both Juarez‘s (2007) and Kuseski ‘s (1988) studies provide valuable insights into MT‘s obsessions, philosophy of life, belief system , and also the secret behind the persuasive impacts of her words and messages. However, they lack clear explication of the theoretical frameworks that were used to inform the studies. Based on this theorizing, the present study attempts to determine the generic move structures of MT‘s speech, to examine the specific contents, issues, themes and topics of the speech, to investigate the discursive strategies she used in the speech as persuasive social action, the linguistic means which embodied the persuasive functions of her discourse, and the underlying ideological assumptions invested in her language of persuasiveness.

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2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Text of Mother Teresa’s Acceptance Speech NPP winners typically give an acceptance speech on receiving the award to show their appreciation and gratitude (Fluharty & Ross, 1996). The speaker of an acceptance speech typically, ―expresses appreciation for the gift or honor and shares his pleasure with those present, relates himself (or the group he represents) in some way to the giver, gives credit for his achievement to the help of others, to his profession, or the group to which he belongs, and tells what the award means to him and how it will urge him on to greater efforts‖ (Fluharty and Ross, 1996 p. 243). Also, Gamble and Gamble (1998) and Osborn and Osborn (1991) hold the view that the speaker of the speech of acceptance of an award thanks, recognizes and gives credit to those who bestow, and those who help, reflects on values represented by the award, and explains what the award means to him. MT delivered her Noble Lecture on 11th December 1979 in Oslo, Norway. Her NPP acceptance speech is described ―powerful and moving‖ (Kuseski, 1988, p.323).The speech consists of 3,990 words and 5 pages (Microsoft word). MT commences her NPP acceptance speech by expressing gratitude to God over receiving the prize through reciting a prayer of peace. She, further, stresses the importance of peace and love and also praises the sacrifices made by Christ in bringing peace and love to the world. Then, she turns her attention to the significance of family and children and condemns abortion as a threat to peace. Next, she reports on some of the humanitarian activities she has done with the help of her co-workers in the Missionaries of Charity. Additionally, she admires the poor people, informs the audience of their moral and humanitarian missions, and invites them to take action. Then, she expresses thanks to the people for the love she received. Later in her NPP acceptance speech, MT draws attention to spiritual poverty and admits the hardships of giving true love. In the end, she again invites the audience to give love by reminding them of having the love of God and Jesus with them as their support. 2.2 Theoretical/Analytical Framework As the phenomenon of persuasion enjoys a multifaceted nature, exploring it in the discourse inevitably necessitates a multi-dimensional approach to reach deeper interpretation and insights. Hence, the present study rested upon an integrated theoretical perspective which included some aspects of genre scholarship as well as critical linguistics besides a focus on the discourse-historical approach (Wodak, 2009) and van Dijk‘s (2006) categories of ideological discourse analysis. Moreover, some aspects of the analytical tools of systemic functional linguistics served the theoretical framework for textual analysis. These theories will be briefly introduced in the following section. 2.3.1 Generic Move Structure Analysis Biber, Connor, and Upton (2007) suggest that move analysis does not follow strict rules. However, they describe some common procedures in doing a move analysis. The first step in identifying the move categories for a genre is ―to get a ‗big-picture‘ understanding of the overall rhetorical purpose of the texts in the genre‖ (Biber et al., 2007, p. 33).The second step is ―to look at the function of each segment and evaluate what its local purpose is‖. The third step is ―to look for any common functional and/or semantic themes represented by the 90

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various text segments that have been identified. These functional-semantic themes can then be grouped together, reflecting the various steps (or strategies) of a broader move type‖ (p.33). As the above steps in doing a move-analysis denote, the process of identifying moves is a more cognitive-oriented process, which ―calls for cognitive judgment, rather than a reliance on linguistic criteria‖ (Biber et al., 2007, p. 32). Gamble & Gamble (1998) and Osborn & Osborn (1991) present that the speakers of the speech of acceptance of an award take the following actions: they thank, recognize and give credit to those who bestow, and those who help, reflect on values represented by the award, explain what the award means to them and accept the award graciously. Also, Fluharty and Ross (1996) believe that the speaker of an acceptance speech normally, 1Expresses appreciation for the gift or honor and shares his pleasure with those present, 2Relates himself (or the group he represents) in some way to the giver, and praises him meaningfully without overdoing it, 3-Gives credit for his achievement to the help of others, to his profession, or the group to which he belongs, and 4-Tells what the award means to him and how it will urge him on to greater efforts .On the other hand, Fortanet (2005), who surveyed the structural pattern of Honoris Causa doctorate acceptance speeches found the following moves for acceptance speeches: A B C C1 C2 C3 C4 D

