Page numbers in bold refer to figures and tables. Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), 161, 165, 169 Aceh Besar (district), 4, 33, 37, 49, 65, 68, 72, 73, 76, 82, 86, 108, 109, 117 see also Saree Aceh, Indonesia, 3–4, 33–58 ethnic groups, 33, 35 government, 44, 199, 208 history of, 37–42 map of, 34 name, 37, 207 population of, 34 regions, 33–5, 37 secessionist conflict, 42–52 social groups, 48–58, 52 Aceh Tenggara (district), 102, 122 see also Tapak Tuan adat (tradition), 53, 82, 85, 120, 121, 213 council, 54, 63 agency, 3, 6, 10, 13, 25, 26, 110, 188, 191–4, 200–2 Alas, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41–2, 49, 51, 57, 58, 67, 108 ARMM (Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao), 164–5, 166, 167, 185, 200 Aspinall, Edward, 43, 46, 63, 68, 70, 75, 80, 89, 93, 97, 107, 114, 195, 202, 224

bakwit (evacuees), 170, 185, 188 Banda Aceh, 4, 33, 36, 39, 47, 49, 60, 64, 106, 109, 112 Bantay Ceasefire, 186–7 barangay chairman, 167, 171–2, 176, 184–5, 189, 199, 211 barangay (Philippine village government), 167–70, 181 Batak, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 122 Bireuen (Aceh), 4, 49, 60, 69, 77, 78, 79, 80, 83 Bowen, John, 33, 36, 208 BRN (Barisan Revolusi Nasional, National Revolutionary Front), 130, 131, 145 Buddhism, 135, 143, 201 sangha, 134–5, 168 wats (temples), 135, 143, 201 bupati (Indonesian district chief), 53, 63, 72, 121 camat (Indonesian subdistrict chief), 53, 54, 63, 64, 70, 71, 72, 121–2, 208, 210, 211 capacity, 8, 29, 31, 132–3, 155–6, 192, 198–200 rebel groups, 3, 12, 19, 46–7, 140, 145, 165–6 state, 7, 17, 54, 87, 159, 166, 189, 195, 198

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Catholic Church (in Mindanao), 168, 172, 173, 178, 180, 185 Central Aceh (district), 36, 50–1, 60–2, 66–8, 73, 81 see also Takengon Cessation of Hostilities Agreement (CoHA), 47, 183 chief. See barangay chairman in Mindanao; keucik in Aceh; Phuyaiban in Patani civil society, 12, 21, 23–4, 193 in Aceh, 4, 46, 51, 52, 56–7, 58, 77–9, 86–9, 95, 113, 124, 195 in Maguindanao, 169, 178–9, 181, 186 in Patani, 135, 136, 144, 149 see also NGOs civil war, 1, 2, 9, 11, 21, 26, 28, 103, 191, 195, 196, 206 civilians, 1 ability to shape armed conflicts, 200–2 definition of, 9–10 explanations for wartime behavior, 25–32, 26 as independent variables, 12, 191–2 strategies in war, 14, 59, 191–2, 195, 203–4 types of, x, 2–3 see also flight; support; voice clan violence. See rido collaboration. See support colonialism, 38–42, 53, 58, 106, 161–3, 219 combatant control. See zones of control combined strategies, 2, 16, 24–5, 65, 89–90, 156, 181, 188, 193–4, 201–2 in Aceh, 89–90 in Mindanao, 188–9 in Patani, 149, 156–7 conflict migration. See flight contested zones, 4–5, 31, 193, 205 in Aceh, 65, 68, 73–4, 86, 101–4, 108, 111, 118, 123–5, 204

