INCLUSIVE GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON INCLUSION: A QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY

A Thesis

Presented to the faculty of the Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, School Psychology, and Deaf Studies California State University, Sacramento

Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS in Education (Special Education) by Katherine Victoria Flores

SUMMER 2012

INCLUSIVE GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON INCLUSION: A QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY

A Thesis by Katherine Victoria Flores

Approved by: ______________________________, Committee Chair Dr. Kathleen Gee ______________________________, Second Reader Dr. Jean Gonsier-Gerdin

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Student: Katherine Victoria Flores

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis.

_______________________________, Graduate Coordinator Dr. Bruce Ostertag

__________________ Date

Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, School Psychology, and Deaf Studies

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Abstract of INCLUSIVE GENERAL EDUCATION TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON INCLUSION: A QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY by Katherine Victoria Flores The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics and behaviors of inclusive general education elementary teachers who were including a student with significant disabilities in their classes. In-person interviews of the three general education elementary school teachers were conducted and transcribed. In addition, the author observed the teachers at least seven different days throughout the spring semester and collected artifacts as well. All data compiled were analyzed using categorical coding procedures to identify themes related to the teachers’ attitudes. The themes that emerged included: a strong sense of classroom community, giving choices, utilizing engaging activities, having high academic expectations for all students, the teacher’s personal experience with people with disabilities, intentional teaching methods, collaboration between the general education teacher and the special education teacher, and the relationship between the paraeducator and the general education teacher. _____________________________________, Committee Chair Dr. Kathleen Gee _________________________________ Date iv

DEDICATION This is dedicated to my parents who knew from the start that I could do this. I would also like to dedicate this to Dr. Gee who believed in me. And to the three participant teachers, who I aspire to be like when I grow up, thank you for all your help and support.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Dedication ............................................................................................................................v List of Figures ................................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................1 Background of the Problem .................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem .....................................................................................3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................4 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................4 Definitions of Terms ............................................................................................6 Assumptions.........................................................................................................8 Justification ..........................................................................................................8 Limitations ...........................................................................................................9 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................................................10 Introduction ..........................................................................................................10 Inclusion of Students with Severe Disabilities in General Education Classes....10 Support Systems...................................................................................................11 Collaboration........................................................................................................13 In-service Training ...............................................................................................17 Preservice Training ..............................................................................................20

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Experience with Supported Inclusion ..................................................................23 International Perspective ......................................................................................27 Summary ..............................................................................................................28 3. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................29 Setting and Participants........................................................................................29 Procedure and Data Collection ............................................................................31 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................32 4. RESULTS ....................................................................................................................34 Findings................................................................................................................34 5. DISCUSSION ..............................................................................................................94 Impact of the Study ..............................................................................................94 Implications Towards Practice .............................................................................95 Limitations ...........................................................................................................96 Future Research ...................................................................................................97 Conclusions ..........................................................................................................97 Appendix A Copies of Participant Consent Forms ..........................................................101 Appendix B Semi-Structured Interview Questions..........................................................104 Appendix C Definitions for Coding .................................................................................110 References ........................................................................................................................113

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LIST OF FIGURES Figures

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1

Example of a Morning Meeting Message ...........................................................37

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Student Journal Examples ....................................................................................39

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T1 Textbook References ......................................................................................73

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1 Chapter 1 Introduction Background of the Problem With the first passing of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, a greater emphasis on educating students with multiple and severe disabilities in general education classrooms was placed on the public school education system. Researchers who examined the increase in inclusive education programs found that between 1989 and 2000, the proportion of students who were labeled as “mentally retarded” (the current term is “intellectual disability”) and taught in general education classes for at least part of the day grew from 27% to 45%, and the proportion of students with intellectual disabilities placed in separate facilities decreased tremendously (Williamson, McLesky, Hoppey,& Rentz, 2006). In 2005, 69% of California students with an intellectual disability (formerly labeled as mental retardation) spent the majority of their school day outside the general education classroom (United States Department of Education, 2007). While the concepts of inclusive education have been around for a long time, many students were still not afforded the opportunity to learn in a general education setting alongside their nondisabled peers. This could be due to many factors including administrators’ attitudes and general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion (Kugelmass, 2001). Many general education teachers who teach in inclusive public schools have become one of the primary educators of students with significant disabilities. The attitudes of the general

2 education teachers, therefore, may affect the success of the inclusion program (Burke & Sutherland, 2004). According to Werts, Wolery, Snyder, & Caldwell (1996), the most critical factor for successful inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms was sufficient training of the general education teacher. Their research indicated that a central aspect of the attitudes that general education teachers have toward inclusive education was the amount of training they had received on how to implement inclusion successfully within their classrooms. Understanding what inclusion may look like and what methods it might include was a critical feature of meeting the needs of all students. Other research indicated that a major factor in the success of the policy of inclusion was the effectiveness of the collaboration between general and special educators (Hunt, Soto, Maierm & Doering, 2003; Hwang & Evans, 2010). With positive experiences, general education teachers may develop more positive attitudes toward inclusion of students with disabilities in their classrooms. In one study, the perceptions of the general education teachers increased in positivity over the course of three years because of the experiences they gained working collaboratively in inclusive general education classrooms (LeRoy & Simpson, 1996). Without the understanding or knowledge of how inclusion can work, many general education teachers have been unsure, apprehensive, or even unsupportive of including students with severe disabilities at first (Janney, Snell, Beers, & Raynes, 1995; Soodak, Podell, & Lehman, 1998). There is a need for more in-depth research of successful general educators who are implementing inclusive education.

3 This study examined what factors made three inclusive general education teachers successful at including students with significant disabilities in their classrooms. Statement of the Problem It was expected that an inclusive general education teacher would ensure that all students felt a sense of belonging in the classroom and had a means to participate at all times. From previous research, it was known that inclusive general education teachers tended to value the input of all students, both with and without disabilities and provided necessary supports to meet all students’ needs (Janney, Snell, Beers, & Raynes, 1995). However, it was unclear as to what specific characteristics and behaviors of general education teachers created an inclusive classroom. Previous research had also shown that general educators did not always have positive views of including students with disabilities in their classes (Carter & Hughes, 2006). A number of studies also showed that general education teachers had concerns about including students with significant disabilities (Lohrmann & Bambara, 2006) and that general educators without adequate resources thought there were barriers to inclusion (Downing, Eichinger, & Williams, 1997). The research to date had not fully captured the phenomenon of what “makes” an inclusive general education teachers. In other words, what are the traits, internal values, practices, and ideas of general education teachers who are thought to be successful with a wide heterogeneous range of students in their class? This study examined three teachers in similar contexts who have been identified for their successful inclusive teaching skills.

4 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the qualities of three successful inclusive general education teachers. A case study approach was used to identify the behaviors and philosophies that lead to success. A collective case study method was used to describe and compare the perceptions and practices of three different general education teachers that had been identified by their special education teacher colleagues as successful (Stake, 1995). This study examined what the general education teachers did to ensure success for all students in their class. The following questions were examined in this study: What teacher behaviors enhanced students with significant disabilities’ membership in a general education classroom? How are general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education formed? What are the philosophies that general education teachers have towards inclusion? It was proposed that through field observations, interviews, and artifacts, the researcher would gain a deeper understanding of how general education teachers who were inclusive in nature can be models for other general education teachers who are unsure about inclusive education. Theoretical Framework Inclusive education for students with severe disabilities is not a new concept. Previous research has shown that students with significant disabilities make positive

5 gains academically and socially when they are taught in inclusive general education classrooms (Downing, 2008; Hunt & Goetz, 1997). Inclusive classrooms enable all students to be valued members of the classroom community no matter what their abilities are. An inclusive classroom community can be described as an environment in which all students participate in meaningful activities while forming relationships with their peers (Gee, 2010). General education classrooms designed to accommodate a wide range of students provide “communication-rich” activities, in addition to giving students with and without disabilities access to the core curriculum (Downing, 2008). Researchers in the field of education of students with severe disabilities have identified the following factors as indicators of success for students with significant disabilities in inclusive classrooms: an increase in their social and communication skills, meaningful instruction related to the general education curriculum, full participation in classroom activities, and active and informed learning (Gaylord-Ross & Peck, 1998; Gee, 1995; Soukup, Wehmeyer, Bashinski, & Bovaird, 2007). In other words, inclusive education has had many benefits for students with significant disabilities. However, simply putting a student in a general education, even with appropriate supports to meet his or her needs, did not guarantee success for the student. Previous research has shown that the general education teacher’s attitude towards inclusion played an important role in how students with significant disabilities were accepted by their peers and by their teachers within the classroom (Burke & Sutherland, 2004). An in-depth examination of the general education teachers’ role in inclusive classrooms was a central aspect to what makes inclusion successful or not (Lohrmann & Bambara, 2006).

6 Good & Brophy (1972) conducted extensive research to examine how teachers’ attitudes affected their behavior in the classroom. Results of this study found that the teachers’ attitudes towards children correlated with their treatment of the students in their practices. Namely, teachers identified their feelings of attachment, rejection, concern, and indifference. This research showed how teachers’ attitude can influence their practice. The current study consisted of a qualitative collective case study design. This type of ethnography allowed for an in-depth analysis of an issue in which there were multiple “cases” or individuals who participated in exploring the issue (Stake, 1995). The three participants provided insight into what made a successful inclusive general education teacher. Through the collection of in-person interviews, artifacts, and classroom observations, the researcher gathered all the data from the three different general education teachers and coded the data to determine commonalties and themes among all the participants. The original case study method of inquiry was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) who created a means to study individuals with an in-depth perspective on their ways of life. Definitions of Terms Inclusive education. Inclusive education has been defined as “a value-based practice that attempts to bring students including those with disabilities into full membership within their local school community” (Udvari-Solner, 1996, p.101).

7 General education teacher. A general education teacher is a teacher with a multiple subject credential who teaches in a general kindergarten through eighth grade public school classroom. Qualitative research. Qualitative research is a paradigm in which the researcher examines a problem in which the variables that contribute to the problem are unknown (Creswell, 2012). The researcher begins with an open-ended approach to answer a question and gradually identifies the themes and constructs that will explain the phenomenon. Case study ethnography. A case study ethnography is a type of qualitative research that allows the researcher to describe, analyze and interpret a culture-sharing group’s pattern of behavior, beliefs, or language over a period of time (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). A case study is a kind of ethnographic research and specifies that the research will focus on a “case” or a few individuals instead of an entire cultural group (LeCompete & Schensul, 1999). Case studies utilize an in-depth exploration of a bounded system based on many different types of data collection (Stake, 1995). Inclusive classroom. An inclusive classroom refers to a general education classroom in which students with significant disabilities are taught alongside their non-disabled peers for the majority of or the entire school day and meaningfully participate in classroom activities. All students, both with and without disabilities, are important and valued members of the class in an inclusive classroom.

