Individualism: The Romantic Hero BYRONIC HERO-The Quintessential Individual “Temperate I am-yet never had a temper; Modest I am- yet with some slight assurance;… Patient-but not enamoured of endurance;... Mild-but at times a sort of ‘Hercules Furens’: So that I almost think that the same skin For one without-has two or three within” (Don Juan, XVII; II) The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century was a reaction to many cultural, social and political developments. Many artists and thinkers began to see developments in society threatening individualism: the factory system made human beings replaceable parts in a system, and mass political movements (like the French Revolution) diminished individual accomplishment. Also, Neoclassicism's strict rules and formalism began to seem limiting poet’s expression of unrestrained emotions. In reaction, the Romantic Movement stressed the individuality of the artist's expression, a personal relationship with nature, and a trust in emotion and subjective experience. The Romantics asserted the importance of the individual, the unique, even the eccentric. The idea of the individual is embraced and perfected by Lord George Gordon Byron in his creation of the Byronic hero who is the archetype of all the dark and brooding antiheros of subsequent fiction. Byron’s Manfred is one of the earliest incarnations of this character and possesses many of the archetypes overarching features including: a sinister power, a solipsistic world view, intense forbidden erotic love, and fierce independence. Modeled on various parts of Milton’s Satan and the emerging idea of the “Satanic hero” with influence from Gothic novels and Napoleon as well as Byron’s own character and biography, the Byronic hero has rebellion and tragedy at its heart. However the true Byronic hero is distinguished as being “more isolated, darker, more complex in his history and inner conflict, and therefore more frightening and more compelling to the reader” (Satanic). While Wordsworth looks on this emerging society and longs for a return to the pastoral and older societal forms, Byron and the Byronic hero embraces rebellion and holds “individualism” as the highest good and embraces the wildness and vivacity of nature not as the natural setting for man but as the natural state of man’s soul. He rose to fame in a period when the individual strongly emerged. Walter Scott recognized in “Quarterly Review” in 1818 when he declared that the interest of Byron’s works remains inseparable from his mind, wit, and (we might add) ironic detachment from his public image. Not until the age of the American and French Revolutions, more than a century after Milton wrote Paradise Lost, did readers begin to sympathize with Satan in the war between Heaven and Hell, admiring him as the arch rebel who had taken on no less an antagonist than Omnipotence itself, and even declaring him the true hero of the poem. It was precisely this aspect of flawed grandeur, however, that made Satan so attractive a model for Byron in his projects of personal myth-making. The more immediate precedents of the Byronic hero—a figure that Byron uses for purposes both of self-revelation and of selfconcealment—were the protagonists of some of the Gothic novels of the later eighteenth century.1 Byron first sketched out this hero with his Satanic-Gothic-Napoleonic lineage in 1812, in the opening stanzas

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Examples are Manfred, the ominous hero-villain of Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto (1764) and the brooding, guilt-haunted monk Schedoni of Ann Radcliffe’s The Italian (1797), each embodying traits of Milton’s Satan.

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of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, canto 1. At this stage, he is rather crudely depicted as a young man, prematurely sated by sin, who wanders about in an attempt to escape society and his own memories. Whatever ventriloquism he adopts, he is always in the first person: a far cry from impersonal Keats. It lacks impersonality to a remarkable degree. He deals in mixture and is one of the first poets after Donne and Dryden to write colloquially while refusing to limit poetry to supposedly “poetic” subjects. According to Herzen: “The emptiness of the life and death of solitary individuality has never,” he said in Byron and Goethe (1839), “been so powerfully and efficaciously summed up as in pages of Byron.” The self is the prison he hates; yet he has to use the self even to protest his imprisonment. No wonder the poems are acutely or bluntly personal. In spite of his reverence for Pope, he did not owe anything to the 18th century tradition of sensibility: flaunting one’s finer feelings in self-homage. He was more concerned with the condition of England and the terrors of being human. The French Revolution and the subsequent era of Napoleonic Wars brought about profound changes that shaped new Europe. Byron identified another alter ego in the towering historical figure of Napoleon Bonaparte, who to the contemporary imagination combined, in Satan’s manner, moral culpability with awe-inspiring power and grandeur. Yet Byron’s complex response to the man, worked out over the entire body of his work, yields a contrasting account of history—and also, and in particular in the “Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte” he wrote following Napoleon’s abdication, a contrasting account of Milton’s fallen angel. To Byron, Napoleon represents both a figure of heroic aspiration and someone who has been shamefully mastered by his own passions—both a conqueror and, after Waterloo, a captive. The characteristic doubleness of the Byronic hero is dramatized in the story of Napoleon’s venturesome rise and inglorious fall. The poem opens with Napoleon losing his titanic status and becoming a “mortal” human – “and now thou art a nameless thing/ So abject, yet alive”. Byron shows his views of Napoleon from the very beginning of the poem – Napoleon was a promethean giant above all humans, the ultimate master of his own destiny. Although Napoleon was dethroned and does not deserve the name any longer, Byron believes that he has played an important part in human history and he should be placed to a wider historical context and Byron places him next to other historical and mythological figures. Byron was obsessed with Napoleon, contrary to Wordsworth; he did not necessarily see Napoleon as a tyrant and oppressor. Byron identified himself with Napoleon; he was for Byron a tragic figure “an historical embodiment of contradictions”2. Napoleon embodied for Byron the possibilities of human and utmost individualism. The Napoleon that saw his contemporaries was not “an actual Napoleon” a real figure, but rather an iconic and unique character, an embodiment of individualism and will. Napoleon embodied the possibilities of human spirit and for Byron, as a man of action, Napoleon confirmed his belief that his ambition need not be bounded and he also represented “the capacity of genius to rise magnificently from nothing to the heights of power” (Clubbe). Byron saw in Bonaparte a liberator that would spread the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe. Apart from the fact that Byron celebrates Napoleon as a ‘titan’, he also expressed his disillusionment with him. Byron’s disillusionment stems from the fact that he realizes that there is no “immortal” dimension of Napoleon and that he is an ordinary human figure. It is necessary to mention that Byron’s historical and “mythical” Napoleons merge together in the poem. Byron compares Napoleon to great historical and mythological figures and he chooses the fallen angel Lucifer as a character that suits Napoleon most. Lucifer does not have a devilish and evil dimension in Byron’s view; on the contrary, he is the symbol of light and change. Byron creates Napoleonic myth again and he looks up to his idol.