Acknowledgements (the speaker expresses gratitude) Discourse organization (the speaker indicates to the audience how the rest of the speech is organized) Content Interpretation (the speaker gives personal opinions, ideas or arguments) Audience approach (the speaker tries to approach the audience by sympathizing with them and looking for points they have in common) Facts (the speaker tries to support the arguments and ideas) Illustrations (the speaker triesto illustrate facts, such as examples, anecdotes, quotations and visuals) Asides (includes information not relevant to the topic of the speech (Source: Adapted from Fortanet, 2005, pp. 40-1)

The present study adopts Fortanet‘s (2005) generic structure as a base and combines it with the moves suggested from Gamble and Gamble (1998), Osborn and Osborn (1991), and Fluharty and Ross (1996). Therefore, it provides its own genre structure framework for the analysis of genre structure of MT‘s NPP acceptance speech.

2.3.2 Identification of Underlying Ideologies Critical Discourse Analysis in the present study was guided by Fairclough‘s 3-dimensional framework as presented below in Figure 1.

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Figure.1 Dimensions of Discourse and Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1995b, p. 98)

Fairclough (1995, 1998, p. 144) sums up the three different sorts of analysis as below: (1) analysis of texts (spoken, written, or involving a combination of semiotic modalities, e.g. televisual texts) (2) analysis of discourse practices of text production, distribution and consumption (3) analysis of social and cultural practices, which frame discourse practices and texts. From Fairclough‘s (2003, p. 218) point of view ―ideologies are representations of aspects of the world, which contribute to establishing and maintaining of relations of power, domination and exploitation. Analysis of texts…is an important aspect of ideological analysis and critique…‖. There are various theories and models for analyzing ideology in discourse. Van Dijk (2006) outlines the following categories for ideological discourse analysis, which guide the unveiling of ideological assumptions in particular persuasive discourses: ―ACTOR DESCRIPTION, AUTHORITY, BURDEN, CATEGORIZATION, COMPARISON, CONSENSUS, DISCLAIMERS, EUPHEMISM, EXAMPLE/ILLUSTRATION; GENERALIZATION, HYPERBOLE, IMPLICATION, IRONY, LEXICALIZATION, METAPHOR, NATIONAL SELF-GLORIFICATION, NEGATIVE OTHERPRESENTATION, NORM EXPRESSION, NUMBER GAME, POLARIZATION, POSITIVE SELF-PRESENTATION, POPULISM, PRESUPPOSITION, VAGUNESS, and ―VICTIMIZATION‖ (pp. 735-739). Of these, the overarching binary that may be used as a defining feature to characterize ―in-groups‖ and ―out-groups‖ in terms of ―Us vs Them‖, respectively, is the positive self-presentation/ negative Other-presentation set of strategies. 2.3.3 Topics, Issues, and Themes Contents or topics of a discourse represent what a discourse ‗is about‘; they embody the most important information of a discourse. ―Topics in discourse usually cannot be directly observed, but are usually inferred from or assigned to discourse by language users‖ (van Dijk 2001, p. 102). Reisigl and Wodak (2009, p. 110) note that ―identifying the main discourse 92