8 Students with significant disabilities. Students with significant disabilities are individuals who have physical, intellectual, and/or multiple disabilities that seriously affect their learning. Students with significant disabilities often require adaptations and modifications in order to participate in the curriculum. Assumptions For the purpose of this study, all participants chose to participate, gave information voluntarily, and were currently teaching in an inclusive classroom setting. The statements from participant interviews were reviewed by the participants in order to ensure accurate information gathering by the researcher. The researcher was a participant observer who gathered fieldnotes in addition to in-depth interviews. The researcher used coding to interpret the fieldnotes and texts of interviews as the data were collected. By doing in-depth interviews, taking observational field notes, and collecting artifacts, common characteristics and teacher behaviors were identified. Justification This study sought to identify the crucial elements of teacher behaviors and teaching philosophy that created successful inclusive programs for students with significant disabilities. While the general education teacher was only one part of the educational team, which included speech, physical, and occupational therapists, parents, the special education teacher, the school psychologist, and administrators, it was generally accepted that the general education teacher was an important part of the team (Janney, Snell, Beers, & Raynes, 1995). It was well documented that to meet the needs

9 of students with significant disabilities in inclusive programs, collaboration among these individuals was necessary (Downing, 2008; Orelove, Sobsey & Silberman, 2004; Rainforth & York-Barr, 1997). While the skills of the special educator as well as the rest of the team members may be crucial aspects of successful inclusion, this study focused solely on one aspect—the general educators Limitations This study had multiple limitations because of its nature as a case study. The small sample size and the fact that the general education teachers teach at only two different schools made the results of this study limited. In addition, the amount of time to conduct the interviews and collect the data was also limited to one semester. It was essential to note; however, that the sampling was appropriate to the qualitative design, as collective case studies include a small number of participants. The researcher, as a participant observer, was another limitation to this study because it may have caused the researcher to develop some bias throughout the research because of the in-depth amount of time and presence maintained in the study.

10 Chapter 2 Review of Literature Introduction Inclusive education has been defined as “a value-based practice that attempts to bring students including those with disabilities into full membership within their local school community” (Udvari-Solner, 1996, p.101). Some authors have indicated that the success of an inclusive education program depends on the attitudes of the teachers who work with students with disabilities daily in their classrooms (Burke & Sutherland, 2004). Since individuals’ attitudes towards policies affect their implementation of them, it may be that general education teachers’ attitudes influence the implementation of inclusion programs in their classrooms (Burke & Sutherland, 2004). This synthesis of research will focus on how the attitudes of general education teachers towards the inclusion of students with severe disabilities are formed, and what factors create positive views towards inclusive education for all students. Inclusion of Students with Severe Disabilities in General Education Classes Since the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was reauthorized in 2004, a push to include students with significant disabilities in general education classrooms as much as possible has ensued. When school programs work to create inclusive classrooms, the role of the general education teacher (for students with severe disabilities) becomes much more central. While the special education support teacher often takes the lead on adapting and modifying the curriculum for students with significant disabilities, the general education teacher creates the climate for an inclusive

11 education and a sense of belonging for students with significant disabilities. Research has indicated that the classroom teacher is the most important determinant of student learning (Darling-Hammond, 2000). Many authors have indicated that teachers’ beliefs in inclusive education affected their commitment to implementing it (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002). Support Systems General education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion may differ based on the supports and barriers they feel have been enhancing or hindering successful inclusive practices. In a qualitative study by Lohrmann & Bambara (2006), 14 general education elementary school teachers described their attitudes and perceptions of including students with significant cognitive disabilities who engage in challenging behaviors in their general education classrooms. The results of this study indicated that general education teachers need sufficient supports in place (e.g. positive behavior support plans and support personnel) in order to successfully include students. In addition, the general education teachers’ confidence in teaching students with severe disabilities who engage in challenging behavior in their classrooms increased as a result of ongoing collaboration with the special education teachers (Lohrmann & Bambara, 2006). This study showed that the more success the general education teachers experienced, the more they were able to “buy into” the vision of creating a truly inclusive classroom environment for all students. However, while this study indicated progress in creating collaborative partnerships between general and special educators, the inclusive vision of the general educators had conditions. Namely, 13 out of the 14 general education teachers who

12 participated in this study came up with a scenario in which a student with extremely challenging behavior who put peers at risk should not be included in a general education classroom (Lohrmann & Bambara, 2006). Downing, Eichinger, and Williams (1997) interviewed 9 general education teachers, 9 special education teachers, and 9 principals to gain insight on their views of including students with severe disabilities in general education classes. The results of this study showed that most participants had a positive view of inclusion of students with severe disabilities, although they indicated that negative attitudes of some general education teachers was based on the financial resources and barriers to implementing successful inclusive practices. When not given the support they needed to meet the needs of all students, the general education teachers had less positive views of inclusion (Downing, Eichinger, and Williams, 1997). In addition, Coots, Bishop, & GrenotScheyer (1998) found that the general education teachers believed that the supports necessary to the successful inclusion of students with severe disabilities were: the belief that they were the decision makers, the practice of utilizing peer and aide support, and the ownership they took of the students with significant disabilities. When these supports were in place, general education teachers had more positive attitudes towards the inclusion of students with severe disabilities in their classes. The effectiveness of collaboration also influenced the belief systems and attitudes of inclusion (Coots et al., 1998).

13 Collaboration A considerable amount of research has been published on how collaboration has helped to shape general education teachers’ attitudes towards including students with severe disabilities in their classrooms (Carter & Hughes, 2006; Hunt, Soto, Maier & Doering, 2003; Hwang & Evans, 2010; Zindler, 2009). Effective collaboration practices in place with special educators can influence general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students with severe disabilities. At the same time, openness to inclusion and positive attitudes towards the policy of inclusion may yield more opportunities for successful collaboration. Research has shown that a major factor in the success of the policy of inclusion was the effectiveness of the collaboration between general and special educators (Hunt, Soto, Maier, & Doering, 2003; Hwang & Evans, 2010). Attitudes of the general education teachers were influenced by the willingness of the special education teachers to work in conjunction with and in support of the general education teachers. In another study by Carter & Hughes (2006), 36 general education high school teachers participated in a survey that examined the perceptions of inclusion of general education teachers, special education teachers, administrators, and paraprofessionals. The teachers rated the lack of collaboration time with the special education teachers as one of the most substantial barriers to successful inclusion. The other barriers to inclusion that were indicated by all participants included the lack of resources and personnel in the general education classrooms and the behavioral challenges exhibited by students with disabilities. In addition to indicating the barriers to inclusion, participants were asked to identify the benefits of inclusion. Across all groups

14 of participants, the most prominent benefit for students with disabilities was the opportunity to socially interact with classmates (Carter & Hughes, 2006). General education teachers who committed to creating an inclusive classroom by being an active participant in the students’ IEP teams were more successful in including students with disabilities. This was evident based on a qualitative one-year study conducted by Zindler (2009), a general education teacher in a public school in New York City. Using her classroom as a basis for facilitating friendships and promoting a community in which everyone despite their abilities belonged, she collaborated consistently with a special education teacher to ensure that her seven students with disabilities felt included in her second grade classroom. Results of this study showed how the students with disabilities became accepted members of the class with the ongoing collaboration between Zindler and her special education colleague (Zindler, 2009). Additional studies have shown that collaboration has been an indicator to the success of inclusion programs for students with moderate and severe disabilities (Jackson, Ryndak, & Billingsley, 2000; Wallace, Anderson, & Bartholomay, 2002). Villa, Thousand, Myers, and Nevin (1996) surveyed 578 inclusive general education teachers to determine their perceptions of the inclusion of students with moderate severe disabilities in their classrooms. The results of this study showed that general education teachers preferred inclusion programs with collaboration among the general and special educators more than pull-out programs. This study also supported the fact that

15 collaboration and co-teaching partnerships influenced the general education teachers’ attitudes (Villa et al., 1996). Berry (2011) attempted to examine experienced general education teachers’ perceptions of inclusion by interviewing 46 general education teachers in focus groups. The participants were divided by their experiences (early career and veteran), and the types of school districts in which they taught (rural, suburban, and urban). All focus groups were led by the researcher and were audio-taped. Participants in each focus group followed the same routine that included the completion of a written questionnaire, the creation of a list in response to a verbal prompt about suggestions for new teachers in inclusion classrooms, and a candid discussion about their written lists. Many teachers in this study listed ideas associated with creating a sense of an accepting classroom community (Berry, 2011). The veteran elementary teachers indicated that having a positive affect towards students with disabilities created a more inclusive classroom for students with disabilities as well as collaborating with colleagues. In a mixed methods design study which examined the collaborative practices at 4 inclusive high schools across the United States (Wallace et al., 2002), one of the themes that emerged was a sense of equality between general and special education teachers. The attitudes of the general education teachers towards including students with disabilities were based on the school-wide commitment to an inclusive culture as well as the notion that all teachers worked together for the benefit of all students (Wallace et al., 2002). The administrator at one of the high schools in the study made a commitment to building a culture of inclusion by setting the expectation that all teachers would be

16 responsible and take ownership of all students, including students with disabilities, and therefore general and special educators were given the time to collaborate on a regular basis. Another theme that emerged from this study was the commitment to collaborative school structures to support inclusion. This theme was derived from the components which supported collaboration among staff members. These components found at all the high schools to varying degrees included an inclusion initiative, block scheduling, and joint professional development opportunities between general and special educators. Kugelmass (2001) conducted another study in which administrators’ expectations influenced general education teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion. This study focused on how one school created a culture of inclusion by instilling a collaborative nature to all classes. The “our” kids approach instead of “your kids” versus “my kids” enabled the special education students to get what they needed in regard to supports within the general education classroom because of the collaborative practices of the teachers (Kugelmass, 2001). In a qualitative study by Smith and Leonard (2005), which examined the attitudes and perspectives of general education teachers, special education teachers, and principals at two newly inclusive elementary schools and two newly inclusive middle schools in Louisiana, the researchers used interviews, focus groups, participatory observations, and review of documents and records, to gain insight on the participants’ views towards inclusion. The participants included 7 special educators, 14 general educators, and 3 principals. The researchers found that only a small number of general education teachers saw the possibility of success for students with disabilities. They discovered that the

17 principals whose priorities included collaboration among general and special educators were able to foster positive attitudes towards inclusion (Smith & Leonard, 2005). By working for a principal who valued inclusion for students with disabilities through the collaboration among teachers, general education teachers developed positive attitudes towards inclusion (Smith & Leonard, 2005; Wallace et al., 2002). In-service Training Some authors have found that general education teachers’ attitudes often depended on the knowledge and information they had received about the benefits of and reasoning for inclusion of all students in a general education classroom. Buell, Hallam, Gamel-McCormick (1999) surveyed 202 general education teachers in order to examine the factors that support the inclusion of students with disabilities within the general education classroom. In this study, Buell et al. (1999) found that 78% of the general education teachers indicated that they needed, but did not have in-service training opportunities about inclusive education. In-service training could provide the general education teachers with the opportunity to learn why and how students with disabilities can and should be successfully included with their non-disabled peers in the general education classrooms. As previously explained above, Berry (2011) interviewed veteran and early career teachers from different environments to examine their perspectives of inclusion through interviews and focus groups. Additional results indicated that training on how to work with students with disabilities was also important in creating an inclusive classroom. When examining the advice veteran general education teachers provided to beginning

18 teachers about how to include students with disabilities within their classrooms, the 36 experienced general education teachers who participated in interviews shared specific supports which increased inclusiveness within the classroom including knowing the abilities and challenges of the child as well as being trained to work with students with disabilities (Berry, 2011). Cook (2001) surveyed 70 general education teachers to examine their attitudes towards students with disabilities in their classrooms. The general education teachers overwhelmingly indicated that they would be unable to discuss the progress or skills currently being worked on with the parents of students with severe disabilities. The author discussed how this result could be attributed to the fact that teachers may not know how to effectively teach and engage students with significant disabilities, and therefore, would feel unprepared to discuss the students’ progress with parents. One of the most compelling findings from this research, however, was the fact that given the choice between removing a students with mild disabilities or a student with severe disabilities from one’s class, the majority of general education teachers stated that they would rather have a student with mild disabilities be moved to another classroom rather than a student with severe disabilities (Cook, 2001). This showed that while the general education teachers were willing to work with students with significant disabilities in their classroom, they lacked the training necessary to successfully do so. Training may afford general education teachers the chance to dispel myths about the challenges of inclusion and ask questions about strategies and techniques that will encourage the inclusion of students with significant disabilities in all activities in their class.