in Mindanao, 196 in Patani, 140, 152, 156–7 conviction (as an explanation for civilian strategy), 3, 7, 26–32 as an explanation for flight, 99 as an explanation for support, 109–14, 147–8, 180, 198 as an explanation for voice, 124–5, 155, 187–8, 198 positive and negative, 3, 30, 110, 187 Cotabato (Mindanao), 5, 159, 161, 162, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 183, 185 Cotabato massacre, 166 courts, 23, 55, 75, 177, 185 cultural norms. See socio-cultural norms Cumbok War (Aceh), 39 Cut Nyak Dien, 1 Darul Islam, 39, 41, 44, 45, 55, 69, 72, 106, 108–9, 119, 120, 203, 208, 210, 216 datu (traditional leader), 133, 166–7, 168, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 189, 199, 201, 218, 219 Daud Beureueh, 38, 42, 44, 45, 55, 107, 108, 109, 208 defiance (voice), 20–1, 25, 31, 78–9, 81, 87–9, 103, 115, 118, 148–9, 181–3, 193, 199 democracy, 87, 90, 113, 129, 143–4 displacement. See flight East Timor, 46, 59, 95, 102 economic approaches to civil war, 3, 26 economic explanations for civilian behaviour, 26–32 as an explanation for flight, 95, 97, 139, 173, 197 as an explanation for support, 103–5, 147, 179, 197–8 as an explanation for voice, 117–18, 155, 187, 198

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elections, 48, 49, 53, 107, 133, 143, 148, 151, 187, 199, 216 engagement (voice), 20, 22–4, 31, 79–81, 82–6, 88, 116–19, 122, 152–5, 182, 184–7, 193 evacuation, 60, 64, 169–73, 181, 185, 188, 192, 194, 195–6, 198, 219 see also bakwit everyday resistance, 20, 21–2, 31, 78–9, 81, 87, 89, 115, 117–18, 148–9, 156, 184, 187, 198, 204 exit. See flight feedback. See engagement flight, 2, 3, 14–17, 192 in Aceh, 59–65, 93–100, 208–9 combined with support, 16, 24, 89, 188, 194 combined with voice, 24, 65, 89–90, 188, 194 explanations for, 27–8, 93–100, 139–40, 172–3, 197 in Mindanao, 168–73 in Patani, 136–40 types of, 16–17 framing, 10, 25, 82, 188, 193 Free Aceh Movement. See GAM GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, Free Aceh Movement), 1, 42, 44–52, 61 civilian support, 65, 68–70, 74–6, 100–15 criminal ties, 45–6, 48, 49 expansion, 46 ideology, 44–5, 110–11 organization, 46–7 origins, 44 recruitment, 75 tolerance of voice, 80–1 violence against Javanese, 51–2, 61–2, 95, 112 Gayo (Aceh), 33, 35, 36, 41–2, 49, 50–1, 57–8, 109, 208 flight, 61

support, 66–7, 73, 108 voice, 117 geography, 3, 16, 78, 136, 156, 159, 169, 174, 192 Golkar, 49, 57, 66, 72, 73, 112, 208 Greed. See economic explanations for civilian behaviour grievances, 3, 17, 23, 26–7, 30–1, 114, 125–6, 153, 162, 187, 109, 205 economic, 42, 117–18, 131–2 human rights, 110–11, 132, 179 Hashim, Salamat (MILF Commander), 164, 166, 177 Helsinki Agreement, 47, 48 Hirschman, Alberto O., 14, 20, 22, 24, 89, 99, 192, 207 Holy War, 38, 75, 216 human rights, 11, 21, 27, 31, 46–8, 57, 79, 87, 88, 99, 103, 111–13, 132, 189, 191, 202 human security, 11, 191 Humanitarianism, 10–11, 169, 191, 204–5 Hurgronje, Snoucke, 120 IDP (internally displaced person), 15, 51, 59–63, 94–5, 169–73, 192, 207, 208 Ilagas. See militias imeum mukim, 52–4, 57, 63, 72, 85, 121, 211 inaction, 156–7, 203–4. See also neutrality Indonesia, 1, 3, 4, 6, 35, 44–8, 66, 68, 76, 87, 111, 117, 155, 156, 194, 202, 214 government, 50, 53, 54, 56, 63, 72–3, 76–7, 79, 80, 82, 95, 100, 110, 112–13 history, 38–9, 41 state capacity, 56, 199–200 see also TNI informants, 67, 84, 85, 100, 103–4, 106, 146, 176 Inong Balee, 70, 76, 107