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topics is based on generalizing the established list of themes‖. Therefore, the researcher of the study first established a list of themes, and then construed topics out of comparable themes. More specifically, the themes were sorted into groups based on the common lexises or ideas/messages. Then each group was subsumed under a particular topic. 2.3.4 Analysis of Discursive Strategies Reisigl and Wodak (2001, p.44) argue that language users adopt ―a more or less intentional plan of practices to achieve a particular social, political, psychological or linguistic aims‖. In DHA, these goal-oriented practices are called discursive strategies. A number of discursive strategies and various typologies for them have been proposed (see Chilton 2004; Chilton & Schäffner 1997; Hart 2010; Reisigl and Wodak 2001; Wodak 2001). In racist discourse, these include reference, predication, argumentation, perspectivation, and intensification or mitigation (Reisigl & Wodak 2001, pp. 44-56). Referential (or nomination) strategies are strategies by means of which social actors, objects/phenomena/events and processes/action are discursively constructed, classified or represented by the speaker. .In predicational strategies speakers assign to social actors evaluative - positive or negative - attributes. In other words in predicational strategies speakers qualify social actors, objects, phenomena, events/processes and action (more or less positively or negatively). Through argumentation strategies, the speakers try to persuade addresses of the truth and normative rightness of claims. At linguistic level, argumentation strategies are realized mainly through topoi and fallacies. ‗Topoi‘ are content-related warrants or ―conclusion rules‖, which connect the argument or arguments with the conclusion, the claim‘ (Reisigl and Wodak 2001, pp. 73-74). Some argumentative schemes provided by Reisigl and Wodak (2001, p.73-77) include various topoi of usefulness/advantage, uselessness/disadvantage, definition/name-interpretation, danger, humanitarianism, justice, responsibility, burden, finances, reality, numbers, law/right, history, culture, and abuse. In perspectivation strategies, speakers express their own point of view by appraising the propositions they are communicating. More specifically, the speakers‘ or writers‘ positions and their involvement or distance will be expressed. Finally, in intensification or mitigation strategies speakers strengthen or weaken the epistemic status of their propositions. The following table illustrates the strategies and their related linguistic devices.

Table 1 Discursive strategies and their linguistic devices Strategy Nomination ( referential)

Predication

Devices -membership categorization devices, deictics, anthroponoms, etc. -tropes such as metaphors, metonymies and synechdoches -verbs and nouns used to denote processes and action, etc. -stereotypical , evaluative attributions of negative or positive traits (e.g. in the form of adjectives, appositions, prepositional phrases, relative clauses, conjunctional clauses, infinitive clauses and participial clauses or groups) -explicit predicates or predicative nouns/ adjectives/ pronouns -collocations 93

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-explicit comparisons, similes, metaphors and other rhetorical figures -allusions, evocations, presuppositions/implicatures, etc. - topoi Argumentation

-Fallacies/topoi -deictics

Perspectivization framing or discourse representation

-direct, indirect or free indirect speech -quotation marks, discourse markers/ particles -metaphors -animating prosody, etc. -diminutives or argumentatives

Intensification/ mitigation

- (modal) particles, tag questions, subjunctive, hesitations, vague expressions, etc. -hyperboles, litotes -indirect speech acts -verbs of saying, feeling, thinking, etc

(Reisigl & Wodak, 2009, p. 94 and Reisigl & Wodak, 2001, pp. 72-73) 2.3.5 Transitivity Analysis Transitivity is made up of three components: processes, participants, and circumstance. The processes are divided into six types: material processes, mental processes, relational processes, behavioral processes, verbal processes, and existential processes. Every process type engages the associated participants (such as Actor, Goal, Phenomenon, Receiver, etc.). Circumstances can occur with all process types. There are different types of circumstances, which can be found in clauses (such as extent, location, manner, cause, accompaniment, matter and role). In SFL, ideational meanings are realized through the system of transitivity. The present study benefits from SFL as a rich resource for identifying the linguistic means and devices, which MT draws on to achieve persuasion. More specifically, exploring the six process types, their related frequencies, participants and circumstances could aid the researcher of the present study to access the ways MT sees the world and the ways she views different objects and events. The transitivity system and its constituents are summarized in the following table. Table 2 Transitivity analysis guideline Lexico-grammar Transitivity



Processes and participants 1-material: Actor-Goal- Beneficiary 2-mental: ( cognition -affection-perception) Sensor, Phenomenon 94

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3-verbal: Sayer-Reciever-Verbiage 4-behavioural: Behaver-Behaviour-Phenomenon 5-existential: Existent 6-relational: -attributive: Attribute, Carrier -identifying : Token, Value -possessive: Possessor and the Possessed Circumstances: extent, location, manner, cause, accompaniment, matter, role (Eggins, 2004; Lock, 1996)

3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Rhetorical Move Structure of Mother Teresa’s Speech

The results of the generic move structure identified in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech are summarized in table 3.

