Induced Sputum, Eosinophilic Bronchitis, and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease FREDERICK E. HARGREAVE and RICHARD LEIGH Asthma Research Group, Departments of Medicine and Paediatrics, St. Joseph’s Hospital and McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

The application of sputum induction and refined methods of sputum examination has provided the opportunity to examine cell and molecular markers of airway inflammation in asthma, COPD, and other airway diseases. The measurements are relatively noninvasive and can be applied safely, with care, even in more severe exacerbations of asthma and severe COPD. Induced sputum examination can be applied at random and repeatedly and gives results that are reproducible, valid, and responsive to changes in treatment. An eosinophilic bronchitis, defined as sputum eosinophilia, is typical of asthma but can also occur in patients with a chronic cough without asthma, and in some patients with COPD in whom the classic inflammatory response is neutrophilic without eosinophilia. When eosinophilia occurs in COPD, it has been considered to be the result of cigarette smoking but it may be due to other causes. The clinical importance of eosinophilic bronchitis is that it responds to treatment with corticosteroid. In contrast, there is increasing evidence that an absence of sputum eosinophilia is associated with steroid resistance. Hargreave FE, Leigh R. Induced sputum, eosinophilic bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AM J RESPIR CRIT CARE MED 1999;160:S53–S57.

The term “bronchitis” generally refers to inflammation of the conducting airways of the lungs but is defined clinically by the spontaneous expectoration of sputum. In this article we refer to lower respiratory secretions as sputum and to conditions of the conducting airways associated with an excess proportion of eosinophils (> 3%) in spontaneous or induced sputum as eosinophilic bronchitis. Eosinophilic bronchitis is a common feature of asthma defined by the presence of variable airflow limitation (1), but it can occur in people without asthma, and in smokers with chronic bronchitis with or without chronic airflow limitation. The recognition, investigation, and treatment of eosinophilic bronchitis, as well as other types of airway inflammation, have been facilitated by the application of refined methods of sputum examination to the analysis of induced sputum. These have enabled study of the characteristics of airway inflammation by a relatively noninvasive technique that can be used on repeated occasions when measurements are needed. This brief article presents our own contributions to these areas of work, some of the hypotheses our findings have led us to propose, and future directions of research.

SPUTUM INDUCTION AND EXAMINATION Sputum induction with an aerosol of hypertonic saline was introduced by Bickerman and colleagues (2) in 1958 for the di-

Supported by a Boehringer Ingelheim South African Pulmonary Society Fellowship. Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to F. E. Hargreave, M.D., Firestone Regional Chest and Allergy Unit, St. Joseph’s Hospital, 50 Charlton Avenue East, Hamilton, ON, L8N 4A6 Canada. Am J Respir Crit Care Med Vol 160. pp S53–S57, 1999 Internet address: www.atsjournals.org

agnosis of lung cancer. It was later used to investigate the diagnoses of tuberculosis and opportunistic lung infections. In the early 1990s, Pin and coworkers (3) and Fahy and colleagues (4) modified the method of induction to make it safer to use in patients with asthma to investigate the characteristics of the airway inflammation. The method we use now is slightly modified from that described in our earlier work (5). The FEV1 and VC are first measured to identify the presence and severity of any airflow limitation. An inhaled b2-agonist (salbutamol, 200 mg) is then delivered to inhibit any possible bronchoconstriction from the saline inhalation, which is itself a bronchoconstrictive stimulus, and the FEV1 is remeasured. Hypertonic saline aerosol is then inhaled from a Medix ultrasonic nebulizer (previously known as Fisoneb) (Clement Clarke International Ltd, Harlow Essex, UK), which has a relatively low output (0.87 mL/min) and a large particle size (5.58-mm aerodynamic mass median diameter) in concentrations of 3% followed by 4% and then 5%, each for an interval of 7 min. At the end of each inhalation, or earlier if symptoms of chest tightness or dyspnea develop, the FEV1 is measured again. The inhalations are discontinued if there is a fall in FEV1 of > 20%. After each inhalation, the subject is asked to blow the nose, rinse the mouth with water, and swallow to reduce contamination of the expectorate with postnasal drip or saliva. The subject is then asked to cough sputum into a Universal container. This method is successful in raising enough sputum to be examined (70 mg being the smallest amount required), and success is enhanced by the experience of both the subject and of the person doing the induction. Overall, sputum induction is successful in more than 85% of attempts in healthy subjects or patients with airway disease. Attention must be paid to assure the safety of the procedure. We have found it to be safe in milder asthma (3, 5), and the procedure can be modified to make it safer in exacerbated asthma (6) or chronic ob-