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242   l   Index

Jabidah Massacre, 163 Jafar Siddiq Hamzah, 65 Japan, 39, 45, 208 Javanese, 122, 216 in Aceh, 4, 33, 37, 41–2, 51, 58, 83, 86, 89, 207 flight, 62–3, 64, 95, 98, 99 support, 67–8 kabupaten (Indonesian district), 4, 33, 46–7, 48–50, 53, 73 Kalyvas, Stathis, 11, 17, 26, 28–9, 31, 100, 103 control hypothesis, 4, 7, 65, 76, 78, 114, 196 kamnan (Thailand sub-district chief), 133, 152–3 kancil (mouse deer), 107, 119, 215 keadilan (social justice), 109, 123, 124, 217 kecamatan (Indonesian subdistrict), 47, 53, 63, 72, 167 Kelantan (Malaysia), 127, 132, 136–9 kepala desa (village head), 53, 58, 122 keucik (Aceh village head), 52, 53, 55, 57, 197, 200 as diplomats, 82–3 flight, 63–4, 95, 97, 98 as lawyers, 83–6 responsibilities, 53, 120, 198, 216 support, 70–2, 101–2, 108, 112 voice, 81–6, 116–17, 119–22 KPA (Komite Peralihan Aceh, Aceh Transition Committee), 48, 75 Kutacane (Aceh), 4, 49, 64 see also South Aceh

loyalty. See support Lumad (Philippines), 161, 166–8, 170, 171, 173, 175, 179–81, 186, 192 madrasah, 55, 75, 135 Maguindanao, 3–5 ethnic group, 161, 167, 173, 180 region, 3–4, 161, 200 Majelis, 55, 73, 75, 105, 134, 142–3, 151, 153, 177, 185, 211 Malay (ethnic group), 38, 120, 122, 167 in Aceh, 33, 35–7, 40–2, 50, 53, 57, 61–2, 94–5, 96–7, 106, 108, 211 in Patani, 127, 129–57 Malaysia, 4, 5, 45, 60–1, 68, 81, 89–90, 94, 96–9, 127, 129, 130, 136–9, 150, 159, 163, 164, 169, 172, 192, 194, 197 see also Kelantan maratabat (pride), 186 Marcos, Ferdinand, 163–4, 168, 174, 177, 184 McCargo, Duncan, 132, 134, 140, 143, 149–50, 151, 216 McKenna, Thomas, 170–1, 173, 174, 177–9, 184 mediation. See engagement merantau, 98 meunasah, 55–6, 98, 107 MILF (Moro Islamic Liberation Front), 161, 164, 165–6, 167, 169, 171, 172, 174–89, 201 militias, 18, 24, 192 in Aceh, 66–7, 68, 76, 102, 105, 112 in Mindanao, 163, 164, 166, 170, 172, 174, 175–6, 182 in Patani, 133, 134, 141, 146, 152–3, 155 Mindanao, Philippines, 3–4, 7, 8, 159–89, 199 history, 161–6 map of, 160

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Irwandi Yusuf, 48 Iskandar Muda, 37–8, 40, 53 Islam education, 54–5, 57, 129, 134–5, 142, 148, 151–2 leaders. See tok guru in Patani; ulama in Aceh; ustadz in Mindanao see also Majelis; Sharia Law