Table 3 Generic Move Structures Identified in MT‘s NPP Acceptance Speech Moves

Steps

1.Thanking

1.thanking God

2.Reflecting on the values represented by the award 3.Giving personal opinions, ideas and arguments

1.stating the role of the gift 1.expressing religious views (e.g. Jesus being God) 2.expressing theological views (e.g. doing sacrifice in love) 3.expressing general views (e.g. the greatness of the poor) 4.stating social problems (e.g. abortion, spiritual poverty) 1.expressing commonalities with the audience 2.urging and inviting the audience to act 1.appealing to religious

4.Identifying with the audience and establishing rapport with them

5.Providing and

95

Purposes of use/social action appealing to the hearts of the audience and molding their beliefs -reinforcing the message of bringing peace - influencing the beliefs of the audience about omnipresence of Jesus, doing sacrifice in love, smile: the beginning of love, the greatness of the poor, spiritual poverty, and the negativity of abortion tapping into senses of responsibility, integrity, collectivity, ability, and action of the audience 1) legitimizing her

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illustrating facts in support of arguments and ideas

5.Explaining what the award means to her and how it will urge her onto greater efforts

authorities 2.providing statistics 3.narrating anecdotes and true stories of her personal experiences 4.stating humanitarian activities of the Missionaries of Charity and the positive impacts of them

1.expressing positive emotion upon receiving the prize 2.promising of taking future action

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ideological stances about Christ in the poor and the necessity of loving each other and neighbors 2) convincing the audience of the positive impacts of natural family planning and serving the poor 3) persuading the audience to give sacrificially, share love, and , care about spiritual poverty 1) impressing the feelings of the audience 2) establishing trust

Briefly speaking, the analysis of generic move structure of MT‘s NPP speech reveals that those who are mainly invited into the genre include religious authorities (e.g. ―God‖, ―Jesus‖, and ―St. John‖), the poor, and family members (e.g. ―mother‖, ―parents‖, ―unborn child‖, and ―children‖). And those who are excluded from the genre seem to be Nobel Peace Prize Committee, the Royal family of the Kingdom of Norway, political, philosophical, and scientific figures. This may indicate the fact that MT; a Catholic nun with unquestionable faith in God and Christ who had devoted her life selflessly to the poor and whose main concerns were supporting family and children, associates herself more with religious figures and the poor. Hence, they are highly invited into the genre of her speech. Further, it was discovered that the roles which the genre of MT‘s NPP acceptance speech encourages for herself include helping the children of the whole world, making home for many people who have no home, bringing peace, bring good news, loving Christ and serving Him in the poor. And the roles which the genre of her speech encourages for the audience include serving the Christ in the poor, loving Jesus and sharing the joy of loving Him with others, loving each other and neighbors, supporting children, teaching and practicing natural family planning, fighting abortion by adoption, praying, finding the poor, putting time in the family for each other, and smiling at each other. Also, the results indicate that the values revealed through the generic move structure of MT‘s speech include moral values such as peace, caring, forgiveness, and sacrifice, social values such as service (i.e. serving the poor and people), and religious values such as having trust and faith in God and Christ. 3.2 Topics, Themes, and Related Issues Total number of nine topics and twenty six themes were discovered in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech. The topic of ‗love‘ is the most prominent topic in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech followed by the topic of ‗Jesus‘. Additionally, the topics of ‗spiritual poverty‘ and ‗family‘ 96

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with having the same frequency are the third and fourth persistent topics. Other repeated topics include ‗peace‘, ‗the poor‘, ‗praying‘, and ‗children‘. Finally, the results suggest that the topic of ‗abortion‘ is the least frequent topic in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech. Table 4 exhibits the main topics, themes and their related frequencies identified in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech. In a nutshell, the analysis of the topics and themes of MT‘s NPP acceptance speech reveals that the topics of ―love‖ and ―Jesus‖ and the correspondent supportive ideological stances of doing sacrifice in love and omnipresence of Jesus emerge as the major topics and themes. In fact, via the use of these topics, MT encourages the audience to give love sacrificially and find Jesus in disguise of the poor. Also, MT‘s anti-abortion ideological stance is revealed through the topics of ―family‖, ―peace‖, and ―abortion‖ via negative predication of abortion. Moreover, the findings suggest that MT potentially impels the audience to care about family through the topics of ―spiritual poverty‖ and ―family‖ via the use of various linguistic signals (e.g. inclusive language, imperatives, and the strategies of predication and intensification). Finally, MT seems to persuade the audience to care about children through the topics of ―spiritual poverty‖, ―peace‖, ―children‖, and ―abortion‖ strategically via presenting negative consequences of neglecting children and promoting adoption and the positive effects of it on both adopted children and adopting parents. Table 4 Main Topics and Themes of MT‘s NPP Acceptance Speech Topics Love

