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Indo-Islamic Architecture

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The architecture of the Medieval India is the Indo-Islamic style or the Indo-Saracenic architecture which spread to India mainly during the 7th and the 8th centuries. It replaced the Trabeate style with the Arcuate style. (Arches should support the weight of the domes, which previously could not support the weight of the domes. Arches in the Trabeate style was built by wood and stone, and gradually replaced with series of interlocking blocks/voissoirs in the Arcuate style) Islam spread mainly towards Spain and India---particularly with the Muslim mendicants, traders, holy men and conquerors. The first site of the architectural evidence of Indo-Islamic architecture is doubtful, but it must have been produced by the conquest of Sindh in the 8th century, although excavation at present being undertaken at Bhambor (Pakistan) and elsewhere may eventually reveal the site of Daybul. Sind and Gujarat provided some sites for finest Muslim architectural style.---and finally strengthened by the Turkish State in early 13th Century in Northern India A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was that Muslims absorbed many features of local culture and tradition and combined them with their own architectural features. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many structural techniques, stylized shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions of acceptance, rejections or modifications of architectural elements. It has left influences in the Indian, Pakistan and Bangladeshi architecture. According to E B Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations of God everywhere in multiple forms as a part of their religious faith and a Muslim though of only one Muhammad as His Prophet. ---hence Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures and paintings; while the Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on any surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and beautiful calligraphy.

Difference: Trabeate and Arcuate--Trabeate Entrance Lintel

Arcuate Arch

Top

Shikhara

Dome (Also called arch and dome method)

Minars

Absent

Material used

Stones

Present—  Azaan announcements on the massive domes;  Closer to Allah Brick, lime and mortar

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The Trabeate style Certain facts needs to be kept in mind about the Indo-Islamic pattern of architecture-- The concept of arch and dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and was further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. ---The arch and dome on scientific lines was constructed primarily by two methods(a) Radiating voissoirs (b) Slab method, by putting stones to close the gap. --The Tughlaqs used both the methods.  Used cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time  Use of scientific principles not only helped in obtaining greater strength and stability for the construction of materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and the builders  Passed through different experimental phases in other parts of the world—Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India.  Typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones.  Mosques and Tombs - religious architecture  Palaces and Forts - secular Islamic architecture.

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Compare and contrast the Indo-Islamic architecture with that of temple architecture in India. (200 Words) This architecture started with 12th Century after Turks settled in India subcontinents. The important feature of this architecture can be portrayed as follows:  Turks and Afghans Muslims having inherited a wealth of varied designs from Sassanian and Byzantine empires and being naturally endowed with good taste for buildings  Ornamental decoration, open space for prayer toward mecca(quibla), light and open, lesser decoration in prayer hall, purdah hall system for females coming for prayer, tower/minaret to call prayer(azaan),  Re-brought the fashion of true arch, trabeate (horizontal layers of bricks in arches, lintel). Often contained qabr at centre if it is mausoleum, arches, domes, minars and minarets, the pendentive, squinch arch, half domed double portals, kiosks (chhatris) and the use of concrete as a factor of construction  Ornamental decoration contains non-human figures, mainly floral decoration, symmetry, rhythmic pattern, Arabic writing in beautiful way.  The Muslims, like the Romans, were also responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime mortar as an important factor of construction and incidentally used lime as plaster and a base for decoration which was incised into it and held enamel work on tiles.  Elaborate gardens like charbagh, fountains were given importance. Indian Temple Architecture: (1.) Small prayer hall, many pillars, Shikhara, small garbha-griha, mandapa. (2.) Initially Arch was used but during Maurya and Magadha time, Arch usage disappeared and after later part of 14th century remerged in southern India. (3.) Ornamental decoration was largely containing animal, human’s motifs and postures.

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3 (4.) Use of sandstone was important to carve delicate motifs. Thus the main similarity between these two art forms for temples can be cited as under:  Ornamental design and their use in mosque as well as in temples  Rows of color surrounding the open courts of both  Both have architectural structure in front of which prayer is offered. However, Muslim art have become mere structure, while temples have evolved. And the points of dissimilarity between them are:  Mosques are open and spacious while temples are dark and closed  Construction with dome shaped, while temples with have Shikhara and Vimanas (depending on the Nagara or the Dravidian styles)  Prayers in front of deity, in Garbha griha. While in mecca it is pointing towards the Mihrab. Imam presided to its right over proceeding of the prayers  Mosque were perfected by Arch shape, while temple may have known but ceiling were mostly flat  Lime was though known for stacking mud brick and stones However it was Islamic architecture which used cementing age t mortar perfecting the architecture with strength and stability.  Ornamental features of Muslims were flowers, Arabic writing, decorating features while that of temples were Deities, human forms etc. 2.

What do you understand by the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘Indo-Sarasanic’ architecture? How did this architecture evolve in India? Discuss. (200 Words) Indo-Sarasanic or Indo-Islamic architecture refers to the fine amalgam of features of Indian architecture like the Rajput architecture with the features of the Islamic architecture in vogue in the Muslim world in the medieval period. Some major features of this architecture are: 1) The presence of a huge dome that covers a pillar-less hall. 2) Presence of minaret that bring about symmetry to the overall design. 3) Geometric designs with inlay work (Pietà Dura) and decoration with arabesque which is calligraphy of Koran's sayings in decorating. 4) Use of "jalli" and "chattri" to cover windows and doorways. A fine example of this kind of architecture is the city of Fatehpur Sikri built by Akbar the Great. It first came with the Delhi Sultanate under Qutubuddin Aibak who got the construction of Qutub minar started. During this period the influence of the Muslim world could be seen in all major works. This was given huge boost by the Islamic dynasties in the Deccan region like Gujarat, Bijapur and Golconda. They assimilated located styles. The increasing influence of Persia Empire and its culture on the Mughal court brought in the next phase of evolution and reached its climax. Finally, with the disintegration of the Mughal Empire and the rise of independent rulers in Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal etc the style took new inspirations and features from the local architecture.

Features of the Indo-Islamic architecture—

Shikhara of the Hindu style was replaced by the arch and dome method Presence of minars Use of mortar as a cementing agent (first time) Avoided the use of human beings, which was considered un-Islamic—Hence, they developed their religious art and architecture consisting of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and beautiful calligraphy.  Provided spaciousness, massiveness and breadth to the Hindu architecture Decoration took the form of calligraphy using Arabesque technique/method  These forms include designing on plasters through incisions or stucco. –designs either left plain or covered with colors  Motifs were also painted on or carved in stones---- motifs include varieties of flowers, both from subcontinent and places outside, particularly Iran.  The lotus bridge fringe was used to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches.    