19 Cook (2004) conducted a second study of general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion by surveying 46 inclusive elementary general education teachers and asking them to nominate three of their students in the categories of attachment, concern, indifference, and rejection. In the category of concern, teachers were asked to nominate students who they felt they could devote all their time to, if given the opportunity to do so. The chi-square analysis indicated that the teachers nominated students with mild disabilities significantly more than students with severe disabilities. The theory that Cook (2004) proposed was that teachers adjusted their expectations for students with severe disabilities and thus did not have a sense of accountability or concern about their academic or behavioral progress. The findings of this study indicated that general education teachers may not have been as closely involved with students with severe disabilities and needed training on how to meet the needs of students with severe disabilities and an understanding that they were responsible for the education of students with severe disabilities—not the paraprofessionals (Cook, 2004). When examining the amount of training necessary to change general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion, some authors indicated that it was essential to realize that attitudes change over time (Buell, et al., 1999; Cook, 2001). “One-time” trainings may not yield more positive attitudes towards inclusion; however, consistent training on how to successfully incorporate all students in the class into all lessons, in addition to specific adaptation and modification strategies, may create a shift in general education teachers’ perceptions of inclusion over time. It was suggested that perhaps general education teachers’ attitudes were influenced by a variety of factors associated

20 with teaching in an inclusive classroom. Werts, Wolery, Snyder, & Caldwell (1996) investigated general education teachers’ perceptions on the important supports and challenges in inclusive classrooms by surveying 129 general education elementary school teachers. The most critical factor, according to the researchers was sufficient training (Werts et al., 1996). In addition, general education teachers indicated that help from additional personnel in the classroom was also critical to the success of an inclusion program. In another study which surveyed 124 general education teachers, researchers found that in order for inclusion of all students to be successful, teachers must be provided with the necessary supports, time, and training to change their beliefs and attitudes towards acceptance of all students (Pearman, Huang, Barnhart, & Mellblom, 1992). Training, therefore, was one way to ensure that general education teachers understand how successful inclusion can work. However, while training can give general education teachers the information and knowledge about the policy of inclusion, it cannot guarantee that general education teachers will have positive attitudes towards the practice of implementing inclusive education (Buell, Hallam, Gamel-McCormick (1999); Cook, 2004; Werts, et al., 1996). Preservice Training In response to the challenges general education teachers face without sufficient training on inclusion, a number of preservice general education teaching programs have considered re-structuring their programs to ensure that future general education teachers receive the training and experience working with students with severe disabilities prior to

21 them becoming teachers (Cook, 2002; Shippen, Crites, Houchings, Ramsey, & Simon, 2005; VanLaarhoven, Munk, Lynch, Bosma, & Rouse, 2007). After interviewing preservice general education teachers about their attitudes towards including students with disabilities within their classrooms, Kirk (1998) found that the general education teachers did not feel adequately prepared to teach students with disabilities in their classrooms. In a study by Shippen et al. (2005), the researchers examined the attitudes of future general education teachers on their hostility/receptivity and anxiety/calmness regarding teaching students with disabilities in their general education classrooms at the beginning and at the end of an introductory course on special education. The 236 students from three different teacher preparation programs at three different universities who completed the survey (using a Likert scale) included 96 future special education teachers, 149 future general education teachers, and 68 future dually certified teachers in both special education and general education. Results of this study indicated that both future general education teachers and special education teachers became slightly more receptive to the idea of inclusion after the completion of the introductory course. The explanation of the importance of teaching all students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment may have decreased the teachers’ fear or hostility towards the practice of inclusion. Shippen et al. (2005) indicated, however, that because the general education teachers’ attitudes did not move much beyond the “neutral” category, resistance towards the policy of inclusion still remained. One substantial finding of this study was that the more information the future general educators gained, the less anxious about the implementation of inclusion they became. This supported the notion that if general

22 education teachers were more knowledgeable and educated about inclusion and less anxious about it, they might be more likely to successfully implement it (Shippen et al., 2005). McHatton and McCray (2007) also examined the perceptions of future general education teachers towards inclusion. Specifically, they compared the attitudes of elementary education majors with secondary education majors towards including students with disabilities in their classrooms. The participants included 128 elementary education majors and 33 secondary education majors who completed a Likert scale survey at the beginning of a class on special education, and then took a survey again after completing the class. The survey asked participants how strongly they agreed or disagreed with statements regarding their attitudes towards inclusion. The results indicated that the majority of both groups of students were less likely to agree that students with cognitive disabilities should be taught in a general education classroom (McHatton & McCray, 2007). When the researchers compared the overall attitudes towards inclusion of future elementary school educators with those of future secondary educators, a significant difference was found; namely, the elementary education major students had a more positive attitude towards inclusion than the secondary education major students. The most predominant finding derived from this study, though, was that there was a need to address working with students with disabilities throughout teacher preparation programs instead of only in one course (McHatton & McCray, 2007). Another study, which looked at the effects of special education courses on preservice teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion, was conducted by Cook (2002). This

23 study surveyed 181 undergraduate preservice general education teachers who were enrolled in a series of four seminar courses which included topics of inclusion and special education. The results of this study showed that the future general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion varied based on the type of disabilities the students had. Students with learning disabilities were more accepted in preservice teachers’ classrooms than students with severe disabilities, including cognitive disabilities or multiple disabilities (Cook, 2002). While participants overall believed that inclusion for all students, no matter what disabilities they may have, was beneficial for the included students, they also believed that the lack of instructional experience in working with students with various disabilities in the teacher preparation programs was detrimental to their future abilities to teach all students in inclusive classrooms (Cook, 2002). Experience with Supported Inclusion Despite a lack of training and collaboration practices, some general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion were influenced by experience simply working in an inclusive classroom (Giangreco, Dennis, Colninger, Edelman, & Schattmann, 1993). In a study that investigated the attitudes of general education teachers during the implementation of a systems change process of inclusion in the public school system in Michigan, LeRoy and Simpson (1996) found that inclusion was a gradual process, not an event. The perceptions of the general education teachers changed to more positive perceptions over the course of three years because of the experience they gained (LeRoy & Simpson, 1996). By the end of the second year of implementation of inclusion, all general education teachers perceived segregated settings for students with significant

24 disabilities as undesirable. This gradual shift towards positive attitudes towards including students with severe disabilities in their classrooms was mirrored by the fact that by the end of the second year of implementation, all general education teachers took complete ownership and responsibility of the students with significant disabilities’ education (LeRoy & Simpson, 1996). The authors noted that the positive attitudes were a result of the experience of having a student with significant disabilities in their classrooms as well as the development of the trust in the collaboration process. In a qualitative study that examined 11 general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of students who used augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems to communicate, Kent-Walsh and Light (2003) reported that general education teachers shared both positive and negative attitudes about including students with complex communication needs in their classrooms. Namely, the participants discussed that there was a possibility to have teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion change over time, but the participants also indicated that teachers who were resistant to the policy of inclusion of students with AAC systems in their classes usually did not allow for successful inclusion. The participants shared that a positive attitude and an openness to inclusion were necessary characteristics for a positive inclusive classroom environment for all. Kent-Walsh and Light (2003) found that the experience of including students with complex communication needs led to more positive attitudes towards inclusion for some general education teachers. Consistent with this finding were the results of a qualitative study conducted by Giangreco, Dennis, Cloninger, Edelman, and Schattman (1999) in which the researchers

25 interviewed 19 general education teachers about their experiences including students with severe disabilities in their classrooms. They found that 17 of the 19 general education teachers underwent a transformation of their attitudes towards inclusion over a period of a year in which they included a student with severe disabilities in their class. This shift in attitudes was apparent as the ownership of the students with severe disabilities changed from the responsibility of special educators to the responsibility of the general education teachers. The initial negative attitudes towards inclusion were replaced with more positive and accepting attitudes as the year progressed and led to the general education teachers taking an active role in the students’ education by directly supporting them and involving the students in all aspects of the class (Giangreco et al., 1999). The researchers also found that the general education teachers saw the benefits to inclusion for the students with severe disabilities as well as their nondisabled peers. It is important to note, however, that simply placing the student with severe disabilities within a general education classroom did not ensure a shift to a positive attitude towards inclusion. While 17 of the 19 general education teachers reported a more positive attitude towards inclusion after the experience of teaching in an inclusive classroom, 2 of the general education teachers did not change their negative attitudes towards inclusion at all during the course of the year (Giangreco et al., 1999). Without experience, research has shown that general education teachers can have negative attitudes towards inclusion. In a study by Vaughn, Schumm, Jallad, Slusher, & Saumell (1996), the majority of the interviewed teachers who were not inclusive (e.g. did not include students with disabilities in their classroom) indicated they had strong

26 negative attitudes towards inclusion. Soodak, Podell, and Lehman (1998) investigated how general education teachers’ attitudes are affected by the experience of being an inclusive teacher. To do this, they used a survey to determine 188 New York general education teachers’ hostility/receptivity and anxiety/calmness towards including students with different types of disabilities in their classrooms. The results indicated that the type of disabilities affected the attitudes of teachers. The general education teachers felt more anxiety and hostility for students with severe cognitive disabilities than for students with only physical disabilities. In addition, the results showed that the more experienced the teacher, the more hostility towards inclusion they had for all disability groups (Soodak et al., 1998). Janney, Snell, Beers, and Raynes (1995) also looked at the attitudes of general education teachers in five different districts undergoing a systems change towards inclusion of students with severe disabilities and found that the predominant aspects of success included a willingness to change and an understanding of the reasons for inclusion and how its benefits are multifaceted. The general education teachers who participated in the interviews insisted that the time and effort needed to successfully include students with severe disabilities were not overwhelming, and therefore, explained how their jobs did not change drastically because of the implementation of inclusion. Coots et al. (1998) also found that a transformative process occurred in general education teachers’ attitudes in the first year of teaching students with severe disabilities with their discovery that the general education teachers’ commitment to creating a classroom

27 community in which all students had a sense of belonging and all were respected was important for successful inclusion. International Perspective Inclusion has become an international movement, and therefore, the attitudes of general education teachers across the globe were important to examine because they offered insight into how inclusion of students with severe disabilities in general education classes has been viewed across cultures. In a study conducted in Korea, Hwang and Evans (2010) investigated the general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. Using both interviews as well as surveys, the researchers found that of the 29 general education teachers who participated in the study, 41.37% had positive attitudes towards inclusion, although 55.16% percent would be unwilling to actually teach in an inclusive classroom. In addition, 78.85% of the general education teachers surveyed believed that students with disabilities would receive a better education in a special education classroom. These results indicated a disconnect between theory and practice (Hwang & Evans, 2010). In a parallel to the study in Korea, research conducted in England showed similar results (Glazzard, 2011). The perspectives of teachers towards inclusion were examined and the results of this study indicated that attitudinal barriers were a challenge to the successful implementation of inclusion If teachers were not committed to the vision of inclusive education for all, then inclusion would not be successful. Researchers in Italy examined middle school general education teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion (Zambelli & Bonni, 2004). Zambelli and Bonni (2004) found that of the 23 teachers who participated, all seemed to be divided on their views towards

28 inclusion. Some participants, both with and without inclusive teaching experience, had negative views towards inclusion, and insisted that students with severe disabilities belonged in special schools. Other participants, both with and without experience in inclusive classrooms, agreed with the inclusive model and insisted that all students, no matter what disabilities they have, should be educated in the general education classroom. Summary Because general education teachers are important individuals in the implementation of inclusive education, it is essential to have their “buy in” and support of this policy. Without the understanding or knowledge of how inclusion can work, many general education teachers can be unsure, apprehensive, or even unsupportive of including students with severe disabilities at first (Janney, et al., 1995; Soodak, et al., 1998). Ensuring that all students receive the quality education to which they have the right can be challenging when general education teachers do not support the principle of inclusion for all students. With training and collaboration with special education colleagues, however, general education teachers can become more confident in their ability to support students with severe disabilities in their general education classrooms. Creating opportunities for general education teachers to change their belief systems so as to align with the premise that all students, no matter what their abilities or disabilities may be, belong and are accepted as valuable members of a class is important in changing the attitudes of general education teachers which will in turn create more successful inclusive education programs.