Freq

25

Jesus 11 Spiritual poverty Family

6 6

Peace 5 The poor Praying Children Abortion

5 5 5 2

Themes the pain of giving true love (sacrificial love) Smile: the beginning of love loving your neighbor sharing love God and Christ‘s fashion of love giving loving one another putting love in the action that we do loving Jesus omnipresence of the Christ sacrifices of the Christ the carrier of good news/peace hunger for love neglect to love spiritual Poverty of the West natural family planning caring about family destroyer of peace living with peace the need to peace helping the poor the greatness of the poor the benefits of praying request for praying caring about the children condemning abortion fighting abortion activities and their benefits

97

Freq 7 4 3 3 3 3 1 1 5 4 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 3 2 3 2 5 1 1

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3.3 Discursive Strategies of Persuasion The results of the analysis of discursive strategies along with the frequency of their occurrences, objectives, and linguistic means and devices are tabulated in Table 5. In order to offer more accurate and clarified results, the strategies of intensification and mitigation are analyzed and shown in the table separately. In sum, the results of the analysis of discursive strategies used in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech demonstrates that nomination strategy is mainly used to influence the beliefs of the audience, provoke senses of unity and teamwork, and draw the attention of the audience to social problems. Also, MT‘s supportive ideological stance about the poor and adoption emerged through using nomination strategy. Further, some of the linguistic means and signals which helped identification of nomination strategy include anthroponyms, religious matters, rhetorical figures, and positively and negatively-connoted phenomena. Besides, through predication strategy, MT influences the beliefs of the audience to favor love, peace, caring about family, and adoption and oppose abortion by means of positive predication of ―Jesus‖, ―the poor‖, and ―love‖ and negative predication of ―abortion‖. Moreover, perspectivization strategy is mainly used by MT to illustrate, legitimize, and authenticate her ideological views (e.g. greatness of the poor, caring about children and family) via the use of linguistic means and devices such as discourse markers, direct and indirect quotations from religious authorities and the poor, and mental verb processes of cognition. Further, it was discovered that intensification strategy probably intensified positive feelings and sense of action in the audience and heightened negative portrayal of abortion by means of linguistic devices such as adverbs of intensity, superlative adjectives, and hyperbole. Also, mitigation strategy probably helped MT to soften calling the audience to care about children, family, and the poor via the use of asking rhetorical questions and mental verb processes. Finally, via the use of argumentation strategy, MT legitimized her ideological position by means of devices such as appeal to ‗authority‘, generalization, and providing examples and statistics. Table 5 Discursive Strategies, Persuasive Objectives, and Linguistic Means in Mother Teresa‘s NPP Acceptance Speech Strategy

Objectives

Linguistic means and devices

nomination

-offering incentives to the audience to follow the paths taken by religious figures -provoking sense of teamwork, unity , and wholeness, and promoting living with peace and greatness of the poor -broadening the scope of vision of the audience ,highlighting social problems and positive effects of adoption, and triggering hope in the audience

1 ) anthroponyms (e.g. ―St. John‖) 2) deictics (e.g. ―our Sisters‖) 3) collectives (e.g. ―the poor‖) 4) religious matters (e.g. ―Gospel‖) 5) rhetorical figures (e.g. personification ) 5) negatively- connotated objects (e.g. ―poverty‖) 6) positively-loaded phenomena (e.g. ―love‖)

98

Freq.