S54

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF RESPIRATORY AND CRITICAL CARE MEDICINE

structive pulmonary disease (COPD) (7) by starting with normal saline and by shortening the periods of inhalation. Methods for examining sputum have been refined to achieve the reproducibility, validity, and responsiveness that are required of any good test (4–8). The methods we use are as follows (5, 9). The sputum is examined as soon as possible, always within 2 h of its induction. It is poured into a petri dish, and the more opaque and gelatinous portions, which look different from saliva, are all selected with blunt forceps and put into another petri dish. The selected portion is then moved around to remove a bit more of the saliva and then put into a weighed Eppendorf tube. If there is doubt about the selected portions, they can be confirmed as sputum by examining them under an inverted microscope to confirm that they contain macrophages and nonsquamous cells. The Eppendorf tube is weighed again to obtain the weight of the selected sputum. Four volumes of 0.1% dithiothreitol in relation to the weight is added, and the mixture is then gently aspirated in and out of a pipette, vortexed, and rocked on a bench rocker for 15 min. A further 4 volumes of Dulbecco’s phosphate-buffered saline is then added, and the mixture is rocked for another 5 min before being filtered through 48-mm nylon gauze to remove debris and any remaining mucus. Total cell count and cell viability (using the trypan blue method) are determined in a hemocytometer. Cytospins are prepared and stained with Wright stain for a 400 differential nonsquamous cell count (and with toluidine blue and a 1,500 cell count if a metachromatic cell count is required). The cytospins can also be prepared for later immunocytochemistry or in situ hybridization (10, 11). The remainder of the suspension is centrifuged and the fluid phase is collected and stored at 2708 C for later analyses of molecular components. The effects of the induction and processing procedures on the content of sputum have been evaluated (12). They do not seem to interfere with the cell or many of the fluid-phase measurements. Induced sputum has characteristics similar to those of spontaneous sputum, except that the viability of the cells and the quality of the cytospins are better (13, 14). The duration of induction can influence the number and proportions of cells recovered (15, 16). For example, the later portions have lower total cell counts and fewer neutrophils and eosinophils, suggesting that cells from the more peripheral airways are being recovered. Because of this, it is appropriate in research to keep the duration of inhalation constant between measurements made on different occasions. The cell counts for neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, and metachromatic cells are highly repeatable, but the repeatability of total cell counts and lymphocytes is not as reliable (5). The reason for the poor repeatability of total cell counts has not been studied; it may be methodological or real. For the present it has led us to put more reliance on changes in the proportion of individual cell types rather than on changes in the absolute counts, although we still measure total cell count and take it into account, particularly when there is neutrophilia. The poor repeatability of lymphocytes is methodological; it is due to the difficulty in accurate recognition of the cells and to their small numbers, and can be improved by counting more cells. At present, normal values are limited to small numbers of subjects; the results from larger samples of healthy subjects need to be reported. At present we regard as within the normal range a total cell count of , 5.5 million per gram of selected sputum, eosinophils , 3%, neutrophils , 36%, and lymphocytes , 2% (5, 17). The proportion of neutrophils in specimens with normal total cell counts is quite variable. The proportion of macrophages obviously depends on the proportion of neutrophils and eosinophils present. Bronchial epithelial cells are not seen frequently; when examined in the hemo-

VOL 160

1999

cytometer, they are nonviable, and they may be lost in the subsequent cytospin preparations. The measurements obtained will be reliable only if quality control is maintained. To ensure this, we use support staff with permanent appointments. Research nurses and pulmonary function technologists perform sputum induction and hematology-trained registered technologists perform sputum processing and examination. The induction procedure can take up to 30 min; but, in clinical practice, the procedure can be aborted when sufficient sputum is obtained. Processing sputum and performing cell counts takes between 1 and 2 h, but with some automation of the procedures of rocking, cytospins, and staining, the amount of technologist time can be reduced to about 30–45 min.