29 Chapter 3 Methodology Setting and Participants The researcher used a case study ethnographic design as the method of inquiry (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999). This was used because it enabled the researcher to study multiple individuals who were in similar situations. Through data collection that consisted of interviews, artifacts, and observational notes, this method of research allowed the researcher to analyze three different teachers’ data to compare similarities and differences among the participants. Purposeful sampling was used to select the three participants. This type of sampling allowed for participants who would most likely give information related to the desired topic to the researcher (Creswell, 2012). Two different public elementary schools in Northern California were used in this study. School I was a kindergarten through eighth grade elementary school that had been implementing inclusion for many years. There were twenty-one general education teachers who worked in the school and four inclusion support teachers. This school was located in a semi-rural area. The majority of the students come from low-income families and diverse backgrounds. The other elementary school used during this study was School II. This kindergarten through sixth grade elementary school was located in an urban environment. The majority of the student population was from minority and low-income households. This school recently underwent an entire faculty and staff change; the first year of inclusion occurred the year this study was conducted.

30 The primary criteria that were used to select the general education teachers were recommendations by their special education colleagues who asserted that the teachers were inclusive in teaching all students, including students with significant disabilities, in their classrooms. The special education teachers were asked to select general education teachers who demonstrated a willingness to directly work with students with significant disabilities in their classroom on a consistent basis and who were willing to collaborate with the special education teacher to determine how to meet the needs of the students with significant disabilities in the classroom. The special education support teachers who were asked to nominate colleagues had worked with, and knew, the researcher well. Because of this relationship and their known success in the field, their recommendations were taken. All participation by both general and special education teachers was voluntary in nature. No compensation or inducements were offered to the general education teachers for participating in this research. Informed consent was obtained from the participants using a signed permission slip. (See Appendix A for copies of the consent forms.) The three participants were elementary level teachers who were teaching in inclusive classrooms. T1 was a fourth grade general education teacher at School I. She had been teaching in public education for twelve years and in inclusive classrooms for nine years. T1 had worked with the special education support teacher who nominated her to participate for many years and knew the researcher for the last two years. T2 was a first grade teacher at School II during this study. She had been teaching in public education for thirteen years and had some experience including students with various

31 disabilities in her classrooms at other schools. This was her second year of teaching at School II. T3 was a second grade teacher at School II during this study. She had been teaching in public schools for thirteen years. The year of this study was her first year of teaching in an inclusive classroom. Procedure and Data Collection Interviews. Data were collected using multiple methods. In-person interviews were conducted by the researcher with all participants. The participants were audio-taped; however, participant confidentiality and anonymity were ensured. Because the interviews were recorded, the researcher later transcribed and then coded the texts. After transcription of the interviews, the audiotapes were destroyed. The general, initial interview questions can be found in Appendix B. Follow-up questions were asked according to the participants’ answers. Interviews focused on the teachers’ background, teaching philosophy, and views towards inclusion of students with significant disabilities in general education classrooms. Interviews were conducted at the beginning of the study and at the end of the study, eight weeks later, except for one teacher who only participated in the initial interview due to time constraints. In addition, the special education teachers (ST-1 and ST-2) who recommended the participants were interviewed and audio-recorded. These interviews were also transcribed and coded. Observations. The researcher was a participant observer and classroom observation fieldnotes were taken. The researcher spent nine full days in each teacher’s classroom. As a

32 participant observer, the researcher had the opportunity to gain an insider’s view to dayto-day life in the classroom (Creswell, 2012). The researcher focused on notes about the teachers’ behavior and communication within the classroom. The data recorded during the observations was shared with an informed colleague who helped the researcher code the data. Artifacts. Documents such as photographs of student work, books which have influenced the teachers’ attitudes, and classroom materials were collected over the course of the qualitative study. Data Analysis As data were collected over the course of the study, the data were coded for themes. The data was analyzed through the use of general qualitative guideline procedures (Creswell, 2012). The coding allowed the researcher to make sense of the data. The data was divided into text segments and assigned a code word or phrase to describe them (Creswell, 2012). Periodically, throughout the study, the transcribed themes were discussed with an informed colleague. This external audit process allowed an outside individual to review the different aspects of the research while the study was being conducted (Creswell, 2012). New interview questions were generated based on the discussions. (See Appendix B for a list of the follow-up interview questions). In order to improve the accuracy of the study, the data collected by the researcher were triangulated. In the triangulation process, the researcher used multiple sources of data to corroborate the evidence in order to validate a theme (Creswell, 2012). In other

33 words, the researcher supported the themes and interpretations of the data with more than one type of data collected (e.g. fieldnotes, quotes, artifacts, descriptions); the different types of data collected all demonstrated the same concept. The researcher also utilized the process of member checking. This process allowed the participants in the study to check the accuracy of the data gathered such as from an interview (Creswell, 2012). By giving the participants the interview notes and transcriptions as well as copies of the researcher’s observational notes, it allowed the participants the opportunity to make sure the interpretations and descriptions were accurate and valid.

34 Chapter 4 Results This study sought to identify the common characteristics, behaviors, and teaching practices of three general education elementary school teachers who were identified by their special education teacher colleagues as “successful” at including students with significant disabilities in their classrooms. The collection of data included: initial interviews with the special education inclusion teachers who identified the participants; eight classroom observations with each of the three participants, and interviews with the three general education teacher participants—T1, T2, and T3. Both initial and final interviews were conducted for T1 and T2 while only an initial interview was conducted with T3. The data yielded eight major themes, including: 1) classroom community, 2) choices, 3) engaging activities, 4) high academic expectations, 5) personal experience, 6) intentional teaching, 7) collaboration between the general education teacher and the special education teacher, and 8) the relationship between the paraeducator and the general education teacher. Findings The definitions for coding and themes can be found in Appendix C. For the purpose of the data analysis, and to ensure confidentiality, students’ names have been changed. Students with disabilities are denoted as STUD-initial (e.g. STUD-R) and students without disabilities are denoted as STUW-initial (e.g. STUW-A).

35 Classroom community. One theme that was consistent with all participants was the strong sense of a classroom community. All three participants made a purposeful effort to create a welcoming classroom environment in which all students felt like they belonged. T1 discussed her teaching philosophy for all students along with her goals and insisted that, “The classroom is set up so they feel like they are in a safe environment and that they have a sense of belonging and that they are able to take risks and try things.” The peer support utilized in all three classrooms showed another aspect of the importance of building a classroom community. T2 discussed how creating an environment in which all students worked together was important: I’m really big on natural supports. So, for instance, at the beginning of the school year, I didn’t sit down with the kids and have a whole conversation about differences...My thought about that is, kids will make their own observations and they will naturally come to certain conclusions about things and people and situations and so in here, a lot of the support systems are formed naturally. [sic] but then I do use very specific and intentional buddying. My one student who does not communicate orally...I gave him a buddy who is very helpful. She has a younger sister at home that she helps take care of. So she is very helpful. So she knows the difference between help and doing for and that’s a big difference. And that’s a very intentional support. At the same time, the same student has developed many natural supports which you will see when he needs help tying his

36 shoe or when someone is picking on him at recess...so I think it’s both of them, let it happen naturally but be strategic and intentional in some instances. Another example of the use of strategies to create an inclusive classroom environment was demonstrated when T1 explained her method of building peer support systems within the classroom: So we have (like) our leveled groups and stuff and sometimes we’ll work as teams in that way. And sometimes I’ll partner people up and sometimes it’s their choice. Oh, who would you like to invite to be your partner.. And we talk about how if someone invites you to be their partner, then you can accept or say that you want to read by yourself. But if you say that you want to read by yourself, then that’s really what you’re going to do. So it’s not like you can wait and pick someone else. And another example of how T1 created the inclusive atmosphere in her classroom was clarified when T1discussed her partnering and small group discussion activities: Basically anytime it’s a work time, if, um, it’s something where they can support each other then they have that ability to do that. And then we’ve done a lot of, “ok, here’s this question…turn to your group and talk about that.” It’s hard in this large of the group to get everyone on. I mean it’s nice if you can like, mingle and see if everyone is actually talking about the question. T1 also used a daily opening in which all students came together to build a sense of classroom community. Figure 1 shows an example of a Morning Meeting message.

37

March 26, 2012 Good Morning! Find a partner and find out: their Top 5 from their weekend. Take a turn to share your Top 5 with them. Love, T1 Figure 1. Example of a Morning Meeting Message. T1 wrote this on the easel for the Morning Meeting on March 26, 2012. The partner activities used by T1 were often interactive, included movement, and were centered around an academic concept. An example of this was seen during a Morning Meeting activity. Fieldnote: T1 gave students the opportunity to create similes with their peers as they walked around the classroom. While the students were sharing with each other, T1 circled the classroom and checked in with partners and then made sure everyone’s voice was heard in the whole class discussion. She said, “What did you find out, STUW-K? One thing that will help us here would be if everyone but STUW-K turns their voices off...to really be a listener, we talked about what it takes to be a good listener. So we’re going to move into a circle to be good listeners. STUW-K was trying to tell us about why her dad needed stitches. And some of you didn’t care and weren’t listening to her.”

38 T3 paralleled this by having a daily morning meeting with her students in which they previewed the schedule for the day as well as sharing random acts of kindness they observed. All three teachers also worked directly with the students with disabilities whether or not the paraeducator was in the classroom. An observation that demonstrated this was when T1 included STUD-L in a classroom writing activity. Fieldnote: T1 called on STUD-L like she did every other student by choosing her name card and asking her a question. She asked STUD-L if she was planning on writing a story during the writing time Another example was when T1 assisted STUD-L when it appeared she needed help. Fieldnote: The class was going out to recess. STUD-L was at her table waiting. T1 asked STUD-L if she needed help. T1 went to table and asked if she was done with her spring card. Then she asked if she wanted help putting her social studies book away. STUD-L nodded her head. T1 put the book away for STUD-L in cubby area. T2 and T3 also demonstrated a willingness and desire to work directly with the students in their classes with significant disabilities. While working directly with the two students with disabilities, STUD-C and STUD-A, it was evident that T2 saw the importance of giving students with disabilities the chance to make choices as well. This was shown during the following observation. Fieldnote: T2 leaves STUD-C after explaining how he needs to draw what he saw. T2 then goes to STUD-A’s desk and draws dot prompts on his paper and then

39 stops and asks (using sign language) if he wants dots or yellow (highlighter) prompts. He chooses yellow using sign language so then she stops and gets a yellow marker and gives him words to trace then tells him to trace and then shows him a previous drawing he made and then tells him to draw the habitat. (See Figure 2 for example).

STUW-T: general education student journal example

STUD-A journal example with highlighted prompts Figure 2. Student Journal Examples. T2 modified the journal work by using highlighter prompts so STUD-A could participate in the journal activity. The journal entry of a general education peer is shown for comparison.