regions, 159 secessionism in, 163–6 society in, 166–9 see also Maguindanao Misuari, Nur (MNLF Commander), 163–5, 177 MNLF (Moro National Liberation Front), 161, 164–5, 174–80, 184, 199, 200 Moro, 159, 167, 171 MoU (Memorandum of Understanding). See Helsinki Agreement Muhammadiyah, 41, 57, 211 mukim, 38, 53, 72 see also imeum mukim Narathiwat (Thailand), 127, 137, 143–6, 149, 150 negotiations, 23, 80–5, 116, 123, 175, 182–5, 193, 200 neutrality, 13, 20–5, 193, 203–5 in Aceh, 70–2, 73, 77, 81–8, 101–2, 103, 104, 108–9, 111–12, 116, 122–3 in Mindanao, 174, 175, 178–80, 181, 183 in Patani, 141, 142, 143, 146, 147, 152–3, 155–6 see also contested zones new notables, 193, 202 in Aceh, 52, 56–7 flight, 64–5, 95, 97 support, 76–8, 103 voice, 87–9, 124 in Mindanao, 168–9, 172, 178–80, 189 in Patani, 135–6, 138–9, 146, 154–5 see also civil society New Order, 39, 44, 47, 49, 51, 55–6, 66, 72, 77, 105, 109, 119, 199 economic development, 42–3, 49, 51, 66 human rights abuses, 44, 46–8, 132

NGO (nongovernmental organization), 4, 21, 31, 193, 205 in Aceh, 50, 53, 56–7, 62, 65, 77, 87–8, 90, 95, 97, 113, 116–17, 195 in Mindanao, 169, 172–3, 178–9, 181–2, 184, 185–7, 205 in Patani, 135–6, 144 noncombatant. See civilian North Sumatra, 1, 4, 5, 35, 36, 39, 41, 65, 98 Javanese IDPs, 51, 59, 62–3, 67, 90, 99, 192 village leaders, 122 oil. See petroleum orang baik (good men), 134, 138, 155 orang biasa (common folk), 5–6, 21, 24, 193, 196 in Aceh, 52, 54, 60, 61, 67, 68–9, 70, 78–9, 81, 89, 93–4, 99, 101, 104, 106, 115, 118–19 in Mindanao, 166–7, 169, 171, 172, 174–5, 179, 184, 185, 188, 192 in Patani, 135, 136, 139, 140, 143–4, 146, 147, 148–50, 199 ordinary civilians. See orang biasa Panglima GAM Commanders, 47, 49, 68, 69, 70, 72, 80, 83, 101, 104, 111, 117, 123 historical, 38, 40 paramilitary groups. See militias Partai Aceh (Aceh Party), 48–9 Patani, Thailand, 3–4, 7, 8, 127–57, 199 definition of, 127 history, 129–31, 136 map of, 128 regions, 127 secessionism in, 130–3 society in, 133–6 Peace Studies, 12–13, 191 peace zones. See zones of peace Pepper Coast (Aceh), 40–1

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petroleum, 43–4, 164 Peusijuek, 123–4 peutuha seunubok (garden councils), 53 Philippines, 5, 21, 159–89 Phuyaiban (Thailand village chief), 134, 137–8, 141–2, 152, 154, 155 pondok, 129, 134–5, 142, 148, 151, 152, 154 profit. See economic explanations for civilian behaviour PULO (Patani United Liberation Organization), 130–1, 145 PUSA (Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh), 39, 43, 55 qadi (judge), 55, 74–5, 105, 134, 142, 201 rebel government, 23, 72 refugee, 15–16, 61, 94, 96, 136, 137, 169, 173, 194, 205 Reid, Anthony, 35, 36, 38, 234 rido, 167, 186–7 Saree (Aceh village), 4–5, 63, 83, 87, 101, 116, 125 see also Aceh Besar Scott, James C., 14, 20, 22, 25, 31, 97, 118, 152, 235 secession, 3–4, 21, 45, 127 in Aceh, 42–52 in Mindanao, 163–5 in Patani, 130–1 security (as an explanation for civilian strategy), 3, 26–32 as an explanation for flight, 93–5, 139, 172–3, 197 as an explanation for support, 100–3, 147, 179, 197 as an explanation for voice, 115–17, 155, 187, 198 Sharia Law in Aceh, 39, 47, 48, 55, 75, 90, 201 in Mindanao, 182