EOSINOPHILIC BRONCHITIS WITH AND WITHOUT ASTHMA Eosinophilic bronchitis is a common but not consistent feature of asthma (4, 5, 18). It can occur when symptoms are absent and the FEV1 is normal, but it is more likely in symptomatic subjects (5). The total cell count is normal or slightly increased, and the proportion of eosinophils above 3%. Free eosinophil granules may be seen. The proportion of neutrophils is also slightly increased compared with healthy subjects. In severe exacerbations, there can be considerable cell degeneration (6). In the fluid phase, measurements that one would expect to be increased in a helper T cell type 2 (Th2) response are elevated, e.g., different eosinophil proteins, tryptase, and interleukin 5 (IL-5) (4, 5). The latter is more difficult to demonstrate since, for reasons presently unknown, some IL-5 is lost during the processing procedures. There are also increases in fluid-phase fibrinogen and albumin, in keeping with an increase in microvascular leakage, and of mucin-like glycoprotein (19), in keeping with an increase in secretion of mucus. Not all exacerbations of asthma are associated with an eosinophilic bronchitis. Some mild (20), severe (21), or fatal (22) exacerbations have been associated with neutrophilia. One cause of this has been identified to be respiratory viral infections, specifically influenza A and B (23). However, there are also other causes of neutrophilia that could occur in subjects with asthma, such as smoking (5), exposure to endotoxin from bacterial infections or in the environment (24), or exposure to atmospheric pollutants (25). The frequency of noneosinophilic exacerbations of asthma and the mechanisms involved are unknown. One of the earliest observations to come from the use of reliable sputum examination was the first identification of eosinophilic bronchitis in patients without asthma (26). Seven patients were described who presented with a chronic productive cough. While their sputum demonstrated an increase in the

TABLE 1 EOSINOPHILIC BRONCHITIS WITHOUT METHACHOLINE AIRWAY HYPERRESPONSIVENESS AND ASSOCIATED WITH A PROGRESSIVE FALL IN FEV1 UNRESPONSIVE TO b2-AGONIST RV 65 Y

April 11

April 18

April 25

June 7

Symptoms FEV1, L VC, L PC20, mg/ml Sputum, Eo% Prednisone, mg (d) Budesonide, mg

2 1.9 2.7 . 16 1.3 30 (8) 3.2

2 1.9 2.5 ND 27.3 20 (6) 3.2

2 1.6 2.3 . 16 71.3 17.5 (7) 3.2

1 1.3 1.9 . 16 61.5 10 (35) 3.2

Definition of abbreviations: Eo% 5 percentage of eosinophils; ND 5 not done; PC20 5 provocative concentration of methacholine causing a 20% fall in FEV1; ND 5 not done.

S55

Hargreave and Leigh: Induced Sputum, Eosinophilic Bronchitis, and COPD TABLE 2 INDUCED SPUTUM: MARKERS OF INFLAMMATION (MEDIAN)* Smokers’ Bronchitis Healthy TCC, 3 106/g Eosinophils, % Neutrophils, % ECP, mg/L Elastase, mg/L Fibrinogen, mg/L IL-5, pg/ml

3.1 0.5 24.5 288 297 440 UL

Stable Asthma No CAL 3.3 5.2 46.9 1,040 534 2,080 46.3

3.9 0.3 33 352 241 708 UL

CAL 2 Eo 11.1 1 83.4 2,560 2,512 18,100 UL

CAL 1 Eo 8.3 5.4 73.4 5,240 2,996 24,600 UL

Definition of abbreviations: CAL 5 chronic airflow limitation; ECP 5 eosinophil cationic protein; Eo 5 eosinophilia (. 3%) in sputum; TCC 5 total cell count; UL 5 under limit of detection. * Data from References 5 and 7.