64

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predication

perspectivization

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-promoting love, peace, and caring about family -influencing the beliefs of the audience and evoking a sense of conscience in the audience -presenting her anti-abortion stance and trying to gain support for that -advocating poverty

1) positive predication of ‗Jesus‘, ‗poor people‘, ‗love‘, and ‗prayer‘ 2) relational verb processes 3) negative predication of abortion (e.g. ―direct war‖)

-legitimizing and authenticating her ideological views and claims (e.g. greatness of the poor) -illustrating her beliefs and bringing supports for them (e.g. caring about children and family) -creating intimacy with the audience

1)discourse markers/ circumstance of cause (e.g. ―because‖) 2) direct quotations and indirect speech from religious authorities 3) direct speech from the poor 4) reporting some activities of the Missionaries of Charity 5) narrating anecdotes from the Bible and stories of her personal experiences 6) mental verb processes of cognition (e.g. ―I believe‖)

56

43

Table 5 Discursive Strategies… (Continued) Strategy

Objectives

Linguistic means and devices

intensification

-creating and reinforcing positive feelings in the audience -heightening a sense of action in the audience -enhancing negative portrayal of abortion

1) adverbs of intensity (e.g. ―very‖) 2) comparative and superlative adjectives 3) modal verbs of obligation (e.g. ―must‖) in conjunction with material verb processes 4) hyperbole (e.g. millions) 1) mental verbs of ‗feeling‘ and ‗thinking‘ 2) rhetorical questions

mitigation

argumentation

-softening the call to care about children and family and to love each other and neighbors -persuading the audience to start loving each other from the family and to care about the poor -legitimizing her positive ideological position about loving neighbors, God‘s

99

Freq.

28

17

1) appeal to authority (e.g. ‗Jesus‘) 2) example/illustration (e.g. short

13

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love, , omnipresence of Christ, and natural family planning -persuading the audience to give peace to each other, care about the parents and poor, give love sacrificially

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stories) 3) generalization (e.g. negative consequences of abortion) 4) numbers and statistics 5) topoi (e.g. ‗topos of love‘)

3.4 Aspects of Intertextuality and Interdiscursitivity The results indicate that multiple voices appear to speak through the text in order to aid MT to achieve her specific purposes. Throughout her speech, MT seems to integrate direct and indirect quotations from ‗God‘, ‗Jesus‘, ‗the Scripture‘, ‗St. John‘, ‗St. Francis of Assisi‘, the Missionaries of Charity, and the poor. As ―intertextuality is not just a matter of which other texts you refer to, but how you use them, what you use them for, and ultimately how you position yourself as a writer to them to make your own statement‖ (Bazerman, 2004, p. 94), the analysis sought to find out MT‘s possible purposes of these intertextual borrowings. Hence, it was discovered that MT presumably endeavors to assure the audience of God‘s love mainly by means of bringing direct quotations from God and the Scripture. Furthermore, intertextuality analysis illustrates that MT‘s positive ideological position about love of neighbor seems to be advocated by means of incorporating direct quotations from St. John and the poor. Other ideologically driven intertextual borrowings in MT‘s speech along with the possible purposes of incorporating them seem to include reciting a prayer from St. Francis of Assisi with the intention of encouraging peace and the victory of ‗good‘ vs ‗evil‘, indirect and direct quotations from Jesus to legitimize the construction of Jesus as a carrier of good news and peace, and to support the ideological view of Jesus in distressing disguise of the poor, and direct quotations from the poor to authenticate and legitimize her supportive ideological views about natural family planning and the greatness of the poor. In addition, the analysis demonstrates that the genre of MT‘s speech seems to include hybrid discourses such as religious discourse, discourses on family, sacrifice, love, and peace. More specifically, it was found that the inclusion of words such as ―Jesus‖, ―God‖, ―the Father‖, ―Mary‖, ―the Scripture‖, ―the Gospel‖, and ―prayer‖ possibly establishes a genre of religious discourse. In general, it can be assumed that extensive circulation of religious discourse may aid MT to consolidate her position as a credible and trustworthy person and legitimize and moralize her certain ideological positions. Further, it was found that constant use of words such as ―family‖, ―mother‖, ―parents‖, ―sons and daughters‖, and ―child/en‖ probably evokes a genre of family discourse. It can be assumed that heavy reliance on discourse of family may stem from MT‘s concern about family and her supportive ideological position toward family. Moreover, the analysis implies that repeated use of the words such as ―give‖, ―hurt‖, ―die‖, ―self-control‖, ―share‖, and ―a life of sacrifice‖ could seemingly reinforce the discourse on sacrifice. Such reliance on discourse of sacrifice could probably indicate MT‘s supportive ideological position as an advocate of doing sacrifice in love. Additionally, the analysis shows that identity construction and the expression of identification or distance with certain ideological stances in the genre of MT‘s speech seems to be carried out by means of mainly inserting evaluative adjectives and phrases, lexicalization, and modal verbs of obligation (e.g. ―must‖, ―have to‖, and ―has to‖). In general, it was found that the identities constructed by MT in her speech include (1) supporter of children, adoption, natural family planning, the poor, love of neighbors, loving 100