T3 also demonstrated how she worked directly with STUD-R when she worked one-on-one with her to help her complete her writing assignment while the rest of the class worked independently at their desks. The paraeducator roamed the room helping any student who needed assistance.

40 Another aspect of the classroom community was the positive language the three teacher participants used. This fostered the social and emotional development of all students in the class and helped create an inclusive classroom environment for all. T1 used positive language to redirect or remind students of rules instead of reprimanding them. The teachers created a safe, inclusive classroom community with their provision of clear behavioral expectations with immediate corrective feedback. An example of this occurred during an observation in which T1 used a respectful and firm voice to try to change a student’s behavior. Fieldnote: T1 said, “I’m concerned. When I start to talking to you, you are not paying attention. Other people are sharing and you are turning and talking...Today, I just said what we were going to do and I did a countdown from five. As soon as I started talking to you, you got up. It’s either you don’t know what to do or you do know what do, and you’re choosing not to do it. I know you. You do great work and you’re capable of doing and meeting high expectations. What do you want to do?” T1 let him explain and then gave him specific directions to go get the stapler he said he needed and then go back to his desk to continue with his work. T1 conducted class meetings on an as-needed basis and challenged her students to meet her expectations during these meetings after reviewing the rules and procedures of the classroom and giving the students opportunity to discuss with one another problems and challenges they faced. An example of how she made sure everyone had an opportunity to participate was seen during an outdoor observation.

41 Fieldnote: The students went outside to do a song. Students lined up across one another in two circles. STUD-L was without a partner so she raised her hand. Seeing this, T1 found a partner to be with STUD-L. Before they started moving, T1 asked STUD-L if there was enough space to move her wheelchair during the song. She also asked STUD-L if she was ready to move. After they went back into the classroom after the song and dance was completed, the students reflected on how the song and movement went. T1 also used positive language during writing time to encourage her students. Fieldnote: Students were writing in their writer’s notebook. T1 was at her desk. She said, “Find someone you have not spoken to already and share. Make sure everyone has a partner. If you don’t have a partner, put your hand up quick. A student (boy) came up to STUD-L and read what he wrote to her. T1 was sitting in a chair at a student’s table. She listened as two students shared what they wrote. STUD-L used her Dynavox to read her story/writing aloud to her partner. T1 shared with the three girls about how she was working on a sample for a project they were doing later today. T1 then announced to the class to move and find a new partner that they have not shared with yet. Students got up and walked around the classroom, both standing and sitting as they shared their writing and talked with one another. A student who was partnered with T1 talked with her. T1 told her quietly that she had a great idea and that she should use the twentyfive minutes to get her ideas down and that she should probably have more than 2

42 sentences down. She used kind words and positive language to encourage her to push herself in future writing. Each morning as the students gathered on the carpet, T2 handed out tickets for making a good choice by being responsible and ready to learn. T2 reminded students what she told them for directions—wrote their name on the ticket they earned at the rug. T2 might say: “I love the way you came right back to the rug and made smart choices.” T2 used this kind of specific verbal praise throughout the day during various activities. I observed her complimenting her students for using math vocabulary words while making comparisons on the weather graph during the morning routine daily as well as when students were sitting correctly with focused attention during lessons. Her positive behavioral support approach allowed students to have a clear understanding of acceptable behavior in the classroom. T3’s approach to building an inclusive classroom community was similar to both T1 and T2, although her method/philosophy differed somewhat. As she asserted below, T3 was careful to make sure that everyone was an equal member of the class: I treat the students with special needs the exact same way as I treat every other student in my classroom. Um, I know that, that they, um going out into their homes and meeting their families was key to me. To see what their special needs are, what I need to do differently to help them. So doing home visits before the school year and of course working with my colleagues because we’re kinda all in the same boat. We’ve never, um, had an included classroom (before). I’ve had

43 push in and pull out but I haven’t had a student with special needs in my class all day. I think just trying new things and listening to others. Choices. Another theme that was evident throughout this study was that the three participants also provided their students with choices throughout their daily teaching. By giving choices to their students, the teachers showed that the students were responsible for their education. All three participants emphasized the need for all students to have a sense of ownership of their learning. An example of how T1 highlighted the need for students to be self-directed learners was evident in her response in the interview about her teaching style: That would be my ideal classroom. You still are the one in charge. You’re still leading the way, you’re still bringing things to them. You’re still teaching. But they have a lot that they get to do and you’re free to move through the room and coach and be like, “Ok, how is that going to help you meet your learning goal?” “How is that going to help you?” “Well, what if I did…” You know, they’re kinda directing it. The data suggested that the three participants allowed for unique ways to give students choices. This was evident in all three classrooms since not everyone had to do the activities the same way. Students were given the opportunity to meet their own needs by giving them options. Some choices given to the class by the teachers included: seating/environment, materials, kinds of activities, who to work with, whether or not to participate in sharing, and higher level thinking questions. An example of being given

44 the choice of the seating or environment was shown when T1 allowed a student to make a choice about where she wanted to sit during a lesson. Fieldnote: T1 said, “We’re trying to practice how to be good listeners. When you’re alert, you’re aware of where your body is with good posture so you can listen. STUW-M, is that a good spot?” The student replied with a yes. T1 replied with, “I disagree. Do you want to pick a new spot? Or do you want me to pick for you? There’s a spot by L. There’s a spot by STUW-J.” She also gave the students the freedom to spread out around the room to find their own space while students were working independently on projects or during the “read to self” time. T3 also allowed students to make choices of where to sit. During one observation of a math lesson, T3 modeled the problems for the students using the document camera. Some students were sitting on the carpet doing their math work and other students were doing the work at their desk. T1 allowed students to make choices about the activities they did within the structure of the lesson. When the class went to the library to work on a math program on individual laptops, T1 gave the students the choice to type up their story on the computer for an allotted period of time. Fieldnote: T1 said, “Ok, how else are you going to decorate your project? I know you like to draw. You can read what you wrote and add some illustrations.” (She left to go to a desk). Students came to the desk to ask individual questions of T1. Students talked quietly or worked independently at tables on the writing of their

45 choice. T1 was working independently at a desk with a student on a project that needed to be printed. During another observation the students were spread out around the room, working on various reading and writing activities. Namely, three students were working on the computer, four students were reading silently at their desks, and four students were whispering to one another at their desks. T2 agreed with the notion that students should be given choices -- evident through the fiednotes describing how students made choices on who they wanted to work with during various classroom activities. When asked during the interview about students working with one another, she replied: I think that just comes from day one, well, week one, setting the expectations that sometimes you will work independently. Sometimes you will work with a partner. Sometimes you will work in small groups and mixing it up. And choice is huge. You might hear me say sometimes during math, you have a choice now, you can either by yourself, or pick a partner, or work in a group or if you want to work with me or [ST-2] that’s fine. So I think the students having a choice of that probably fostered some of that. So it’s not like ‘oh my gosh, I have to go help soand-so again.’ You know. ‘Ooh, we get to work together’ Together being the key word. It appeared that T2 saw the value in letting students become responsible for their own learning. This is echoed with her answer to the question in the final interview as to why she chooses to embed choices within her teaching:

46 Well, I think, or I know, actually, that when kids have choices, and I don’t want to use “buy in” but that’s really what happens, they take more ownership of their learning. And overall it teaches them the huge responsibility it teaches them the how to. And on the flip side, if you’re not doing what you’re supposed to be doing, that choice can be taken away from you so they’re learning logical consequences along the way. I just think that giving them choices help them to own what they’re learning and what they’re doing. T2 provided ways for STUD-A to make his own choices. Fieldnote: STUD-A was finished with his work at his desk. T2 saw this and asked him if he was finished. Then said, “Now what?” He did not respond with anything so she gave him the choice—“read (and points to book boxes) or math” and showed him worksheets in his hand. He pointed to math. She then used her fingers to model the subtraction problems on her and his fingers. She counted with him. She gave him a high five after he correctly answered it. Then she gave him the choice if he wanted to color on one side or keep doing math on the other. Then she took a crayon and asked him to point to all the number sevens on the front of the worksheet, then she made a crayon mark for him to indicate that was where he should color with the crayon. Another type of choice that T2 gave her students was the choice of whether or not they wanted to participate in some activities. When T2 chose students’ names using popsicle sticks, she gave the students the choice as to whether they wanted to share or not

47 during group sharing. If they did not want to share, the students gave the signal that they did not want to share with the class and T2 continued with the next student. All three of the focus teachers utilized the Daily Five balanced literacy approach (Boushey & Moser, 2012). This type of language arts program allowed the students to make a choice as to which activity they wanted to participate in: read to self, read to buddy, work on writing, word work, or listen to reading. An example of how T2 used this approach was shown when observing the Daily Five time in the classroom. Fieldnote: T2 successfully managed all students at the same time--lots of choice in the room—one student was laying on big pillows in back of the classroom with a book (read to self); another student was at the listening center. The majority of the students were working at their desks on their word work. A student was working on a book report at a desk by himself. T2 was at the back U shaped table with STUD-C and STUD-A, who were working independently while she tested students individually on a reading test. T3 also allowed her students to choose the activity they wanted to participate in during the Daily Five. She went over the expectations for each of the different activities they could choose from. Then she asked, “Who wants to work on writing? Thanks for choosing quickly” and dismissed students who raised their hands. During another observation, the students in T3’s classroom were engaged in many different activities and projects throughout the room in small groups, independent desks, or with partners.

48 Fieldnote: The group she was teaching was playing tic-tac-toe. The special education support teacher was doing reading games with another small group at the back table. A student was sitting in the back of the room in a bean bag chair reading to self. The student with significant disabilities, STUD-R, was at her desk working independently. T3 had allowed the students to choose their activity; not everyone was doing the same thing at the same time so those students who were engaged in activities which differed from the main curriculum because they needed to be modified or adapted were not distinguishable. When discussing her teaching style, T1 insisted that her favorite way to teach was to embed choice within the lessons: To me, the best style of teaching is when you can do a little bit of instruction and teaching and then send them off. You know, say this is their learning goal and say one of the things we’re studying is, last year, like magnetism. Now I would bring the unit in some forms either have a day of exploration with different stuff or do some stuff from the textbook or whatever. We’re gonna do some demonstrations. And then they would have the goal, you know, like, show ten facts that you know about magnetism. And then everyone is working for like a couple of days and researching some more. Either trying the hands on stuff, looking at the book, or looking at some videos on the website. You know whatever they’re going to do to research more. And they would have some choice on how they were going to display that. Whether it’s make a poster or make a powerpoint or do a report or a little book. Or however they want to go

49 about doing it. And then they show their piece. And then at the end they come back and they do like a reflecting phase. Um, there’s lots of different ways that you could go about doing that. You know this style came from trainings I went to for “Responsive Classroom.” They call it academic choice. T1 also stressed the importance of students having ownership over their learning with her answer to an interview question: So to me, if you teach that way, and you teach in a way that the kids are able to have some more ownership and some more buy in to what they’re studying about, so you still have everyone is doing the same unit. You still have some consistencies among the class but they’re strengths are really starting to come out. So then when you have to teach something more directed, more teacher-led, then you know who you have in your room. So you know, well, if I teach it this way, this group will really thrive if I teach it this way. I think for to me, I learn so much more about the class when you can give them much more responsibility. During the final interview, T1 talked about how students should be given choices especially in regard to higher level thinking questions: The more that you feel like that you have some sense of power or control over the situation, the more likely that you will have buy-in. And participate and engage in that. And I think that for students, like, for students, when I look at, when I’m setting up for, depending on what time of year it is. Like at the beginning of the year, there would be less choices, but there would still be choice so whenever you can structure something that allows them to make some decisions even if they