proportion of eosinophils and metachromatic cells, features of variable airflow limitation were absent. Their spirometry, daily peak expiratory flow variability, and methacholine and adenosine monophosphate airway responsiveness were normal (27). Eosinophilic bronchitis without asthma has been observed in 10% of patients with a chronic dry or productive cough referred to a tertiary care center (28). The patients may be atopic or not, or smokers or not. The condition has been observed to be caused in some patients by inhaled allergens (29) or occupational chemical sensitizers (30). It can be transient (31) or persistent and can require regular treatment with inhaled corticosteroid prednisone (32). If the condition is left untreated, methacholine airway hyperresponsiveness and other features of asthma can develop, and we have observed one patient who had a progressive fall in FEV1 that could not be reversed by b2-agonist (Table 1) but was reversed by prednisone, and was not associated with methacholine airway hyperresponsiveness (32).

EOSINOPHILIC BRONCHITIS IN COPD In smokers with a chronic productive cough consistent with the definition of chronic bronchitis, but who do not have chronic airflow limitation, induced sputum shows inclusions in the macrophages and a mild neutrophilia (Table 2) (5). When COPD develops, sputum neutrophilia becomes more pro-

nounced and can be seen to correlate with the reduction in FEV1 (33) and with the rate of deterioration in FEV1 (34). The sputum shows an increase in neutrophil proteins such as myeloperoxidase, elastase, and human neutrophil lipocalin, and IL-8 (7, 35, 36). There is also an elevation of eosinophil proteins and this is thought to be due to a nonselective increase in eosinophils owing to an increase in the total cell count (37). In some smokers with COPD, an eosinophilic bronchitis can also occur (38). This has implications as to its cause and the effects of treatment. The occurrence of eosinophilia during exacerbations in patients with smokers’ COPD has been attributed to the same disease, i.e., to the inflammatory effects of cigarette smoking (39). We hypothesize that it is more likely the result of other causes such as inhaled allergen (29) or chemical sensitizer (25, 30) or whatever other cause is responsible for eosinophilic bronchitis with or without asthma. The fact that there are many different causes of airway inflammation and that these cause inflammation of different types, associated with different clinical effects, make it likely that these different causes of inflammation during life will interact with the effects of cigarette smoking and the resulting clinical presentation. This theory has important implications for treatment with avoidance strategies or corticosteroid.

TREATMENT OF EOSINOPHILIC BRONCHITIS The response to treatment with corticosteroid in asthma, in chronic cough without asthma, and in COPD, seems to depend on whether sputum eosinophilia is present. In asthma, eosinophilic bronchitis responds to corticosteroid treatment (6, 40–42). The evidence that the absence of eosinophilic bronchitis predicts nonresponsiveness is limited to isolated case reports (6, 43). Systematic investigation of the effect of steroid treatment in these patients is needed. Chronic cough associated with eosinophilic bronchitis always responds to steroid treatment (26–28). Cough improves, and sputum eosinophilia resolves. While this usually occurs after treatment with inhaled steroid, prednisone is sometimes required (26). Occasionally, the condition requires regular prednisone treatment (32). Chronic cough without sputum eosinophilia does not seem to respond to steroid treatment (44). In COPD associated with eosinophilic bronchitis, a single blind sequential cross-over treatment trial of eight subjects with eosinophilic bronchitis has shown inhaled corticosteroid treatment to improve quality of life (chiefly the dyspnea do-

Figure 1. Sputum eosinophils (%), postbronchodilator FEV1 (L), and quality of life score in smokers with severe chronic airflow limitation between treatment, 2 wk after placebo treatment, and 2 wk after prednisone treatment (30 mg daily). Those with raised eosinophils at baseline (closed circles) have significant improvement in each outcome after prednisone treatment. *p 5 0.05; **p , 0.001. (Reprinted from Reference 45 with permission from the publisher; data published in Reference 7.)