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The walls were also decorated with Cypress, Chinar, and other trees as also with flower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating the ceiling were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, tiles were also used to surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) and Pietra dura (cut and fit technique) were made use of for surface decoration, particularly in the dodo panels of the walls. At times, Lapis Lazuli (a kind of blue stone) was used on the interior walls or on canopies.

 Arabesque method --- Surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils), ---Geometricized, vegetal ornamentation. ---It is characterized by a continuous stem, which splits regularly producing a series of counter-poised, leafy secondary stems; which can in turn split again or return to be re-integrated into the main stem

Use of certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which provides(a) Greater strength and stability to the materials (b) Greater flexibility to the architects  Intricate Jalliwork on the walls—this is basically to let light come inside; hence depicting the importance of light in Islam  Use of water in the premises in the form of courtyard ponds, fountains or through small drains ---In hot Islamic climatic conditions, water from courtyard and pools and fountains cools the environment of the premises ---It is also used for decorative purposes as it creates a mirror image of the monument build.  Charbagh style—four adjacent, identical gardens (mainly a Persian feature and brought to India by Babur, which is featured in all his Bagh that he build in his regime like in Agra and Shrinagar, Shalimar Bagh ) ---They remain divided into four quarters by four gardens/waterways. ---Derived from The Quoran of the four eternal rivers of –milk, honey, wine and water. 

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Pietà Dura techniques—refer to the inlay of precious stones or colored marbles on the surfaces. Foresight technique

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Pietra Dura

Jalliwork

Tessellation/Mosaic style

Beautiful Calligraphy

Constructing Materials—  The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely constructed of rubble masonry, which were easily available.  These walls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.  An amazing range of stones were utilized for construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buffs, marbles, etc.  Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.  From the 17th century onwards, bricks were also used for construction and in this phase there was more reliance on local materials.

Different forms of Islamic architecture 1. Mosque and tombs— While Mosque represents Muslims art in the simplest form with open courtyard surrounded by pillared Verandah and mounted by Domes.  They were the structures for common people, and the only form for the non-royal sections of the society.  These include buildings for domestic usage, temples, mosques, Khanqahs and Dargah, commemorative gateways, pavilions in the buildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.  Basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah  Crowned off with a dome  Mihrab indicates the direction of the Qibla for prayer. (west facing towards Mecca; and the entrance of mosques were to the East)  Towards the right of the mihrab stands the Minbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings.  Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids. **Jama Masjid—Follow Later

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6 Tombs represent a Maqbara. When tombs represents a Muslim saint, they were known as---Dargah.  Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was a popular feature of medieval India.  Some well-known examples of such tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar, and Itimad-ud-daula.  The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgment. This leads to the paradisiacal imagery for tombs.  Beginning with the introduction of Quoranic verses on the walls, the tomb was subsequently placed with paradisiacal elements such as garden or near a water body or both, as in the case of Taj Mahal (dealt later)  They were not only intended to signify peace and happiness in the next world, but also to showcase the majesty, grandeur and might of the person buried there.

2. Forts— 

Building monumental forts with embattlement was a regular feature in medieval times, often symbolizing the seat of power of a king.  When such a fort was captured by an attacking army, the vanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty. This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victorious king.  Commanding heights were utilized to great advantage to construct forts.  Another feature was concentric circles of outer walls as in Golconda that the enemy had to breach these at all stages before getting in.  Some of the famous forts are the Fort of Chittor (Rajasthan), Gwalior (MP), Daulatabad-earlier Devgiri (Maharashtra), and Golconda (Hyderabad). The Chittorgarh fort is the largest fort in Asia and was occupied for the longest length of time as the seat of power.

3. Minars—    

4. Sarais   

Another form of Sthamba or tower was the minar, a common feature in the sub-continent. The most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and Chand Minar at Daulatabad. The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer. It’s phenomenal height, however, symbolized the might and power of the ruler Sarais were largely built on a simple square or a rectangular plan and were meant to provide temporary accommodation for Indian and foreign travelers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc. They were public domains which thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. This lead to cross cultural interaction, influence and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level of people.

Different Categories of the Indo-Islamic architecture— 1) 2) 3) 4)

The Imperial Style (Delhi sultanate) The Provincial styles (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal and Jaunpur)—Under/after the Delhi Sultanate The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra and Lahore) The Deccani style (Bijapur and Golconda)

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Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedly regional character for patrons borrowed elements from the regional temple traditions such as Torans, lintels in Mihrab, carving of bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs, mosques and Dargah. The 15th century white marble Dargah of Sheikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincial style and it heavily influenced the forms and decoration of Mughal tombs.

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Sultanate or Imperial Style of Architecture Art of Delhi Sultanate was the process of absorption and Indianization of the techniques of art and architecture brought from the west, so archaic impressions are consequently unavoidable when comparing it to the *Mughal art that followed, which is considered to be fully matured Indo-Islamic art.

1. Mamaliqat period Saumya

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Also called the Ilbari Dynasty---as all the rulers belonged to the Ilbari tribe Style developed by them is known as Mamluk style They started converting the existing Hindu structural forms into Muslim form of architecture. The Qutb—ul-Islam mosque was the starting point and the first structure to be built representing the Islamic architecture—built on the ruins of Hindu/Jain temples. (at Mehrauli district) Adhai Din ka Jhompra— located beyond the Ajmer Dargah in Rajasthan. It was constructed in 1153 AD and converted into a mosque in 1198 AD. ----Due to the ignorance of the structural techniques of the true arch and dome, Indian masons imitated shapes only superficially, and most of them would collapse some decades later. Qutab Minar--- the largest minaret in India, built as a victory tower, boasts its majestic appearance even today.  It was built in the 13th century and the Qutub complex in which the minar is present is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.  The construction of the bottom storey of the minar was started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate) and his successor Iltumish completed it by adding three more storeys.  However Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the top storey which was damaged in a lightning and also added one more storey.  Hence now it has five storeys and a height of nearly 234 feet (about 73 m) making it the second tallest minar in India (first is Fateh Burj, Punjab).  The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.  The minar is a mixture of polygonal and circular shapes.  It is largely built on red and buff stone with some use of marble in the upper storeys.  It is characterized by high decorative balconies and bands of inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs. Sultan-Garhi tomb—First example of a monumental Muslim tomb in India. It stands like a fortress within a walled enclosure with bastions on the comers, with its octagonal grave chamber underground. This also has a number of stone pillars, carved lintels and other pieces originally used in temples, re-utilised here by chipping off the Hindu decorative elements.