50 seem like they are really insignificant as an adult per say, but you know like giving them that power to the kids so that they start to have more ownership and I think that it helps them start determining their sense of independence and responsibility for what they have control over and what they can do. So as you move from the beginning of the year, choices might be, you know, what kind of paper should we use for this poster or whatever to more like higher level thinking questions, more academic as far as like you know, oh, you need to do this project. We recently did a gameboard that was tied to social studies so it was like, you had to choose ten facts that you learned from your book that you learned about the gold rush times. And how are you gonna choose what you’re going to and like everyone was like fully engaged. There were kids that and like I would bring in examples and there were some kids that you know, on just a typical worksheet assignment uninvolved completely it’s their choice, it’s their opportunity to sorta play around with it a little bit. Even if they don’t always make the right choices, that’s important too, you know because then you can step back and say “How did that work for you?” Sometimes they need coaching on how to make responsible choices. We try not to rescue sometimes and let them kinda see it through. I didn’t see that coming. I think that you learn a lot stepping out of that and observing. Engaging activities. Another theme noted about all the participants was their use of engaging activities during lessons. One cornerstone principle of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is

51 engaging, interactive activities. UDL was developed by the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) as a way for teachers to plan lessons that are differentiated for many different types of learners (Spencer, 2011). UDL focuses on principles which include: multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement, and is used to help teachers motivate their students and give equal access to the different types of learners. In addition, using technology, multiple modalities, and group activities to give students choices, teachers who utilize UDL seek to engage students through meaningful lessons and activities (Spencer, 2011). According to Rose (2000), children are given the opportunity to experience changes in their knowledge and skills while growing in their capacity to learn more; universal design for learning focuses on the goals of the curriculum rather than its contents. During a visualizing activity, T1 allowed students to connect the curriculum in a new way—through art, using multiple modalities. Fieldnote: T1: “This isn’t a project that we’re going to finish in one day. We’re not even finished with the book. Just using colored pencil so the other side will be fine. Will be like a map of his journey. I will be giving you a paper.

You

will be folding it in half and then in half again. Do a fan fold. (like a zig zag type of a line). You want your book to open looking like a book...For the next 12 minutes, we’ll plan. We’ll do a thumbnail sketch.” T1 held up a picture in the book and talked about how they can pull something from their pictures and the time period. She talked about how she started doing research about one of the student’s questions about the invention of the camera. What stands out to them about that time period that is different from 2012? The students just do a quick

52 sketch. They have 10 minutes to see what they can come up with. “Then we’ll build this into an art piece.” Engaging activities also included utilizing physical activities. T2 utilized movement exercises throughout her lessons. When students reviewed their letter sounds, students used body movements for each sound. T2 ensured that students were engaged in the lessons by keeping the pacing fast and not allowing for lag time between activities. Students spent the majority of the time away from their desks—either on the carpet or at small tables at the back or the side of the classroom. The desks were used mostly for independent work. She appeared to “read” her students well and knew when to transition to new activities or to continue with lessons. An example of this was seen when she told the students it was time for a brain break. Fieldnote: T2 chose a student by pulling a popsicle stick with her name out of the cup. She asked the student if she would like to lead a brain break and if so, to be assertive and tell the class in her loud voice which brain break she has chosen. The student chose the “Disco” brain break and led the class in a movement and a corresponding song. Another example of an activity which utilized the principles of UDL was seen when T2 was teaching a lesson about butterflies. Using multiple modalities (writing, drawing, observing), students engaged in the interactive lesson. Fieldnote: T2 told them they would have 10 minutes to do their journal observations of the butterflies (drawing and writing). T2 called one row at a time

53 to go up to butterfly net and do observations. The remaining students waited without talking on the carpet. T3 also demonstrated her ability to teach in a creative and engaging manner. An example of an activity is in the following language arts lesson. Fieldnote: T3 was standing next to the computer. STUD-2 sat at the desk to click to the next slide. T3 stood in front of the smart board and pointed to words; the students read aloud with her. She was at the front, asking questions; students were very engaged and she showed her work as she wrote the steps on the board. She allowed students to use her fingers if they needed to. She used lots of verbal praise to students individually who offered the answers to her questions. She was very dynamic, using a loud, engaging voice and lots of energy/enthusiasm to read and answer questions—whisper to your neighbor what you think it goes to. She said, “Thank you so much” to student. Another example in which UDL principles were evident was when T3 gave the class the opportunity to read and respond in their journals to the passage they had just read in the “read aloud” Diary of a Wimpy Kid (Kinney, 2007). The students wrote about what they thought about the passage that T3 had read to them, allowing the students to reflect on the reading with their own opinions. T2 also used fun, interactive language arts activities to motivate the students. Fieldnote: Students had fun as they said aloud the sounds the letter cards made. When they did not get the sounds correctly the first time, T2 put the card back in the stack in a silly way in which some students laughed. They began to do short

54 vowel chants: “The short O in the fox” and used laminated big posters so that both visual cues along with the auditory clues were available. T2 also engaged students by playing a game called “Line, Word.” She got out the dice. She explained that the pink dice is for line number and the blue dice is for the word number. The students took individual turns playing in front of the class while their peers checked their work. High academic expectations. Another theme that emerged from the data was high academic expectations for all students. This was most evident with T3 who very definitely stated that she had high expectations for all her students. When asked to describe her teaching style, T3 answered with a description of how she sees herself: I would say, I’m a pretty strict teacher. I have high expectations of all my students no matter if they have special needs or don’t have special needs. Um, and I hold them to that. And I don’t, uh, because of the school where it’s located, or whether they come from low-income families or anything like that. I don’t water down my expectations I guess you could say and um, it translates into the children know my expectations. They know when I’m here what I expect of them. They know when I’m not here what I expect of them. And um, positive rewards and negative rewards for those behaviors. And that they also see themselves grow and learn. This was also evident as she corrected some writing the students had done during an observation.

55 Fieldnote: While checking work, T3 said, “What’s this say? You know how to write a complete sentence with a capital letter at the beginning and a period at the end. Go do it again.” Students wait silently in line to be checked. “Go do it again. Complete thoughts.” She makes students correctly do it before she says it’s ok. Will say “Good” when it is ready. “Do you think I can read that? I have seven people on the floor already. I need more.” “I don’t know what that says. What does it say?” T3 held students accountable by making them correct their mistakes for all work. She provided them with individual attention to make sure they have an understanding about the errors they had made. This was evident multiple times during the observations and included the following examples of her language. Fieldnote: T3 checked a student’s paper and told him to go back and spell the word “think” correctly because he did not spell think. T3 asked two students to come up and bring their work to the front table for her to read. T3 told a student it was unacceptable when he showed her incorrect work. The two students who were still working on the page had to bring their books up to her and she corrected them individually and had them fix the problems they missed right in front of her on the carpet. STUD-2 was standing at the back of the carpet. The students were silent on the carpet. T3 told the students that they will do it over if it’s messy. T3 was sitting on the stool at the desk, using the document camera. She was facing the students. “Underline the clues, circle the question.”

56 T2 and T1 also demonstrated a standard of high academic expectations. An example of T1 doing so was seen when she interrupted an independent class activity to remind the students they should have already been working for some time. Fieldnote: “Class, let me interrupt for a minute. I’ve had a lot of questions about what we are doing.” She then talked about how they were not tracing over the book. T1 discussed and modeled how they would be doing the sketching and making a plan and related it to how writers plan out what they write. She continued by saying, “As I have been talking, I noticed a lot of students who are working. In the classroom, it is important to get started right when I tell you to get started. Because then right when you get into it, it’s time to stop.” An example of how T2 displayed high expectations for her students was evident as she expected them to use academic language during their science unit. Fieldnote: T2 modeled how they should head their journals using the document camera. T2 talked about how they should use good science vocabulary words in their writing (i.e. miconeum) and metamorphosis. T2 talked about how they are scientists and should use very descriptive language (i.e. Painted Lady butterflies). T2 used a soft, gentle voice as she wrote and read what she wrote. Lights were still off. Students were sitting on assigned spaces on the carpet. In addition, while STUD-C was off task during a bellwork writing activity, T2 redirected him by saying in a stern voice, “Get back on track!” As is evident, she held all students, including the students with disabilities, to a high standard of achievement. Experience.

57 A theme of the teachers’ personal experience with people with disabilities also emerged as a possible factor which helped create their positive attitudes towards inclusion. Experiences included both one’s life such as a childhood friend or family member with a disability, as well as the training the general education teacher had received about inclusion. When asked about the training she had received, T1 explained: Mostly, here at [School], like, just working with the staff members that are here. And you know, I had the basic class that you take for special education. Mostly, it’s all been on site here at school. There’s been a couple trainings that have been one day workshop on the Dynavox when I was going to have a [student] a couple of years ago. But nothing like really like formal training at all. It’s mostly been working with the OI specialists and working with students and just getting like the immediate training or experience. Like T1, T2 described how she had received a limited amount of training in her education including college, credential, and professional development classes: So I remember in college taking one class and it was called mainstreaming, and I don’t know what I learned there. As far as a professional, I’ve had about 6 hours of training. A lot of it you learn as you go. You use your colleagues who have more expertise as support. The training provided by the school district was limited in nature and according to T3, did not provide meaningful tools and strategies in order to successfully include students with significant disabilities on a daily basis:

58 I did take a class going through my credential program. But it was an online class so it wasn’t too intense and we had to do some reading and no observations or anything. Um, the training, I, we were given was probably about a three hour training at the beginning of the school year and it was just on, um, brain tease builders and how to take brain breaks. Those type of things. No real training on how to deal with the everyday issues of having students with special needs in the classroom. Another aspect of the participants’ experience with individuals with disabilities was the acknowledgment and understanding of the way in which the experience of having students with significant disabilities in their classes has shaped their beliefs about inclusion. Namely, all three participants had a different experience in teaching prior to this year. T1 discussed her experiences in inclusive classrooms: Well, I think that the biggest thing that’s changed for me is my own personal knowledge and like I even learn from the kids. Like when we’ll be doing stuff and they’ll just jump in and be like “well, I can help with such and such…” and you’re like oh cool, I didn’t think of that. Oh cool great idea. And just have that confidence in what I’m doing and my own curriculum and how I’m doing and how you can help bring in to different things for students with different needs. You know from year to year I’ve had different students that were really close academically to the grade level curriculum and I’ve had students who were really far from the at-grade level curriculum. So I think, the larger the gap is, the more challenging it is, so you want them to understand things and grasp it but it’s not

59 fair to think that they will at the same level but you don’t want to short change them and think that they can’t do it. I think that more for me it’s like believing how can they, especially when you have a student who can’t communicate that well, especially verbally. To parallel this, T2 had some experience including students with disabilities in her general education classrooms in the past although she explained that the process differed some from what they she was doing during the observations and interviews. So one year, I had a student with cerebral palsy. She used a walker to walk. She didn’t communicate orally. She was very hard to understand. Very lacking in motor skills. She had a full time aide who was there to specifically support her whereas here we have classroom aides. Who are here to support everyone. And I didn’t have any training. I had to do my own research as to what cerebral palsy is and you know, how it affects the body. That, I remember that being a fun year. At the beginning of the year, T2 was including three students with significant disabilities within her class. In the middle of the year, however, one of the students with significant disabilities left her class. Her account of the experience was described in detail: I didn’t have a big worry until I met [STUD-W]. You don’t know what you don’t know. So I didn’t know that I might have a students that is going to up and run out the door, I didn’t know a student would be overtly aggressive and try and cut someone’s hair. Do you know what I mean? So none of those questions came to me until I saw it. Now I am not saying he can’t be included but what I am saying