S56

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF RESPIRATORY AND CRITICAL CARE MEDICINE

main) and FEV1 (Figure 1) (7, 45). This trial of sputum examination was done double blind and showed eosinophilia to reverse and ECP and fibrinogen levels to fall; neutrophils were unchanged, unlike the reduction reported by Confalonieri and coworkers after 2 mo of treatment with inhaled steroid (46). Ten subjects without sputum eosinophilia (, 3%) did not benefit. Despite the improvement in sputum eosinophilia in this study, the overall improvement in FEV1 was only 200 ml. Was this because some subjects had an eosinophilic bronchitis without asthma, or was it because the FEV1 is an insensitive measure of improvement when chronic airflow limitation is severe? In future studies, more sensitive objective outcome measures of airway function improvement need to be used, such as inspiratory capacity or exercise endurance (47, 48).

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Acknowledgment : The authors thank Dr. Homer Boushey for careful editing and Lori Burch for secretarial help. 23.

References 1. Scadding, J. G. 1983. Definition and clinical categories of asthma. In T. J. H. Clark and S. Godfrey, editors. Asthma. Chapman & Hall, London. 2. Bickerman, H. A., E. E. Sproul, and A. L. Barach. 1958. An aerosol method for inducing bronchial secretions in human subjects: a clinical technique for the detection of lung cancer. Dis. Chest 33:347–362. 3. Pin, I., P. G. Gibson, R. Kolendowicz, A. Girgis-Gabardo, J. Denburg, F. E. Hargreave, and J. Dolovich. 1992. Use of induced sputum cell counts to investigate airway inflammation in asthma. Thorax 47:25–29. 4. Fahy, J. V., J. Liu, H. Wong, and H. A. Boushey. 1993. Cellular and biochemical analysis of induced sputum from asthmatic and healthy subjects. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 147:1126–1131. 5. Pizzichini, E., M. M. M. Pizzichini, A. Efthimiadis, S. Evans, M. M. Morris, D. Squillace, G. Gleich, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1996. Indices of airway inflammation in induced sputum: reproducibility and validity of cell and fluid phase measurements. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:308–317. 6. Pizzichini, M. M. M., E. Pizzichini, L. Clelland, A. Efthimiadis, J. Mahony, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1997. Sputum in severe exacerbations of asthma: kinetics of inflammatory indices after prednisone treatment. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155:1501–1508. 7. Pizzichini, E., M. M. M. Pizzichini, P. Gibson, K. Parameswaran, G. J. Gleich, L. Berman, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1998. Sputum eosinophilia predicts benefit from prednisone in smokers with chronic obstructive bronchitis. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158:1511–1517. 8. Kips, J. C., R. A. Peleman, and R. A. Rauwels. 1998. Methods of examining induced sputum: do differences matter? Eur. Respir. J. 11:529–533. 9. Pizzichini, E., M. M. M. Pizzichini, A. Efthimiadis, F. E. Hargreave, and J. Dolovich. 1996. Measurement of inflammatory indices in induced sputum: effects of selection of sputum to minimize salivary contamination. Eur. Respir. J. 9(6):1174–1180. 10. Gauvreau, G. M., J. Doctor, R. M. Watson, M. Jordana, and P. M. O’Byrne. 1996. Effects of inhaled budesonide on allergen-induced airway responses and airway inflammation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:1267–1271. 11. Olivenstein, R., R. Taha, E. M. Minshall, and Q. A. Hamid. 1999. IL-4 and IL-5 mRNA expression in induced sputum of asthmatic subjects: comparison with bronchial wash. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 103:238–245. 12. Hargreave, F. E. 1997. The investigation of airway inflammation in asthma: sputum examination. Clin. Exp. Allergy 27(Suppl. 1):36–40. 13. Pizzichini, M. M. M., T. Popov, A. Efthimiadis, P. Hussack, S. Evans, E. Pizzichini, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1996. Spontaneous and induced sputum to measure indices of airway inflammation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:866–869. 14. Bhowmik, A., T. A. R. Seemungal, R. J. Sapsford, J. L. Devalia, and J. A. Wedzicha. 1998. Comparison of spontaneous and induced sputum for investigation of airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 53:953–956. 15. Holz, O., R. A. Jorres, S. Koschyk, P. Speckin, L. Welker, and H. Magnussen. 1998. Changes in sputum composition during sputum induction in healthy and asthmatic subjects. Clin. Exp. Allergy 28:284–292. 16. Nightingale, J. A., D. Rogers, and P. J. Barnes. 1998. Effect of repeated sputum induction on cell counts in normal volunteers. Thorax 83:87–90. 17. Pizzichini, E., M. M. M. Pizzichini, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1997. Measuring airway inflammation in asthma: eosinophils and ECP