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Byron claims that Napoleon’s main fault was that he was not able to leave, or even die, in the right moment. He also accuses Napoleon that he had soon lost his liberator image and became a monarch. Blake and Wordsworth declare that Napoleon is an embodiment of tyranny and by removing the rights of people he disturbs the divine order of things. In the case of Byron, Napoleon was a character that represented the triumph of human will and possibilities of an individual so that “Napoleon and Byron together dominate nineteenth-century conceptions of hero” (Clubbe). Napoleon became an embodiment of unbounded individualism, truly a cultural and social symbol which lived independently from the “actual” Napoleon Bonaparte with his undoubted genius, brilliant victories and also propaganda. Byron became a similar colossus which dominates the 19th century European literature. In Byron’s eyes Napoleon was a man of action and a symbol of uttermost individualism “shaming the more finely-tuned introvert of intellectual abilities” (Knight 94). What is interesting about the title of poem is the fact, that Byron uses already obsolete way of spelling of Napoleon’s name – Buonaparte. 3Byron here creates a myth and the symbolic Napoleon overshadowed the actual one, who had disappointed Byron so much, and who does not deserve to be named. In spite of Byron’s disillusionment with Napoleon’s resignation, he looks up to his idol again; he looks to his “Pagod”. The actual Napoleon resigned without any pomp and pathos that would suit a resigning Emperor and he is forced to live in exile. On the other hand, Byron’s mythical Napoleon still lives his fame and even his fall is spectacular. The fact that Byron compares Napoleon to a mythical and not historical figure even intensifies his divinity which Byron reveals in Napoleon again. Byron intentionally uses the “Italian” Buonaparte to stress the fact that he speaks about the “old and original” Napoleon, the light-bearer who had spread the ideas of the French Revolution across Europe. The notions of getting too far/high and the subsequent spectacular fall of a hero underline the titanic dimension of Napoleon, as apart from the comparison with Lucifer, this image also associates parallels with ancient heroes such as Prometheus or Icarus. Byron creates the image of an individual who dared to resist his fate, revolted against divines or wanted to reach their height and his actions became icons and myths. Napoleon dared to spread the ideas of the Revolution and to fight monarchies of Europe in a similar way as Prometheus, who brought fire to mankind and by doing so, he rebelled against gods. Byron invites Napoleon to be Prometheus: Or, like the thief of fire [Prometheus] from heaven, Wilt thou withstand the shock? And share with him, the unforgiven, His vulture and his rock! Foredoomed by God---by man accurst He compares Napoleon to historical and mythological heroes who were “as heroic in adversity as in triumph” (Clube) and mentioning Prometheus in relation with Napoleon he honours the fallen Emperor. In certain passages the mythological and historical Napoleons mingle as Byron claims that, unlike legendary Prometheus, Napoleon as a historical figure was fatally flawed. Byron exclaims that “he [Prometheus] in his fall preserv'd his pride,/ And if a mortal, had as proudly died!” According to T.S.Eliot, “Byron’s diabolism… was of a mixed type. He shared, to some extent, Shelley’s Promethean attitude, and the Romantic passion for liberty; and this passion …merges into a Satanic (Miltonic) attitude. The romantic conception of Milton’s Satan is semi-Promethean, and also contemplates Pride as a ‘virtue’…But I’ve come to find in him certain qualities, besides his abundance, 3

Napoleon stopped using this spelling after his first Italian campaign of 1796-1796, during which thought that this “Italian-sounding” surname would help him to attract Italians under his banner. British conservatives or orthodox Tories would use this version of Napoleon’s surname during his whole life in order to stress his “usurper” nature and also by stressing his Italian origin, they would point to the fact that Napoleon was outsider even in France (Clubbe).