60 is what is the construct to be included. He doesn’t want to sit on the rug with anyone else and that is fine by me, sit where you are most comfortable. I am however concerned that he might not be learning anything because he is not attending so is he just in the classroom to be in here. That is not right. You know what I mean? So, it is just common sense. The ownership that T3 took of all her students, including her students with disabilities, was seen as she discussed how hard it was to have one of her students with significant disabilities leave her class during the school year: So, thinking of my little one who was taken from me, initially, I was overwhelmed and I was like what am I supposed to do. I was not familiar with the disability or the behaviors that were presenting because of this disability. I don’t know what to do with that. So I struggled with what are the best ways to support, and again, I had a good co-teacher that I could ask questions of. Now, I’m thinking if he had a 1-on-1 aide, well, we actually made it that way. Well, we were told that, the aide was the classroom aide. But it was clear to me from day one that he needed an aide. For himself. So we made that adjustment. But again, not being familiar with the disability, I felt that at one point we were torturing the poor little guy because he was in shock. It’s big. It’s loud in hear. It became apparent quite quickly that loud noises kinda set him off. Well, it’s a classroom, and we get loud sometimes. He wouldn’t eat lunch in the cafeteria because it was too loud. There was too much going on. You could just see the panic in his eyes. So my heart was just breaking for him and I’m like I don’t know how to fix it and

61 no body else seems to know how to fix it. Yes, I believe that all kids can be included but you need to have the common sense. Given his specific disability and his specific needs what structures are we going to put into so that he can be successful so that I can teach? But the same way that I do with the one that I was talking about before you can scream out and run out and destroy things but that is not okay so how do we work with that? And nobody knew. They were all like it will be okay they can work it out. Seriously? So he missed a lot of school because his mom was also not on board. She didn’t want him in a general ed classroom. She thought he was safer and those were her words. And the SDC classroom that he came from and that school didn’t want him here and she was supportive so every little issue that came up was more evidence for her why he shouldn’t be here. So he was a runner. I haven’t been trained in how to deal with a runner. What am I supposed to do when he runs out of the classroom. I have 25 other students that are looking at me saying, “What are you gonna do about that?” Luckily, we had the aide that was here all day. And we just did the best that we could, but I just felt in all my heart that it wasn’t what was best for the other students and it wasn’t what was best for me. Because I don’t want to be crying at the end of the day because I didn’t know where he was, how safe is that? What happens when he gets hurt on my watch? Not on my watch. You know it’s like emotions and things to think about. And as a team we pulled together and when something didn’t work out…okay let’s try something else and we tried to get as many people involved as possible. It was supposed to be all day, and then we

62 modified it to whenever we thought that he needed a break. We would take him out of the classroom, do what they call sensory breaks with him. But he was sort of funny because he made his own sensory breaks and when he decided that he had enough he would run out. It was even a struggle for his family some days to get him through the door, and we would start the day off like that as a battle. I think its an equity issue, I think that it is a social justice issue. But again with common sense. I wouldn’t say “Oh, he has Down syndrome he cannot be in this classroom.” I would say, “Cool he has Down syndrome and this is his classroom, what is he going to need to be successful in this classroom?” T3 discussed how her perceptions of inclusion changed throughout the year since this was her first year teaching in an inclusive classroom. Her experience has included much apprehension and adjustments: I could probably say at the beginning of the year, I was terrified to have any students with disabilities in my room. Just because when I got their IEP and trying to read it. Not even knowing how to read an IEP was difficult for me. Um, it was just a very big learning experience. Um, I’ve…now I see it’s probably benefitting my general education students just as much as it is my students with special needs. They are way more empathetic. At the beginning of the year especially, my one with, uh, special needs, um, they were teasing her quite often about being in diapers or being delayed. And now if anybody teases her on campus, they’re the ones that defend her. I don’t have to worry about going up and defending her at all.

So, it’s quite interesting, quite fun.

63 Of the three teachers, two of the teachers—T1 and T2, have had personal experience of growing up with a family member or friend who had a disability. T1 discussed this in both the initial and final interview: I know for me, I had a cousin who was paralyzed from the waist down. At my school, we didn’t have a full inclusion program. If you grow up knowing people, then it’s more the norm. I really enjoy working with [the special ed teacher] who is always an advocate for the kids and can see the possibility in the kids. There are different takes depending on who I’ve worked with. The special ed teacher is looking out for both having a sense of belonging and can this child read, write, more than just what we might perceive them. It’s helped me to see that there is so much more to it. T1 also had personal experience working with students with significant disabilities as a substitute teacher. She believes this affected her perception of inclusive practices today and her belief system: When I subbed, there was a school that I subbed at and maybe that’s part of it. I was so horribly offended with like I never went back to that school. So I got there and I was supposed to be doing like a special ed class but and the way the plans were written I would go to the regular ed classroom and pick up the kids but they only got to be there for five minutes so I didn’t really understand why they were even in that class. Like it was so weird. And then so I picked up a couple kids from one room and then a couple more and then we all marched down to like this special ed class where I had like eleven or twelve kids and it was like a spectrum

64 of one girl was just like a brand-newcomer to the United States so didn’t speak English and she didn’t really have any other need just was a newcomer. And then I had like several kids who were like on medication so at different times I had this big schedule of like when to go and send them to get their meds and like some of them didn’t actually take it. And it was very interesting. And then I had another student that I couldn’t, again as a sub you don’t know their whole story but I couldn’t figure out why he was even in there like there weren’t any noticeable things and he wasn’t even one of the ones who had to take medication. So it was just this like really bizarre setting. So then at lunch time, the other class would come by the room and we had to go out and wait on the ramp for the other class to come and then we would like file at the end of their line and like march down to lunch together. And I had one that was out because she hadn’t really taken the medicine when I sent her to go do but since I was the sub, it was so disheartening. Especially for that new girl who was just a newcomer like what was she thinking. It was really sad to me that you’re gonna take some of the neediest kids and like put them all in this room and then they’re made to feel like they don’t really sit with the rest of the class and you have to come and file at the end of the line and go and eat and then you’re back here and it’s just bizarro to me. And I just thought “Oh my gosh!” And to me, now being a parent, because at the time I wasn’t, but like even more so now, it’s like what if that was your child? Like would you want them being treated that way? If your child is at a school that

65 doesn’t include them or doesn’t respect them as a person then, you know, it’s no one speaking up for them. T1 described her attitudes and her perspective of growing up with an individual with disabilities by elaborating on this individual in the final interview: My cousin who was born with spinal bifida and was in a wheelchair his whole life and I grew up with him and I don’t think I even consciously realized and you know that was just sorta who he was. So maybe that’s part of it too. So if you know somebody personally, I think you maybe have a different perspective on them deserving to be a person and not seen as like an outcast. T2 also had the opportunity to grow up with an individual who had a disability. She described how her personal life and upbringing may have influenced her attitudes to including students with disabilities in her class. Namely, she stated her relationships with people with disabilities: I have a cousin with cerebral palsy. And I grew up pushing her around in her wheelchair and having to listen very carefully to make out what she was saying and just supporting her in any way I could. So that probably started it but I have an aunt who is a special education teacher and has been for awhile. Like 30 years. I never knew exactly what that meant and I would even go in her classroom sometimes. Of course it was high school so it looked a lot different but I never really knew what that meant even though I knew she was a special ed teacher she never talked about her students in a way that gave me any idea what that meant. And when I was in her classroom, I couldn’t tell so that probably had a lot to do

66 with it as well so when it came up in my professional career I was like “Oh, that’s what my aunt has been doing for like thirty years. T2 further clarified her view as someone who knew an individual with disabilities in her childhood in the second interview as she said: I don’t know that I ever thought about it and maybe it was just a natural thing because my cousin had cerebral palsy and she was in a wheelchair and she couldn’t walk and she was deformed and she was hard to understand and she couldn’t speak. And in our family, there was never any difference made between her and a cousin without a wheelchair and it was all that we were all just family and you helped out where you needed to help out. Not to mention the fact that you probably would have gotten in deep trouble if you had said anything inappropriate. So the cousin comes to mind. Now, I’m remembering another girl at a cousin’s house across the street. We were all like family but we were really good friends but there was a child over there that had Down syndrome and we grew up with him and we played together. Now, I knew that he looked different and I remember them saying, “Eddie has Down syndrome.” But nobody ever explained what that was. That’s what that was. That’s what you need to know, Eddie has Down syndrome. Ok, let’s go play. That’s just sorta how it was. After reflecting on the aspects which led to her inclusive attitude, T2 suggested that her own cultural background may have contributed to her attitudes towards students with disabilities in some way:

67 Now, I’m gonna take it a step further and say that maybe some of it comes from me being black. Because even though it’s not considered a disability, it’s considered a difference so maybe I’ve always been a little sensitive to being different or...and I know that I wouldn’t want anybody treating me a certain way because of my skin color. So why would I treat anyone differently because of anything else. Does that make sense? Now, keep in mind, I’ve never thought of that, but that’s what I just thought of right now. Between growing up with friends and family members with disabilities and knowing intuitively, that that’s just, I don’t know, it just never came up. But I just had to throw that in there because that has to have played into my psyche somewhere. In contrast, T3 had little experience with people with disabilities in her personal life. When asked what she thought had shaped her beliefs about people with disabilities, she replied: Just the students, you know, actually. I was probably wasn’t one to be on the bandwagon at first. Believe it or not, no. (laughs) I really have to admit that. But um, seeing the students. I was, um, probably way more terrified than any of the other teachers probably around campus to have students with special needs in the class. Not knowing how I could serve them best. And still not knowing if I’m doing the best for them. You know. But knowing that I’m trying and they’re growing. I guess is the bottom line. Yeah, I definitively wasn’t one who was on the bandwagon.

68 T3 then discussed how she had no experience with people with disabilities as an individual growing up: No. No experiences at all. The only experience I could have, I guess was in junior high when they were all in a different wing of the whole school. Maybe that’s what terrified me the most. Because they would all go to lunch together and they would all leave together and I never got a chance to interact with anybody. Intentional teaching. Another theme that emerged was that all three teachers were “intentional” in their teaching methods and practices. “Intentional teaching” included being reflective about their teaching and making adjustments to lesson plans in order to meet the needs of the students in addition to being organized, systematic, and thoughtful when preparing structured lessons. An example of how T1 was intentional in her teaching was when she allowed students’ voices to be powerful. Students were playing with their pencils and papers at their desks while T1 was talking and asking questions about rotational symmetry during a math lesson. Fieldnote: Two students were talking at a table, a girl asked them to stop talking. They continued to talk. T1 asked them if they heard her ask them to stop and that it is distracting her from learning.

69 By being intentional, the three teachers capitalized on teachable moments that may have been unexpected and unplanned. For instance, T1 was attuned to the individual needs of students within the class. Fieldnote: During one math lesson, students were working at their tables; they were talking loudly to each other. T1 was walking around to the tables to check on students’ work. Some students had drawn three shapes already, whereas some students had only traced one block. Some students were simply sitting and talking to one another. T1 was going around to the table to model how you have to go a quarter of a turn to see if the shapes will match up. T1 went up to a student who was not participating in the activity and said “J, what shape are you going to do? Pick a shape.” Further, T1 reacted to the class’ behaviors and reflected on how to best teach skills even if they were unplanned. One example of this was when the classroom had gotten unorganized. T1 took the opportunity to read a book about messiness and taking care of one’s space. Fieldnote: T1 said, “How have you been taking care of our place? I’m going to read one of my old favorites called Pigsty. There is trash, all sorts of stuff scattered around the room. Hit my limit. I need to be more organized and I’m disappointed that we got more stuff for next year when it was beginning to look organized.” After reading it, the class had a discussion about what had happened in the classroom. This shows how T1 was conscious that this needed to be taught and attended to in the classroom.