2. Khilji Period—  

Style used by them---Seljuk style Used mainly Red sandstone; use of arch and dome method; use of mortar as a cementing agent.  Alai Darwaza---Built by enlarging the Quwwat-ul--Islam Mosque's enclosures of colonnades and providing them two gateways. In this and other buildings constructed by the Khiljis, the true arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe, broad dome, recessed arches under the squinch, perforated windows, inscriptional bands and use of red sandstone relieved by marble are features characteristic of Khilji architecture. **First Sultani architecture to be built on correct scientific proportions and the first true arch  Siri--- New city built by Alauddin Khilji in 1304 AD—The Imperial Palace, mahal Hazar Satun; Jamait Khana mosque; Hauz-i-illahi (water tank) was also built at the city.  The mosques from the Khalji onward, having acquired the techniques of Islamic architecture, were fundamentally of the Arabian type with the plan of hypostyle oblong hall, but the Khirki Masjid (c.1375) presents a peculiar plan, having four courtyards like a Charbagh-style garden.

Alai Darwaza

Adhai Din Ka Jhompra

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3. Tughlaq Period—  Crisis period of architecture,  Major use of Grey sandstone; (and painted them with plaster making it impossible for carvings)--hence, minimum decorations; focus to strength rather than beauty;  Hence he introduced the concept of sloping walls known as Battar, combining the principles of the arch and the lintel **No Batters in Firoz shah Tughlaq’s buildings. (a) Tuglaqabad---by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and later MBT built a large fort cum fortresses complex. Also blocking the passage of Yamuna River, a big pond was created around the place. (b) Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was the first structure to be built on a raised platform (c) Decorative devise found in all buildings of Firoz Shah—Lotus (d) Khan e Jahan Maqbool’s tomb—built during the reign of FST. -----First time Octagonal tomb in India. --Firoz shah Tughlaq’s tomb had a lot of Hindu motifs --Hauz Khaus—pleasure resort built by FST, having all the following forms of decoration: Arch and dome; Lintel and beam.

 € Cities built by FST---Jaunpur, Firozabad, Ferozpur, Fatehbad and Hissar Feroza. Tanks built by FST---Hauz e Illaha (in memory of Alauddin khilji); Hauz e Shams in memory of Shamsuddin Iltutmish)

Delhi—    

Known as Indraprastha in 1405 BC; Delhi is the capital of the Republic of India and the name derives from the city of Dilli that was constructed by the king of Kanauj, Dilu, in the 1st century of B.C.E. The people in the capital still call it Dilli to this day. After the 8th century, Rajput peoples developed this small city as a Hindu city, but there remain no structures from that period. After the invasion of the army of the Ghor Dynasty from Afghanistan, Delhi commenced its new history as an Islamic city. In greater Delhi, a new city was constructed in succession, and were later called altogether •--The Seven Cities of Delhi

Seven cities in Delhi--i. ii.

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Lal Kot or Qila Rai Pithora--- Anangpal, a Tomar ruler possibly created the first known regular defense - work in Delhi called Lal Kot - which Prithviraj took over and extended for his city Qila Rai Pithora. Siri---By Alauddin Khilji near Hauz Khaus, a major trade centre. The Saljuqian influences are the most remarkable feature in the buildings from this period.This came about as craftsmen from the Saljuqian dynasty in west Asia reeling under Mongol invasions took refuge in the Delhi court and contributed to its architecture. A large reservoir called Hauz Khas was another accomplishment of city of Siri. Tughlaqabad—1321 -26 by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq: He won Delhi from Nasiruddin Mohammed, a Pawar Rajput, who was initially a Pawar Rajput and took to Islam—and gained Kinghood by slaining the last Khilji ruler. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq built a fort in the city, the splendid remains of which still remain. Jahapanah---Built by MBT in the 14th century. This is largely composed of a walled enclosure between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri. Firozabad—built in 1354 by Firoz Shah Tughlaq; this is also known as--Kotla Firoze Shah next to the river Yamuna. This was a large enclosure of high walls, containing palaces, pillared halls, mosques, a

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9 pigeon tower and a water tank. On the top of his palace, Firoze planted an Ashokan pillar from 1500 years ago. Shergarh—in 1534 by Sher Shah Suri; initially started by Humayun with the name Dinpanah, Sher Shah however later changed the name. This is also known as the Purana Qila today. Delhi was won back by Humayun not very many years later in 1555 and he completed parts of the Purana Qila left unfinished by Sher Shah. The ruins of Humayun and Sher Shah's creations are today a big tourist attraction – Shahjahanabad—Akbar concentrated his efforts in building the city of Agra and almost abandoned the Fatehpur Sikri, which was later on revived by Shahjahan in the 17th century and re-named Shahjahanabad. This is in the area now known as Old Delhi. The intricate lanes of the 'walled city', its bazaars and way of living seem to exist in a time warp.

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Lal Kot

Siri

Tughlaqabad

Shergarh

Shahjahanabad  

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4. Lodi Period Again a period of crisis. Main features--There were only tomb making and the concept of double domes in a fully developed form. They also placed their tombs on especially high platforms; Tombs present in gardens; octagonal tombs (Tombs were hard and bare octagonal apartments, 15 m in diameter and supported by verandah of the same shape)—many of these features were adopted by the Mughals later on. The tomb architecture of this period were of two types—One was the octagonal in design with a verandah; while the other was square in plan and having no Verandah. A spacious and somewhat ornamental walled garden enclosed the tomb—both the forms had grey granite walls. Arch and beams; balconies and Kiosks were also present. Use of provincial forms as Rajasthani and Gujrathi styles. Sikander Lodi built the city of Agra and adopted that as his new capital, he also repaired the Qutb Minar.    

Kali Masjid, Khirki Masjid and Kalan Masjid also belong to this period, the last two being raised on a tahkhana or substructure of arches. The Tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (d. 1434 AD), Muhammad Sayyid (d.1444 AD) and Sikander Lodi (d.1517 AD) are all of the octagonal type. The square tombs are represented by such monuments as the Bara Khan Ka Gumbad, Chota Khan Ka Gumbad, Bara Gumbad (1494 AD), Shish Gumbad, Dadi Ka Gumbad and the Poli ka Gumbad. The Tomb of Isa Khan (1547 AD), the Tomb of Adham Khan (1561 AD), Moth ki Masjid (c.1505 AD), Jamala Masjid (1536 AD) and the Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid (c.1550 AD) belong to the final phase of the Delhi style of architecture.