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

VOL 160

1999

in induced sputum compared with peripheral blood. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 99:539–544. Ronchi, M. C., C. Piragino, E. Rosi, M. Amendola, R. Duranti, and G. Scano. 1996. Role of sputum differential cell count in detecting airway inflammation in patients with chronic bronchial asthma or COPD. Thorax 51:1000–1004. Fahy, J. V., D. J. Steiger, J. Liu, C. B. Basbaum, W. E. Finkbeiner, and H. A. Boushey. 1994. Markers of mucus secretion and DNA levels in induced sputum from asthmatic and from healthy subjects. Am. Rev. respir. Dis. 147:1132–1137. Turner, M. O., P. Hussack, M. R. Sears, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1995. Exacerbations of asthma without sputum eosinophilia. Thorax 50:1057–1061. Fahy, J. V., K. W. Kim, J. Liu, and H. A. Boushey. 1995. Prominent neutrophilic inflammation in sputum from subjects with asthma exacerbation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 95:843–852. Sur, S., T. B. Crotty, G. M. Kephart, B. A. Hyma, T. V. Colby, C. E. Reed, L. W. Hunt, and G. J. Gleich. 1993. Sudden-onset fatal asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148:713–719. Pizzichini, E., M. M. M. Pizzichini, S. Johnston, P. Hussack, A. Efthimiadis, J. Mahony, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1998. Asthma and natural colds: inflammatory indices in induced sputum. A feasilibity study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158:1178–1184. Nightingale, J. A., D. F. Rogers, L. A. Hart, S. A. Kharitonov, K. Fan Chung, and P. J. Barnes. 1998. Effect of inhaled endotoxin on induced sputum in normal, atopic, and atopic asthmatic subjects. Thorax 535: 63–71. Fahy, J. V., H. H. Wong, J. T. Lui, and H. A. Boushey. 1995. Analysis of induced sputum after air and ozone exposures in healthy subjects. Environ. Res. 70:77–83. Gibson, P. G., J. Dolovich, J. Denburg, E. H. Ramsdale, and F. E. Hargreave. 1989. Chronic cough: eosinophilic bronchitis without asthma. Lancet i:1346–1348. Gibson, P. G., F. E. Hargreave, A. Girgis-Gabardo, M. Morris, J. A. Denburg, and J. Dolovich. 1995. Chronic cough with eosinophilic bronchitis and examination for variable airflow obstruction and response to corticosteroid. Clin. Exp. Allergy 25:127–132. Carney, I., P. G. Gibson, K. Murree-Allen, N. Saltos, L. G. Olson, and M. J. Hensley. 1997. A systematic evaluation of mechanisms in chronic cough. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 156:211–216. Gutierrez, V., V. Torres, C. Morales, and E. Gonzalez. 1998. Peak flow variability and sputum eosinophilia in allergic rhinitis. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 81:143–150. Lemiére, C., A. Efthimiadis, and F. E. Hargreave. 1997. Occupational eosinophilic bronchitis without asthma: an unknown occupational airway disease. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 100:852–853. Wong, A. G., I. Pavord, M. R. Sears, and F. E. Hargreave. 1996. A case for serial examination of sputum inflammatory cells. Eur. Respir. J. 9:2174–2175. Pizzichini, M. M. M., E. Pizzichini, L. Clelland, A. Efthimiadis, I. Pavord, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1999. Prednisone dependent asthma: inflammatory indices in induced sputum. Eur. Respir. J. 13: 15–21. Saetta, M. P., R. Finkelstein, and M. G. Cosio. 1994. Morphological and cellular basis for airflow limitation in smokers. Eur. Respir. J. 7:1505– 1515. Stanescu, D., A. Sanna, C. Veriter, S. Kostianev, P. G. Calcagni, L. M. Fabbri, and P. Maestrelli. 1996. Airways obstruction, chronic expectoration, and rapid decline of FEV1 in smokers are associated with increased levels of sputum neutrophils. Thorax 51:267–271. Keatings, V. M., P. D. Collins, D. M. Scott, and P. J. Barnes. 1996. Differences in interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor- a in induced sputum from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 153:530–534. Keatings, V. M., and P. J. Barnes. 1997. Granulocyte activation markers in induced sputum: comparison between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma and normal subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155:449–453. Gibson, P. G., K. L. Woolley, K. Carty, K. Murree-Allen, and N. Saltos. 1998. Induced sputum eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) measurement in asthma and chronic obstructive airway disease (COAD). Clin. Exp. Allergy 28:1081–1088. Chanez, P., A. M. Vignola, T. O’Shaugnessy, I. Enander, D. Li, P. K. Jeffery, and J. Bousquet. 1997. Corticosteroid reversibility in COPD is related to features of asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155:1529– 1534. Saetta, M., A. Di Stefano, P. Maestrelli, G. Turato, M. P. Ruggieri, A.