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Jesus/gaining union with Christ, loving each other sacrificially, God/Jesus in disguise of the poor, praying, caring about family, and peace, (2) reminder of God‘s love, and (3) opponent of abortion and spiritual poverty. 3.5 Transitivity Analysis The results of transitivity analysis of MT‘s NPP acceptance speech are summarized in Tables 6-10. Table 6 Process Types Identified in MT‘s NPP Acceptance Speech Process type

Frequency

Material

217

Mental

122

Relational

98

Verbal

38

Existential

33

Behavioral

8

Table 7 Most frequent verbs of material processes of MT‘s NPP acceptance speech Material processes

Frequency

come

18

give

16

do

16

Table 8 Most Frequent Verbs of Mental Processes Mental processes

Frequency

love

26

see

12

know

11

want

10

feel

10

think

7

forget

7

hurt

7

101

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believe

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3

Table 9 Main Participants of the Verb ―Love‖ In MT‘s NPP Acceptance Speech Verb : love Sensor

Christ we you God

Phenomenon

one another we/us Christ you God neighbor

Table 10 Most Frequent Circumstances of MT‘s NPP Acceptance Speech The type of Circumstances

Frequency

location

107

manner

21

cause

18

extent

9

accompaniment

4

In sum, the present transitivity analysis of MT‘s NPP acceptance speech demonstrates that MT tries to urge her audience to perform actions such as caring about family and the poor, giving love sacrificially, and spreading peace and smile by means of a high reliance on the use of material processes such as ―come‖, ―give‖, and ―do‖. Moreover, the second dimension of devotion that MT seems to provoke in the audience is the feeling and sense of perception of God, Jesus, each other, and social problems via the use of mental verbs such as ―love‖ and ―see‖. Finally, the incidences of different circumstances probably afford MT the bases for telling the audience how action in the name of religion may be carried out. More specifically, it was found that the utilization of spatial circumstances (e.g. ―here‖, ―in the street‖, ―in Calcutta‖, and ―the whole world‖) outnumber the temporal probably indicating MT‘s attempt to specify the places that need attention. Also, the circumstance of manner; the second numerous circumstance used in MT‘s NPP acceptance speech, mainly deals with quality (e.g. ―very clearly‖) and comparisons (e.g. ―and insisted that we love one another as 102