Provincial styles of architecture--(Bengal/Malwa/Jaunpur)

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Bengal style—(Gaur) o It was referred to as Lakshmanavati as the capital of the Hindu dynasty of Sena, but the Sultanate of Delhi subjugated the region early in the 13th century and made it the capital for the eastern territory, renaming it Laknauti. Gaur thrived so much until the middle of the 16th century that the Mughal emperor Humayun called it Jannatabad (City of Paradise). However it declined due to the change of the course of the river Ganges and severe plagues during the later half of the 16 th century.

Not much different from the Islamic style, but the use of different building material and the execution of details have made them quite distinct.  The so-called Bengal rood with sloping continued which originated from the bamboo construction; was adopted by the Muslims and later spread to several other parts.  Use of bricks and black marbles. Use of stones was also eminent which was chiefly used in building pillars, and obtained from the ruined temples.  No focus on decorations but massive buildings. Whatever decoration was present was chiefly made of covered brick and glazed tiles.  Their upward curved eaves imitating that of farmhouses in pluvial Bengal, the purpose of which was to shed rain fast, generated a graceful roof-shape (Bangaldar Roof), on the buildings of Bengal. This shape influenced not only later Hindu temples in Bengal, but also Rajput architecture in western India through Delhi.  The general form of the mosques were a stand-alone worship hall type without a courtyard, (represented by Lattan mosque) Kadam Rasul mosque in gaur; Adina Masjid in Pandua; Boro Sona Masjid, Choto Sona Masjid: Dakhil Gate, Firuz minar; Lattan Masjid 

Adina Mosque (Pandua)

 Malwa style— o o o o o

The city of Mandu is located in Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of over 2000 feet and overlooks the Malwa Plateau to the north and the Narmada valley to the south. Mandu’s natural defence encouraged consistent habitation by Parmana Rajputs, Afghans, and Mughals. As the capital city of the Ghauri Dynasty (1401-1561) founded by Hoshang Shah, it acquired a lot of fame. Mandu was associated with the romance of Sultan Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupamati. The Mughals resorted to it for pleasure during the monsoon season after the capture of Mandu by Akbar (Baz Bahadur fled and Rani Rupmati committed Johor; later Baz Bahadur accepted the Mughal suzerainty and served under them).

Architecture of Malwa (capital Initially Dhār, later--Mandu)  Absence of minar in the mosques (no Persian influence)—typical representation of medieval provincial style of architecture.  Lack of decoration and profound simplicity; fortitude and structural representation of the Indian functionalism  European influence can be found—Large windows; walls matt

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11 Elegant use of arch, pillars and beam; lofty terraces and well-proportioned stairways. Impressive and dignified size of buildings, use of various colored stones and marbles partly by bright colored glazed tiles. Rani Rupmati’s pavilion; Ashrafi Mahal; Jahaz Mahal in Mandu, UP and the Mandu fort.  

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Rani Rupamati’s double pavilion perched on the southern embattlements afforded a beautiful view of the Narmada valley. Baz Bahadur’s Palace had a wide courtyard ringed with halls and terrace. Jahaz Mahal---It is an elegant two storey ‘Ship Palace’ between two reservoirs, with open pavilion, balconies overhanging the water and a terrace. It was built by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji and was possibly used as his harem and the ultimate pleasure and recreation resort. It had a complex arrangement of watercourses and a terrace swimming pool. Hindola Mahal- It looks like a railway viaduct bridge with its disproportionately large buttresses supporting the walls.  This was the audience hall of the Sultan and the place where he showed himself to his subjects.  Batter was used very effectively to give an impression of swinging (Hindola) walls. Hoshang Shah’s Tomb  Typical Islamic architecture where the true arches and domes rhythmically compose strict interior spaces.  It is a majestic structure with a beautiful dome, marble jail work, porticos, courts, and towers.  It is regarded as an example of the robustness of Afghan structures, nut its lattice works, carved brackets and Torans lend it a softer hue. Jama Masjid, Mandu—  It was built on a large scale to accommodate many worshippers for Friday prayers.  The building is faced with red sandstone.  The Mimbar (where Imam stands to deliver sermons) in the Quibla liwan (a long narrowed hall) is supported on carved brackets and the Mihrab has a lotus bud fringe.

Mihrab

Mandu Court --In the Court of Mandu, miniature art developed in its own distinct style, even though under the influence of Persia, and founded a school of its own, which is represented by •Nimatnama (1495-1505)—which depicts culinary art

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Minbar

 Jaunpur Style—

Jaunpur is a city about 60km northeast of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, in north India. Although its origin goes back to the 11th century, it was annihilated by the inundation of the Gumty River. In 1359, Firoz Shah Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate reconstructed it as a fortress against the sultan of Bengal, surrounding it with ramparts.  The Tughlaq dynasty gradually became weakened by the Mongol raids---Malik Sawar, who had been deputed by FST declared independence and established the independent rule of Jaunpur.  Developed by the Sharqi dynasty---Hence also known as the Sharqi architecture  Absence of minars; bold and forceful character expressed in huge imposing schemes in the centre and side bays of the prayer hall.  At present only a few of the mosques remain as most had been destroyed by the Tughlaq rulers--Those mosques are on the Four-Iwan plan of the Persian-type, modeled on its first example in India,  **One exception to the unique Four Iwan type--- Jaunpur’s mosques have spectacular Pishtaqs in front of their worship rooms, which are slightly tapering tower gates reminding us of Pylons in Egypt, and their openings are too shallow to be called Iwan. While the other three apart from the Pishtaq, do not open to the courtyard and rather open to the outside—typical example of Indian form. Example— Atalo Masjid; Babri Masjid. The Atala Masjid took its name as it was constructed on the ruins of a Hindu temple dedicated to goddess Atala.

After the re-conquest of the city by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1559, the Governor Munim Khan constructed a bridge on the Gumty River, which is the most important stone bridge in India, the Akbari Bridge (1568). It is said that an Afghan architect Afzal Ali designed it. Every pier of this 200m long bridge has a chattri on the top to provide a good view and resting facility for citizens.

 Gujarat/Ahmedabad—   

Gujarat witnessed significant architectural activity for over 250 years starting from Muzaffar Shah's declaration of independence from Delhi and the formation of the Sultanate of Gujarat in 1307 AD until the conquest of Gujarat by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1500 AD. Thus it was a unity of the principal form of Islamic style with the tradition of Indian architecture— taking themes from the Indian sculpture that greatly developed in Gujarat before the Muslim invasion. Ahmedabad is a city full of architectural masterpieces which include Sayyid Alam's mosque (1412), Teen Darwaza (1415), Tomb of Ahmed Shah (1440), Rani-ka-Hujra (1440), the Jami Masjid (built by

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13 the city’s founder Sultan Ahmed Shah in 1423), Qutubuddin's mosque (1454), Rani Sipri Mosque (1505), Sidi Bashir's Mosque (1510), which is famous for its “shaking minarets”, Rani Rupmati Masjid at Mirzapur (built between 1430 and 1440) and the Kankaria Lake, constructed in 1451 by Sultan Qutb-ud-Din.