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that are too uncommon in English poetry…absence of some vices that are too common…With his charlatanism, he has also an unusual frankness; with his humbug and self-deception he has also a reckless raffish honesty, he is at once a vulgar patrician and a dignified toss-pot; …he is genuinely superstitious and disreputable.” Byron’s Ode to Prometheus (1816) opens with a passionate address to the God, who alone took pity on mankind’s suffering. Byron is working very much in footsteps of Aeschylus, celebrating Prometheus’ tireless endurance of all that tyrannical forces of Zeus can dish out as well as his refusal to give in to ‘the ruling principle of Hate’. For Byron, Prometheus’ crime was to be kind to try to lessen the suffering of mankind. These are Promethean qualities of resistance and endurance that Byron holds up as a ‘symbol and a sign for mankind.’ Byron looked to ‘Prometheus’ as a symbol of heroic individualism at odds with tyrannical powers both human and divine. It serves a starting point for his own use of the myth to explore the political events of his day. In fact, most of Byron’s rebels are Promethean; they risk all for forbidden knowledge and inspiration, freedom or power. Like Goethe, Byron invokes Prometheus’ creative powers as a model for the powers and the sufferings of the poet who aims at eternal fame. For Byron, Prometheus’ punishment at the claws of the eagle offered an extreme example of his own suffering as a poet at the hands of the unappreciative public.4 For Byron, Prometheus embodies the essence of the human experience- doomed to ‘his own funeral destiny’ yet possessed of a “spirit of defiance” that is equal to all suffering. Byron’s Prometheus offers no alternative to the suffering and endurance that marks the human experience. Instead, his story lends mythic stature to the necessary defiance against the terrible trinity of heaven, tyranny and fate, making in the end ‘Death a Victory’. Shelley and Byron looked to mythic figures as a way to think about man’s place in early 19th century political scene. They sympathized with the oppressed. Shelley’s “Prometheus Unbound” is more about imagining an escape from the institution of tyranny than a lament on its limitations. Prometheus is structured in three stanzas that are irregular, not following the same rhyme pattern and having an extension which varies from one to another. At the beginning, Prometheus is represented as one who is oppressed and defenceless, in the same way as Zeus. But at the end, the fact is that the power of inner strength of Prometheus as an individual surpasses and goes beyond any supernatural and apparently superior power of Zeus. “And in thy silence….trembled” This passage symbolizes the victory of the individual and his strong spirit over any kind of oppressor trying to reduce and silence him. His suffering can be compared to the ‘The Prisoner of Chillon” as both are victims of unfair justice systems, are in captivity and yet bear resounding testimony to determination and proud assertion of individualism. Romantic achievement of Byron is to re-interpret the story of Prometheus in his own way, which is of course inundated with Romanticism.

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“We can see now why Byron chose to compare himself to Prometheus, for that unhappy giant not only was crucified, but had a vulture tearing eternally at his flesh. Byron had several vultures with their beaks buried deep in his vitals; but the one which he felt most constantly, if not most painfully, was that haggard-eyed, sharp-clawed, tireless monster, a starvation diet.” (Gilbert Highet).

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Byron’s romanticism, it must be confessed, was only half sincere. At times, he would say that Pope’s poetry was better than his own, but this judgment, also, was probably only what he thought in certain moods… Like many other prominent men, he was more important as a myth than as he really was. As a myth, his importance, especially on the Continent, was enormous. Bibliography:• • •

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Chatwin Deryn, Methuen notes: Shelley’s Poetry, Methuen Paperbacks Ltd,1981, Great Britain, chp-3:Alastor,pg-9-17 Daiches David, A Critical Guide to English Literature,chp.22:The Romantic Poets II: Shelley, Keats, and Byron,pg-905-933 Ford Boris, From Blake to Byron –A Guide to English Literature,vol.-5,Penguin Books Ltd.,1962,Part Two: The Character of Literature from Blake to Byron:D.W.Harding, Conventional Society and Individual,pg-40-43 West Paul, Byron: Collection of Critical Essays,Prentice Hall,Inc., Englewood Cliffs,N.J.,1963,Introduction-Paul West,pg-1-114 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=1fHVdkBfmXMC&pg=PR15&lpg=PR15&dq=alastor+poem+i ndividualism&source=bl&ots=x4JLTb9dBI&sig=EfbJN6EiuYhdoGls6JnWTKIlfiw&hl=en&sa=X&ei= HhcRUdyWN4bUrQfTvIDoBA&sqi=2&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=alastor%20poem%20i ndividualism&f=false http://writinghood.com/online-writing/themes-in-the-romantic-era/ http://books.google.co.in/books?id=BPxxSkVMSoC&pg=PA97&dq=individualism+in+byron's+prometheus&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eM0TUf3tCcbKrA eB0oHwBg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=individualism%20in%20byron's%20prometheu s&f=false-Byron http://mural.uv.es/visacris/prometheus.htm http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/rom.html http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZtSF3PrMtNoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+cambridge+c ompanion+to+byron&hl=en&sa=X&ei=GXcSUZyRK8uOrge314CQBw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA

Bertrand Russell

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