Siegel, James T., 37, 38, 52–3, 56, 98, 208, 235 socio-cultural norms (as an explanation for civilian strategy), 3, 7, 26–32 as an explanation for flight, 97–9, 139, 173, 197 as an explanation for support, 105–9, 147, 179–80, 198 as an explanation for voice, 118–24, 155, 187, 198 sociological approaches to civil war, 26, 195–7 South Aceh (district), 1, 49, 50, 61–3, 67, 68, 73, 74, 84, 89, 94, 96, 121, 122. See also Kutacane Suharto, 39, 42–3, 46, 49, 56, 58, 74, 86, 87, 113, 214 Sukarno, 45, 51, 106 Sulu (Mindanao), 159, 160, 161–4, 167, 168, 169 support, 2, 3, 17–19, 192–3 in Aceh, 65–78, 100–15 combined with flight, 16, 24, 89, 188, 194 combined with voice, 24, 90, 149, 188–9, 194, 201–2 differences between rebel and state, 105 explanations for, 28–30, 100–15, 147–8, 179–80, 197–8 for GAM, 68–70, 74–6, 77–8, 101–15 for Indonesia, 65–8, 72–3, 77, 101–15 in Mindanao, 173–80 in Patani, 132, 140–8 types of, 18, 192 voluntary and involuntary, 18, 25, 30, 69, 102–3, 105, 203–4 Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY), 47, 48 Tak Bai massacre, 150 Takengon, 42, 49 see also Central Aceh

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tambon (Thailand subdistrict), 133 Tapak Tuan, 1, 4, 36, 41, 62, 94 see also Aceh Tenggara terrorism (in Patani), 11–12, 129, 131, 140, 145, 148 Thailand, 5–6, 65, 127–57 Thaksin Shinawatra, 131, 132, 134, 153, 216 Tiro, Hasan di, 44–51, 72, 81, 106–7, 208 TNI (Tentara Nasional Indonesia), 1, 43, 46–7, 51, 60, 68, 69, 71, 74, 78–81, 86–90, 94, 103, 108, 111, 115, 117, 124, 201, 202 tokguru, 135, 138, 142, 148 transmigration, 4, 7, 37, 41, 51, 129–30, 132, 161, 162, 163, 165, 170 tsunami, 42, 47, 50, 76 ulama (Islamic teachers), 38–9, 45, 52, 55–6, 90, 197, 201–2 career and teaching, 72, 105 flight (Aceh), 64, 95, 97, 98 in Mindanao, 168, 172, 177–8, 184 in Patani, 135, 142 support (Aceh), 72–6, 102–3, 105, 109, 112–13 traditional and modern, 55, 123 voice (Aceh), 83, 86–7, 116, 118, 123–4, 125 zuama, 39, 55 ulee sagoe (GAM representative), 69, 77, 80, 84 uleebalang, 38–9, 41, 49, 52, 53, 56, 57 United Nations, 61, 78, 97, 148, 207 universities, 51, 56, 77, 87, 88, 136, 168–9, 178 ustadz, 55, 172

victims, ix, 2, 5, 6, 15, 17, 42, 57, 58, 62, 111, 123, 163, 191, 194 village chief. See barangay chairman in Mindanao; keucik in Aceh; Phuyaiban in Patani voice, 2, 3, 19, 193, 205–6 in Aceh, 78–89 combined with flight, 24, 65, 89–90, 188, 194 combined with support, 24, 90, 188–9, 194, 201–2 definition of, 20 distinctions from support, 150 explanations for, 30–2, 115–25, 198 in Mindanao, 180–8 in Patani, 148–56 types of, 20 women, 10, 16, 19, 22, 54, 98, 192, 193, 205, 214 flight (Aceh), 60–2, 95, 98, 207 in Mindanao, 167, 175 in Patani, 135, 137, 139, 144, 151 support (Aceh), 68–70, 101, 106–7, 197, 214 voice (Aceh), 57, 78, 80, 86, 88, 116, 119, 198 Wood, Elizabeth, 22, 23, 30, 100, 110 zones of control, ix, 4, 7, 29, 100, 103, 192, 195–7 in Aceh, 48–9, 65–6, 71, 72, 76, 77, 78, 100, 103, 106, 109, 114, 120–1, 124, 140 in Mindanao, 174 in Patani, 140–1, 147, 156 zones of peace, 21, 181–4, 187–8, 193, 198, 203

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