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Ahmed Shah’s mosque was the first mosque that used Hypostyle halls that used columns from the existing temples; Arches were not used except for the openings facing the courtyard and the Mihrab. Jami Masjid—had as many as 352 columns deriving theme from the nearby Mt Abu temples and that of Ranakpur. Numerous later mosques were built in the city following this style. This is also peculiar to Indian tradition—which never used true arches and domes. Sidi Sayyid Mosque had extensive Jallis (stone trellis work) that embellishes the large semicircular windows. This depicts a design on a motif of a tree.

 Champaner— Mahmud Bageda usurped the Hindu citadel of Pavagadh Hill 110km southeast of Ahmadabad in 1484 and constructed a new capital city, Champaner, at the foot of the hill based on the method of Islamic city planning and hydraulic technology brought from the west. The city took 23 years to construct. He made many constructions not only at the city but also at the sub-urban Sarkhej, where there still remains a fine architectural lake with a complex of mosques and mausoleums. It was also called Mahmudabad after his name, but the city began to decline after a quarter of a century and was destroyed by Humayun of the Mughal Dynasty in 1536, being abandoned to the jungle. Mosques were constructed based on the local Gujarat style---together with the city walls and city gates. The Borah Mosque (Sahar-ki Masjid); The Nagina masjid and the Kevra Masjid are also important.  These mosques did not have any courtyards  Vertical minarets and long horizontal worship hall are important  Post and beam structure without arches  Showed noticeably Hindu sculptural shapes at the pedestals of Minarets and the brackets of windows.

**Note—

Jama Masjid  

Large mosques spanning huge spaces also dotted the landscapes of the Indian sub-continent in medieval times. Congregational prayers were held here every Friday afternoon, which required the presence of minimum of forty Muslim male adults.

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14      

At the time of prayers, a Khutba was read out in the name of the ruler and his laws for the realm were also read out. In medieval times, a city had one Jama Masjid which, along with its immediate surroundings, became the focus of the lives of the people, both Muslim and Non-Muslim. This happened because a lot of commercial and cultural exchanges were concentrated here besides religious and indirect political activity. Generally, such a mosque was large with an open courtyard, surrounded on three sides by cloisters and the Qibla Liwan in the west. It was here that the mihrab and Mimbar for the Imam were located. People faced the mihrab while offering prayers as it indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.

Deccani Style of Architecture— (Golconda and Bijapur)

Phase I---Chand Minar— o o o o o

Built by Alauddin Bahmani in the 13th century It is a 210 feet high (about 30 m) tapering tower divided into four storeys. It is painted in peach now. Its façade once boasted of chevron patterning on the encaustic tile work and bold band of Quoranic verses. Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it was the combined handiwork of local architects with those from Delhi and Iran.

Alauddin Bahaman Shah also constructed the Gulbarga Fort and the Jami Masjid at Gulbarga

Phase II—Represented by the architecture of Bidar initiated by Ahmed Shah (1422-1436), which includes the Bidar Fort, Mahmud Gawan's Madrassa and the Ali Barid's Tomb.

Phase III---Hyderabad • • • • •

Qutub Shahi and Nizam Shahi dynasties contributed greatly towards the development of the Deccan style of architecture. Charminar (1591) - Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah. Mecca Masjid- started in 1614 by Abdullah Qutub Shah and completed in 1687 by Aurangzeb. Golconda Fort (1525) - Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah, was an impregnable fort of great strategic importance to most of the rulers. Falaknuma Palace (1870) by Nawab Vikar-Ul-Ulmara is a rare blend of Italian and Tudor architecture.

Phase Iv---Bijapuri School Developed during the reigns of Adil Shah Bijapur has the largest architectural heritage in southern India. It is located in the north of Karnataka State, and its name derives from the ancient Hindu name, Vijayapura, meaning the City of victory Features—  Three Arched facet—Central arch is wider than the other two.  Bulbous dome—almost spherical with a narrow neck  Sue of cornices (Chajjas)  Treatment of its ceilings without any apparent support—through the use of iron clamps and strong mortar.  Rich stone carvings.  

Tombs—Gol Gumbad in Karnataka (Mausoleum of Adil Shah)

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     

Built by the ruler Muhammad Adil Shah himself, this is a striking edifice in spite of being unfinished. This is the largest in the world (?) The tomb is a complex building such as a gateway, a Naqqar Khana, a mosque and a Sarai located within a large walled garden. Gumbad is a square building topped with a circular drum over which rests a majestic dome, giving the building its nomenclature. It is built of dark grey basalt and decorated plaster work. The building has an amazing acoustical system. Along with the drum of the dome, there is a whispering gallery where sounds get magnified and echoed many times over. Gol Gumbad is a fine convergence of many styles located in medieval India---While its structural peculiarities of dome, arches, geometric proportions and load bearing techniques suggest Timurid and Persian styles; it is made of local material and is decorated with surface embellishments popular in Deccan.

There are other architectural splendors in the city too—like the Mehtar Mahal which is a tower gate, showing wooden like structure and decoration like a piece of Hindu architecture. In addition to the architectural decorations, court art flourished too. A number of manuscripts were produced in Persian and Urdu and the miniaturists of the Bijapur School, such as Farrukh Husain, were quite talented and prolific.

Kashmir Style--     

Typified by use of woodwork. Log construction using deodar trees for the construction of wooden bridges called kadals or the wooden shrines called Ziarats Mosque of Shah Hamdan in Srinagar and the Jami Masjid at Srinagar built by Sikandar Butshikan (1400 AD) - examples of the wooden architecture Fort of Hari Parbat, the Pattar Masjid (1623) and the Akhun Mulla Shah's mosque (1649) are illustrations of art of stone building in Kashmir. The special features of the Kashmir style are a double-tiered sloping roof, a style derived from a lot of rain, and a gable containing a trefoil arch over the doorway. It can be thought that the medieval Hindu stone temples inherited them from the ancient Buddhist wooden temples, and afterward they were transferred to the early-modern Islamic wooden mosques

Bihar--Sasaram  

Sasaram in Bihar - Sher Shah's Tomb, tomb of his father, Hasan Sur Khan built in 1535, tomb of his son Salim Shah and tomb of Alwal Khan, the chief architect of Sher Shah. (and the architect of Sasaram). There stands tombs pertaining to thee successive generations—

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16 --First the tomb of Hasan Sur Khan: --adopted the octagonal plan which was established in Delhi. With vertical columns instead of tapering. --Second was that of Sher Shah—(1545) erected on a square podium on an island-like square stylobate, created in an artificial lake, and the inner volume of which is the largest in India. Presence of two tiered Chhatris, which were anologs to the main dome.