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He loves each one of us‖) potentially demonstrating MT‘s endeavor to clarify the howness of the action she wants the audience to take. Additionally, the results suggest that by means of using circumstance of cause (e.g. ―because‖), MT attempts to justify and provide reasons for her arguments and viewpoints (argumentation strategy). In essence, this perhaps helps her convince the audience of her ideological views. In general, it can be argued that the choice of different circumstances in MT‘s speech may assist her in portrayal of social issues more tangibly and vividly. 3.6 Some Ideological Assumptions The analysis led to revelation of some of MT‘s general and specific ideological assumptions. In general, it was found that MT was the supporter of the poor, Christ, adoption, natural family planning, children, family, praying, loving God, and making sacrifice in love /giving love sacrificially, and opponent of abortion and spiritual poverty. Further, it was discovered that some specific ideological assumptions of MT invested in her speech include: (1) God/Christ in disguise of the poor/omnipresence of the Christ. (2) Jesus is the messenger of peace, love, and joy. (3) Loving God is the prerequisite to loving neighbors. (4) God can feel and get hurt. (5) The coming of the Christ is a testimony of God‘s love to the world. (6) Jesus‘ death on the Cross is a testimony of His love to mankind. (7) Adoption and teaching natural family planning can save the lives of children. (8) Love has the power to do actions. (9) The poor are great people who can teach us many lessons such as being appreciative and giving grateful love in critical conditions. 4. Concluding Remarks MT‘s speech served as a ―frame for social action‖ (Bazerman, 1997, p. 19) and a ―communicative vehicle for the achievement of goals‖ (Swales, 1990, p. 46) such as persuading the audiences to give love sacrificially, support the poor, children, adoption, stop abortion, etc. by influencing the beliefs, values, feelings, attitudes, intention, motivation, and viewpoints of the audiences. The topics and themes constructed by MT reveal her ―mental representations‖ (van Dijk, 2001, p. 358), positive and negative attitude and approach toward various social issues. For example, the ideas of making sacrifice in love and caring about children and the poor were established by means of positive constructions of topics such as love and children. Further, it was found that MT‘s negative attitude toward abortion and spiritual poverty was revealed through negative constructions of these topics and themes. Therefore, it can be concluded that the topics and themes which are built by the speakers can mirror their obsessions, ideological perspectives and approaches about various social issues in life. The discursive strategies employed by MT served as ―practices adopted to achieve a particular social, political, psychological or linguistic aim‖ (Reisigl &Wodak, 2001, p. 44) such as social aims of promoting sacrificial love and caring about children, family, and the poor, political aims of negating abortion and spiritual poverty, and psychological aims of influencing the beliefs of the audience toward Jesus, God‘s love, and praying. Religion as a powerful institution can be drawn upon as a tool to ‗control action and minds‘ (van Dijk, 1997) of the individuals by people who have ‗access‘ to ‗knowledge‘, ‗fame‘, ‗respect‘, and ‗public discourse‘such as MT. Therefore, we can find support for the claim that ―language is 103

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not powerful on its own—it is a means to gain and maintain power by the use ‗powerful‘ people make of it‖ (Wodak &Meyer, 2009, p. 88). Some of MT‘s certain ideological stances invested in her speech such as omnipresence of Jesus, anti-abortion and pro-poor mirror the body of ideological positions of the institution/social group that MT belonged to as a member, namely, the Roman Catholic Church. As van Dijk (1998, p. 29) points out, ―there is no such thing as a purely individual or personal ideology. Ideologies are essentially social, that is, shared by members of groups or collectivities of people‖. Further, the analysis of discourse processes of intertextuality and interdiscursitivity in the present study suggests that intertextual borrowings are not innocent or neutral, but ideologically driven, which are employed by the speakers in order to legitimize and justify specific ideologies. In fact, we can construe that intertextuality is employed in order to bound ideological struggle and power relations because through intertextuality power is added to the propositions put forward by the speaker. In addition, it was found that transitivity analysis served as a tool to realize MT‘s interpretation of reality, represent MT‘s mental picture of the world, and transmit certain ideologies. It is hoped that the present study makes several contributions to the body of knowledge of various fields such as genre, Discourse Analysis, CDA, rhetoric and communication. References Bazerman, C. (1997). The life of genre, the life in the classroom. In W. Bishop & H. Ostrom (Eds.). Genre and writing: Issues, arguments, and alternatives (pp.19-26). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook-Heinemann. Bazerman, C. (2004). Intertextuality: How texts rely on other texts In Bazerman, C & Prior.P (Eds.). What writing does and how it does it: An introduction to analyzing texts and textual practices (pp. 83-96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bettinghaus, E.P., & Cody, M. J. (1973). Persuasive communication (p.10). USA: Holt, Rinehart& Winston. Biber, D., Connor, U., & Upton, T. A. (2007). Discourse on the move: Using corpus analysis to describe discourse structure (p.1,32-3). Amesterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Chilton, P, & Schäffner, C. (1997). Discourse and Politics. In V.Dijk, T.A. (Ed.), Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction, vol.2: Discourse as Social Interaction (pp. 206-230). London: Sage. Chilton, P. (2004). Analyzing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. Coe, R. M., & Freedman, A. (1998). Genre Theory: Australian and North American Approaches. In M. Kennedy (Ed.).Theorizing composition (pp. 136-147). Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Company. Connor, U., Davis, K.W., & De Rycker, T. (1995). Correctness and Clarity in Applying for Overseas Jobs: A Cross-cultural Analysis of US and Flemish Applications. TextInterdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse, 15(4), 457-476. 104

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International Journal of Contemporary Applied Sciences (ISSN: 2308-1365)

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