Hargreave and Leigh: Induced Sputum, Eosinophilic Bronchitis, and COPD

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

Roggeri, P. Calcagni, C. E. Map, A. Ciaccia, and L. M. Fabbri. 1994. Airway eosinophilia in chronic bronchitis during exacerbations. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 150:1646–1652. Claman, D. M., H. A. Boushey, J. Liu, H. Wong, and J. V. Fahy. 1994. Analysis of induced sputum to examine the effects of prednisone on airway inflammation in asthmatic subjects. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 94:861–869. Turner, M. O., P. R. Johnston, E. Pizzichini, M. M. M. Pizzichini, and F. E. Hargreave. 1998. Antiinflammatory effects of salmeterol compared with beclomethasone in mild exacerbations of asthma: a randomized, placebo controlled trial. Can. Respir. J. 5:261–268. Fahy, J. V., and H. A. Boushey. 1998. Effect of low-dose beclomethasone dipropionate on asthma control and airway inflammation. Eur. Respir. J. 11:1240–1247. Parameswaran, K., M. M. M. Pizzichini, D. Li, E. Pizzichini, P. K. Jeffery, and F. E. Hargreave. 1998. Serial sputum cell counts in the management of chronic airflow limitation. Eur. Respir. J. 11:1405–1408. Pizzichini, M. M. M., E. Pizzichini, K. Parameswaran, L. Clelland, A. Ef-

45.

46.

47.

48.

S57 thimiadis, J. Dolovich, and F. E. Hargreave. 1999. Non-asthmatic chronic cough: effect of treatment with inhaled corticosteroid in patients without sputum eosinophilia. Can. Respir. J. 16:323–330. Hargreave, F. E. 1998. Induced sputum and response to glucocorticoids. Asthma and allergy: a festschrift in honour of Jerry Dolovich, M.D. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 102:S102–S105. Confalonieri, M., E. Mainardi, R. Della Porta, S. Bernorio, L. Gandola, B. Beghe, and A. Spanevello. 1998. Inhaled corticosteroids reduce neutrophilic bronchial inflammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 53:583–585. O’Donnell, D. E., M. Lam, and K. A. Webb. 1998. Measurements of symptoms, lung hyperinflation and endurance during exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158:1557–1565. Koulouris, N. G., I. Dimopoulou, P. Valta, R. Finkelstein, M. G. Cosio, and J. Milic-Emili. 1997. Detection of expiratory flow limitation during exercise in COPD patients. J. Appl. Physiol. 82:723–731.