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--The Third was of the son of Sher Shah, mausoleum of his son, Salim Shah (c.1550), was planned to be much larger on another lake, it ended incomplete, leaving only its basements. In a southern suburb there is also another incomplete mausoleum, that of the architect Aliwal Khan. Completion of the sixth city of Delhi called the Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shai around the Purana Qila area in 1540s. Purana Qila has three main gates - the Humayun darwaza, Talaqi darwaza and Baradarwaza. Qila-iKuhna masjid built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541 AD in the Purana Qila.

Mughal Style of architecture— Neither Babur not Humayun lived long enough to have emphasized on architectural developments. BABAR: Mosque at Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi, both constructed in 1526, are the surviving monuments of Babar.  Baghs---Mughal gardens which had: (a)Square gardens in the style of Charbagh; and (b) Running water. (Mughal gardens was initially named as Ram Bagh by Babar)  Mosques—Sambhal, Panipat and Agra. HUMAYUN: Persian influence - result of Humayun's observance at the court of Shah Tahmasp during the period of his exile.  Humayun's Tomb at Delhi, (1564) by his widow Haji Begum as a mark of devotion, eight years after his death. AKBAR: Use of red sandstone.  The Humayun’s tomb was the first full-blown piece of Mughal architecture, which would determine the splendid style afterward, combining red sandstone and white marble. (**Use of double dome); Vast Charbagh on all sides, the tomb was placed on a high platform in the middle, Four faced building opened to four directions by means of Iwans, crowned with white marble double dome, and Chhatris on the roof. Red sandstone body with marble border, Double dome marble at top. ---Designed by Persian architect, Mirak Mirza Ghuyath, most of the later museoleums in India followed this style, and reached its zenith in the Taj Mahal.

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Construction of a huge fort at Agra (Irani, Turki and Persian); other forts at--Lahore and Allahabad. Massive sandstone ramparts of the Red Fort, New Delhi. Buildings at Fatehpur Sikri blended both Islamic and Hindu elements (Bengali and Gujrathi) in their architectural style. Other buildings ---Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal (**planned on a Buddhist Vihara) and Dargah of Saleem Chisti are the most imposing of all the buildings of Fatehpur Sikri. Diwan-e-Khas in the complex which was designed for private audiences. ---Jodha bai’s palace; Birbal’s palace; Mariam’s palace; ---Jama Masjid (also called Romance in Stone) which has Buland Darwaza (**half dome) at its southern entrance. Buland Darwaza depicts mixture of Gujrathi and Iranian styles.

**Origin of Fatehpur Sikri—After Akbar constructed the Fort of Agra, he also constructed a new city which was planned in perfect order, in Sikri, 40km west of Agra and designated it as Fatehpur Sikri (City of Victory, Sikri), since he had just subjugated the Gujarat region. The Buland Darwaza (1575) in the mosque quarter is the gate memorizing this victory, and is the supreme masterpiece of Indo-Islamic tower gate architecture.

Akbar abandoned this city in 1585 to relocate his capital to Lahore, the reason for which is said to have been the deficiency of water. However, since the city did not suffer the maelstrom of wars, both quarters are in a superb state of preservation. ---Moti Masjid inside the fort built by Shahjahan. ---Harams—Places where women were kept captured by the Mughal rulers, and also included their Queens.   

Agra fort—built of red sandstone; initiated by Akbar, although completed and most of the portion finished by Shahjahan. Second Capital at Agra—Lal Qila or red fort with red sandstone. Was also known as Akbarabad after his name. Akbar’s tomb @Sikandara— Sikandara was initially constructed by Sikandar Shah of Lodi dynasty, and 120 years later, the tomb of Akbar was constructed here.  Tomb built at the centre of the great Charbagh, following the pattern of the tomb of Humayun  This is the largest Charbagh in the world

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18  

Unusually the tomb is NOT covered by a dome, roofless terrace on the top makes an open tomb hall. This is considered to be one of the most Indianized form of Mughal architecture.

JEHANGIR: Itimaud-Daullah’s Tomb---this was the first structure in India entirely built on white pristine marbles, procured from Makrana, Rajasthan.  Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Lake Dal in Kashmir; and also Nishad Bagh.  Akbar's Tomb at Sikandara near Agra, which was completed in 1613. (follow before)  Jahangir's Tomb at Shadera near Lahore, built by his wife Nur Mahal  New technique of Peitra Dura was used extensively from his time;  Jahangir’s Mahal----was based on Maan Mandir (Gwalior)  Important features---the arch developed a distinct form with foliated curves usually with nine crisps; Marble arcades of engraved arches was a common feature; Domes (double dome/ shifted neck/ bulbous dome); Decorative forms (inlaid patterns/boldly curved/ colored stones) SHAHJAHAN: Substitution of marble for the red sandstone.  Marbleized Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas build by Akbar at Red Fort, Delhi. (Red fort was called –Eden of Bliss on earth by Aamir Khusrao)  Shah Jahan built the Jami Masjid at Agra in 1648 in honour of his daughter Jahanara Begum & Wazir Khan's mosque in Lahore, 1634.  Took initiative to build the Peacock throne, by Babadal Khan, wherein a famous couplet was inscribed by Aamir Khusrau---“If there is heaven on Earth, it is this, it is this, it is this”.  Built the new city of Shahjahanabad. (Now the Old Delhi ). •

Taj Mahal - a memorial to his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. ----- Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum (a kind of large tomb) for his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal.  It was commissioned in the year of 1632 and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site; the apogee of the evolutionary architectural process in medieval India.  The Taj complex is entered through a monumental red sandstone gateway, the opening arch of which beautifully frames the mausoleum.  The tomb is laid out in a Chahar Bagh (garden), crisscrossed with paths and water courses, interspersed with pools and fountains---the straight path through the Bagh reaches the plinth of the tomb. The structure is placed on the northern extremity of the Bagh instead of the middle to take the advantage of the river bank (Yamuna).  At the corners of the terrace stand four tall minarets, one hundred and thirty two feet high.  The main body of the building is topped with a drum and a dome and four cupolas forming a beautiful skyline.  Towards the west of the white marble faced tomb, lie a red sandstone mosque and a similar construction in the east to maintain balance.  The marbles for the building was quarried from the Makrana Mines, Rajasthan.  The inner arrangement of the mausoleum consists of a crypt below and a vaulted, octagonal tomb chamber, with a room at each angle, all connected by corridors.  Light to every part of the building is obtained by means of carved and perforated Jalis, set in the arched recesses of the interior.  Four types of embellishments have been used with great effect for the interior and exterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal.  These are stone carvings in high and low relief on the walls, the delicate carving of marble into Jallis and graceful volutes (spiral ornament on the pillars), and the creation of arabesque with pietra dura on walls and tombstones and geometric designs with tessellation.  The art of calligraphy is used with the inlay of jasper in white marble to unite Quoranic verses. Calligraphy provides a decorative element on the walls and a continuous connection with the almighty.

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AURANGZEB: Bibi-ki-Maqbara, tomb of Aurangzeb's wife Begum Rabia Durani, a poor replica of the famous Taj Mahal -- A fine example of Mughal architecture in the Deccan region.  Badshahi Mosque.

POST-MUGHAL STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE AVADH (OUDH) STYLE:    

Safdar Jung's tomb, built in the honour of Safdar Jung (1739-1753), who was the nephew of the first Nawab of Oudh. Bara Imambara built by the Nawab in 1784. Absence of pillars in the main hall and simplicity of style and symmetry are its unique features. Chattar Manzil - main attractions are the underground rooms and a beautiful dome surrounded by a gilt umbrella. Kaiser Bagh is a quadrangular park with a baradari (pavilion) and yellow-coloured buildings on three sides. Roshanwali Koti and Begum Koti at Hazratgunj - Italian style is more prominent.

RAJASTHANI STYLE  

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Not many palaces existed till now from the Medieval period—and certain Muslim features had been incorporated in the Hindu dynasties; and planned their building to fit their way of living and customs Rajasthan is rich in such forms of architecture--Some of the common feature that Rajasthan borrowed from the Mughal style are—  Hanging balconies supported on carved brackets  Carved cornices in the shape of an arch, producing shadows like a bow  Pillared kiosks crowned by Domes  Arcades of sunk arches,  Foliated arches, latticed screens, curved Bengal roofs and flat domes rising from a rectangular base. These were situated as on rocky heights, they look very impressive such as those at Amber: Jaipur, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Jaisalmer, etc. Kirtistambha/Tower of Fame-- The Kirtistambha, or Tower of Fame, was constructed by the Solanki ruler of Gujarat and one such is that of the Chittor Fort, the capital of Mewar before Udaipur. The tower, was constructed in the eight years following 1440 and restored in 1906 to commemorate the building of the Kumbhaswami Vaishnava temple, consecrated in 1440.

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20 Hawa Mahal In Jaipur—In which the Hindu and the Islamic traditions combined to create a building suited to the hot, dry climate of Rajasthan, by making the entire facade a perforated screen by creating over fifty slightly raised pavilions, each a half oriel window, as it were, to allow little breeze to waft through those hundreds of perforated Jalli windows; Inspired by the :small Shikharas rising one above the other, as in Bhubaneswar of Thanjore.

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Victory tower

Hawa Mahal

PUNJAB STYLE:  

Developed under the influence of the Mughal style. Characterized by certain indigenous features like the multiplicity of chhatris /kiosks, use of fluted dome generally covered with copper or brass-gilt and enrichment of arches by numerous foliations. Golden Temple at Amritsar (1764) built by the fourth Sikh Guru Ramdas (Initiated by Guru Amar Das and completed by Arjan Dev, had Mughal influence).

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COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE PORTUGUESE:Portuguese adapted to India the climatically appropriate Iberian galleried Patio house and the Baroque churches of Goa. (mainly concentrated in Old Goa) ** In the middle of the 17th century, the seat of government was transferred, due to an epidemic, to New Goa (the current state capital, Panaji) on the cost. The town, in which only religious buildings remained, was called Old Goa. After that, the style of colonial architecture in India changed into Neoclassicism and Gothic Revivalism, both of which were led by the British.  Se’ Cathedral (the largest building in Goa) and Arch of Conception of Goa were built in the typical Portuguese-Gothic style.  St. Francis Church at Cochin (1510) is believed to be the first church built by the Europeans in India.  Fort of Castella de Aguanda near Mumbai and added fortifications to the Bassein fort built by Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, in 1532 AD.  Bassein fort is famous for the Matriz (Cathedral of St Joseph), the Corinthian pillared hall and the Porte da Mer (sea gate).  Also are the Basilica of Bom Jesus and the Church of St Cajetan. Hindu Architecture in brief— Because the Portuguese did not permit non-Christian religions to exist in Goa, Hindus resided in villages in the surrounding mountains and erected temples there. As architects and craftsmen were Goans, the temples were constructed in a rare style in India, mixing Hindu architecture and Christian architecture, such as the Shanti Durga Temple (1738) at Ponda. Also temples dedicated to Lord Krishna can be found at Gokarna. 

Difference—Iberian and Gothic Iberian Material Used Brick as the main material Wooden roofs and stairs Structural Variations No creation of new shapes/structures Plaster carvings Example

Gothic Red sandstone and coarse limestone Not present Involved the creation of new shapes and structures

Re-interpreted Western style Prominent feature Old Goa church

FRENCH:•

• •

French gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical architectural patterns. This was initially a port town and a flourishing fishing village in Tamil Nadu. ---The town was built on the French grid pattern and features neat sectors and perpendicular streets and divided into two sectors, French Quarter (Ville Blanche) and the Indian quarter (Ville Noire) Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise De Sacre Coeur De Jesus), Eglise de Notre Dame de Angesand, Eglise de Notre Dame de Lourdes at Pondicherry have a distinct French influence. To preserve Pondicherry an organization named INTACH was formed. Authorization is needed from INTACH, to annihilate any original French Architecture.

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French expanded their empire by colonizing coastal towns, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal in Tamil Nadu and Mahe in Kerala with a French atmosphere of quiet towns around beaches.

BRITISH:

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British followed various architectural styles – Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and Victorian being the essentials (mainly Indo-gothic and Neo-Roman)  When the British first became a 'power' in India, the Palladian and the Baroque were the prevailing styles in England. Church of St. John at Calcutta (1787) ---inspired by St. Stephens Church at Walbrooks. St. Mary's Church in Fort St. George in Chennai. Law Courts, Presidency College and Senate House of Chennai. Victoria Memorial Hall-Calcutta (1921), designed by Sir William Emerson. Gateway of India in Mumbai, Maharaja's Palace at Mysore and M.S.University and Lakshmi Villas Palace at Baroda. New Delhi - systematically planned city after made capital in 1911--Sir Edward Lutyens made responsible for the overall plan of Delhi and constructed India Gate and Rashtrapati Bhawan. Herbert Baker added South Block and North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati Bhawan. Englishman called Robert Tor Tussell built the Connaught Place.

Indo-Saracenic architecture in the Colonial period—        

The architectural style diffused during the colonial regime in India from the 1870’s till the early 20 th century. The beginning of the British architecture saw rampant use of Western forms, irrespective of the Indian sentiments, background and the local climate—which took a reverse turn after the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. The British started to add the elements of Indian traditional architecture, particularly Mughal architecture, to the base of Victorian Gothic style. Gothic Revival--- British architects in India made this the base to which they added domes, *Chhatris, and Bangardar roofs to form the external appearance of Indian taste. Islamic architecture had been called Saracenic architecture in Europe until the 19th century—and hence the name Indo—Saracenic style. The reason of that Islamic architecture was selected as the Indian tradition was that Mughal architecture based on arches and domes was considered more compatible with European architecture than Hindu temples based on the post and beam structureHowever, some colonial architects infused the Hindu architectural patterns ---Like Napier Museum (1880) in Trivandrum absorbing south Indian tradition of wooden architecture. The final form infused not only the Mughal styles but also the Hindu and the Buddhist architecture--and the work that reached the summit of this style was the Madras HC (1892)

Mumbai—       

First colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, this is the largest commercial city in India. The British took its control in the 17th century. It developed remarkably in the 19th century as Bombay, but in 1955, after the independence of India, it was renamed its old name, Mumbai. Centre of the Victorian style Gothic architecture in India after the advent of Gothic Revivalism, which had occurred in its suzerain. Calcutta had neoclassicist style. A series of public facilities were built in Mumbai in the Gothic style---by removing the old ramparts of the town. It is best represented by the Library of Bombay University (1878) designed by George Gilbert Scott, the Clock-Tower of which, called Rajabai Tower, became the symbol of the city The last great monument built in Mumbai is the Victoria Terminus built in 1887 (now renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus) designed by Frederic William Stevens (1848-1900) In the 1930’s just before the Independence of India, the waves of Modernism began to come and Art Deco architecture was brought to Bombay. In strong contrast to the former historical styles, great

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23 numbers of commercial buildings were erected in free design using curved lines by burgeoning Indian architects, accompanied by new sculptures and craft works. The most important buildings in that style are the Eros Cinema (1938) and the New India Assurance Company (1937).

Delhi— 

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Although the British government, which had overthrown the Mughal Dynasty, had made Calcutta the capital for a long period, King George V declared in 1911 the construction of a new capital in the central districts, that is to say the eighth city of Delhi, for the purpose of repressing the independence movement in Calcutta. The site chosen for the new Imperial city was a waste land south of Shajahanabad and the architects commissioned to make a city plan and to design the main buildings were the British architects, Edwin Lutyens (1869-1944) and Herbert Baker (1862-1946). Concept of Garden city planning, a new system of planning taken up at that time Lutyens designed the Viceroy’s House (now Rashtrapati Bhavan, 1929), India Gate (1931), and so on, and Baker designed the Secretariat (1931) and the Legislative Building (1920). As capital designs before Modernism, New Delhi, completed in 1931, ranks with Washington, D.C. in the USA and Canberra in Australia. The ornament less Garrison Church of St Martin (1930) designed by Arthur Gordon Shoosmith, a disciple of Lutyens, is the first work of modernism in India.

Madras—   

The staple of Madras was Fort St. George, a walled squared building adjacent to the beach. Surrounding the fort was White Town settlement of British and Indian area Black Town later to be called Georgetown. Black Town described in 1855 as "the minor streets, occupied by the natives are numerous, irregular and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and ill-ventilated ... a hallow square, the rooms opening into a courtyard in the centre. Garden houses were originally used as weekend houses for recreational use by the upper class British. Nonetheless, the garden house became ideal a full-time dwelling, deserting the fort in the 19th Century

Summary of the materials and styles of the British architecture—  When the British had first established themselves as Colonial power in India, Palladian and baroque style of architecture was in full phase in England, which was invariably adopted in the Indian scenario, without giving pre-eminence to Indian climate and sentiments.  Neo-Gothic style ruled the British architectural patterns with Neo classicist style in Kolkata. But very soon those buildings were hampered by the severe hot and humid climate of India, and forced the colonizers to replace them by adjusting proportions and adapting layouts.  The British found the Mughal style could easily imbibe into their patterns and quickly adopted that as pre-eminence along with Gothic, this giving rise to the Indo Saracenic revival.  In order to make a British construction astounding, sometimes the imperial builders had to import their materials, like marble from China, teak from Burma, gravel from Bayswater.  The British architecture also underwent another stage of revival after the Sepoy mutiny when flamboyant new elements entered the imperial philosophy; it was an unusual time that the British began to introduce Indian features and motifs into their imperial architecture. This was done according to the declaration of Queen Victoria at the Durbar Hall, Delhi, the time when she was declared the Empress of India. –to respect the Indian sentiments, and a bait to resist ay further upheaval that could shake the very foundation of the British rule in India  Colonial architectural style in British India witnessed another feature of rare usage of stone. This was in fact an everyday feature during the early days of the Empire and the church of St. John's in Kolkata was simply called The Stone Church and the first house at Ootacamund (popular as Ooty) was also named Stone House.  Later stone replaced brick as the prime material of British architectures in India; slate, machine-made tiles and steel girders came in vogue, galvanised iron revolutionised the Anglo-Indian roof.  Apart from imbibing architectural forms from the Mughal patterns, British architecture also adopted the Hindu style, and gave rise to the Hybrid style of architecture--- Hindu-Gothic, the RenaissanceMughal, the Saracenic-Gothic, even the Swiss-Saracenic, were all identified at some time or another as

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   

architectural styles in British India. At times the British erected buildings in a wholly Indian way and in late-Victorian times there arose a vigorous 'back-to-India' movement among more imaginative AngloIndians. Hybrid buildings remained predominant, however, into the twentieth century. In order to bring perfection in their works, often they relied upon handbooks of architectures, very popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Many of the grander early buildings of the Presidency towns owe their genesis to such texts. Again return to simpler modes with the beginning of the 20th century—mix of the prevailing Hybrid style and the new Victorian style. That gave rise to the eight city, Delhi between 1911 to 1912 of when it was declared as the Capital of India Dome finally became the last symbol of the architectural revival in the British architecture, which took its form in the circular Parliament built in the Roman style, the Regent street are a few examples to cite. Colonial architectural style of British India thus had encapsulated within itself enormous structural fashions, only to be still remembered in a mixed feel of awe and wonder.

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