70 Another example of a time in which T1 reflected on the class’s behavior and held the students accountable for their behavior was when she intentionally reviewed what behaviors were appropriate for which learning environments. Fieldnote: T1 asked what are some things that could possibly get in the way of getting to do the things they want to do. T1 started writing the list of the ideas the students were coming up with at the bottom of the read to self list. (i.e. talking, playing around, passing notes, not being a self-controlled student) “So all of these things we put on, they take time to be able to do these things. Are there times in the day to be talking? To play around? Lost self-control a little bit, when are those times?” The students responded with suggestions such as recess, free time, PE. T1 explained in her interview about how she reflects constantly on creating lifelong learners in her students. Intentional teachers also act purposefully with a goal in mind and work toward reaching the goals they set forth as teachers: For the goals for all students, for me, I think again, it’s like, helping them to see that learning is really an ongoing process throughout your whole life and just because you didn’t know something at one time, it doesn’t mean that you can’t figure it out later on or maybe you’re just not ready for it yet…So for students to know that learning is work and it’s hard and sometimes you’re not going to understand it right away or you’re not going to know it right away but with time and motivation and you know, effort you can do lots of different things.

71 All three teachers appeared to do things for a specific reason or purpose. Namely, T1 explained why she always planned to teach in inclusive classrooms and how she wants to instill a compassion for others within all her students: I think that, it’s great on a lot of levels. Even though there are challenges to it at times. I think that it’s really important for people, young and old, to understand that there is all different people that you’re gonna encounter in your life and to have that compassion for people who have different experiences than yourself or different needs and all of that. You know when we get a student who comes to [school] who have never been around students with disabilities or have never seen a student in a wheelchair, that sort of thing can sometimes be really eye-opening for them. Depending on the child, some students can also be a little bit fearful and not know how to react. I think it’s a way to build compassion and learn to interact with different kinds of people. I hope to always be a part of that type of program if I were to leave and go somewhere else. Another example of how her belief systems may affect her teaching practices was evident when T1 discussed how shocked she was with a colleague who did not see the value of inclusion: One teacher was offended that there were kids included and she said, “I don’t even know why they’re in there. And it was so hurtful to me, I didn’t know what to say. It was like, ‘They’re in there because they’re a fourth grade child and they deserve to be in a school. Like to me it just seems so normal. But it was very eye-opening. Because here’s this veteran teacher, professional person supposed

72 to be doing what’s best for kids and as she spoke more she’s being required to be sure everyone meets standards and is proficient in all these things. And she didn’t feel like she could do that for these children and that that would take away from some of her focus on getting the rest of the kids there or something, which to me, is like weird but I’m not that person who is so driven by test scores. And I know it’s important. I’m not like devaluing that. I know that’s the system we’re in... And I think that in order to be open to changing or to having people accepting inclusion and knowing that you’re not going to have everyone being on the same page all the time. Like, I think it is a mindset that the adult in the room has to have like for kids because I think that you’re never going to have a classroom with everyone being the exact same. When discussing the most challenging aspect of inclusion, T1 stated how when reflecting on her teaching practices, she was always curious if she had done enough for all her students, including the students with disabilities: And then, I think for me, sorta, depending on how needy the student is, there is always that little bit of “Am I doing enough to meet their needs?” I know that there’s parts of my program that are like super powerful and that can reach students more than they might in someone else’s classroom. And then there [sic] are other pieces that I’m always the doubting of ‘Could I do a little more?’ Is there a way to like, you know? But I do that with any student. T1 also discussed, in both interviews, how two books helped to transform her teaching and taught her how to be more reflective and intentional about her practices.

73 The textbooks included The Power of Our Words (Denton, 2007) and Yardsticks (Wood, 2007). (See Figure 3).

Wood, C. (2007). Yardsticks: Children in the classroom ages 4-14. (3rd ed.). Turner Falls, MA: Northeast Foundation for Children, Inc.

Denton, P. (2007). The power of our words: Teacher language that helps children learn. Turner Falls, MA: Northeast Foundation for Children, Inc.

Figure 3. T1 Textbook References. T1 utilized both texts and discussed how they influenced her teaching philosophy. Both T1 and T2 discussed the importance of flexibility and taking advantage of teachable moments. When it appeared to T1 that her class was having difficult abiding by the rules for “Read to Self” time, she offered a reminder instead of a reprimand to the class and used the opportunity to teach the students what it should look like. She stated, “Take a moment to revisit the expectations that we agreed on during Read to Self time.” Then she proceeded to write on the board what went well and what are things they could improve on. This allowed students to share their experiences and reflect on how well they thought the “Read to Self” time went. Another example was when T1 discussed with the class how she noticed disappointing behavior as they walked to lunch earlier in the day.

74 Fieldnote: T1 created another teachable moment by telling her class how she noticed that some students in wheelchairs were unable to get to the cafeteria with their peers because the class was not in a single file line like they should have been. Instead, she told the students, that her class was taking up the entire walkway. Because this behavior was disappointing, T1 took advantage of the opportunity and had the students practice walking in a straight line to the cafeteria to ensure they respect others around them in the future. T1 stated how it was challenging at times to maintain fluidity in lessons because of the changes in schedule: Flexibility is super important because this year not so much. But the past couple of years before, you know, you had to be really flexible because schedule things will change or come up or you’ll be like working on something and they’re pulled for therapy and just being--feeling willing to know that it might not always end up being like you had your vision of things going and knowing that you’re going to have to be willing to learn and be willing to be open to you know changing what your first impression of something is. The intentionality that T2 demonstrated manifested itself in lesson design and methods. She did everything with a goal in mind and tried to reach the end goal: The main goal is that they love learning. I just, that’s when I feel angst when they don’t care about learning. More than anything, I want them to be passionate…and that they know that they can do and be whatever they want to be.

75 But they have to want it and it has to come from inside. It can’t be hoisted upon you, so to speak. So that they will be life-long learners. T3 echoed this statement by discussing how she had specific goals for her students: I think my goal for my students…one of my goals for my students is to make sure that, [sic], they’re growing. At their own speed. At their own pace. Um, I know that having 26 different second graders in every student is going to go at a little bit different pace. Just seeing that they are growing. Not necessarily that they are being advanced or mastering all the standards but getting, getting there. Into a place that they feel confident—challenging them a little bit above where they’re at but not so that they are in tears. So that they still want to learn. Both T1 and T2 modeled being reflective individuals and gave their students the opportunity to practice this skill as well. In one observation, T1 modeled being reflective about a lesson by having the students complete a reflection page about their math quilt project. T1 said to her students, “Last week we worked on our math quilt. We’ll do our reflection today since we didn’t have a chance to.” Another example of modeling reflective practices was seen when following a language arts period, T2 asked her students on the carpet how they thought the Daily Five went. One of the students responded by saying it was awesome. T2 challenged the student to say why he believed it had gone awesome. ST-1, who worked with T1, agreed that her planning is always intentional during collaboration times:

76 When she’s planning lessons, it’s part of her process of what the focus students is going to do. It’s why she makes the time to meet with me. To her, it’s her responsibility to make sure they’re engaged. With T1, I think that it’s almost just an intuitive part. It’s just a part of who she is that every kid is important and that every kid should be a part of things. It’s just the way that she perceives kids. It’s not like in some other classrooms—they did things different and then after I started working there, they changed their model. I mean T1 was already [sic] that mind frame was already there the he should be or she should be a part of things and what they are going to do and how they are going to do it. Collaboration. Another theme that emerged from the data was that all three teacher participants collaborated regularly with their special education colleagues. The teachers met with the special education teacher on a regular basis to plan instruction, modifications, and adaptations for all students during collaboration time. Collaboration time differed in its structure from teacher to teacher depending on when it was done. All three participants emphasized the importance of meeting with their special education support teacher colleague. T3 discussed how the collaboration meeting with the special education teacher had progressed over the course of the year as she gained confidence in being able to meet the needs of the student with significant disabilities: I think we check in probably on a daily basis informally. We try to meet once a week but it’s really difficult I know with all of our schedules right now...we were meeting at least once a week for at least an hour but if not more, but right now, I

77 couldn’t say that that’s happening every week anymore. More informally, touch bases. When she described the best part about working in an inclusive classroom, T3 explained how the additional colleague support was good for her as she learned better how to include students with disabilities. T1 agreed that she has many informal meetings with her special education counterpart on a nearly daily basis: We kinda go weekly. This year the dynamic that we have, like [the paraeducator] will relay messages to [ST-1] cuz she and I have such a pretty good relationship. Cuz you know the student that I have this year, she can do so much more. She still has a lot of limitations but she is so active in whatever we’re doing. So I don’t feel as pressured to meet as often as when I have had a needier group, I’ve had to be more on about ‘ok, let’s try and meet and modify these things so’ I feel like we’ve been able to not meet as often. But I think this year with just one student and knowing the paraeducator so well we kinda like modify things together. But I still meet with [the special education teacher]. In the past it was like we would definitely meet once a week to kinda check in and talk about what’s coming. And if I’m going to do some bigger project, or if I need help in modifying it more, we definitely meet. T2, who worked with the same special education inclusion teacher as T3, also discussed how the relationship between the special education inclusion teacher and her is good and full of respect for each other as professionals:

78 I think it’s working ok. I think it could be better. I think the way the system is designed something could be tweaked so that there is our intentional planning time built in to the day. She and I work well together because we’re both kinda flighty, well, you know. We both try to not take something personally. We plan informally, like all the time. A quick email or I see her in the hallway and I go ‘blah blah blah.’ As far as formal planning, we try to do that once every other week. But there seems to be something else that always comes up, which is why I say the inclusive practice structure needs to be such that the co-teachers, it’s mandatory that you get together and plan. But we’re making it work without that piece, but I think that that’s something that would fine tune it even more. But we just work together. We play off each other. We have discussed, various coteaching models. We did kinda get that in that training. And so we try to switch that up. So it’s not always one teach, one assist but literally co-teaching. I’m going to do this part. You do that part. We’ve experimented with parallel teaching. Stations teaching. And you know we do a lot with small groupings. Because we really feel like that’s the most effective way to like get to specific needs of all the kids. We both agreed though in our ideal world that the coteaching inclusive practices would look a lot different. This would be our classroom. All day every day. Every subject would be co-taught. Everything would be co-planned and co-taught. The way it is now is language arts or math depending on the day and it’s just an hour a day. Four days a week. So, it could be better. But you know, we’re making it work, but it could be better.

79 ST-2 agreed with T2 when she was interviewed. ST-2 stated, “I feel like we have really great planning sessions. We’re really strategic about what my time spent doing in her classroom. And so I feel like she utilizes the support she has really well. And she is able to plan and collaborate in a really easy way.” T2 also described the value she saw in keeping the communication with her colleague honest. Because of the challenge of beginning inclusion at a new school at the beginning of the school year, T2 discussed how she confided in and worked closely with her special education colleague to ensure that she was doing all she could to meet all of her students’ needs: I did [have conversations with the special ed teacher about her frustrations and feelings], and usually it was full of tears and snot, because I was overwhelmed and that is the only word I can think of for it and the funny thing is she was sort of overwhelmed too because the model of inclusion was new to her and she no longer has her own classroom with her own kids. Her kids are farmed out and the kids that would normally be hers are now farmed out and so it’s just different. We definitely shared our feelings, our frustrations. We also celebrated the days and said yes that worked, it isn’t going to work tomorrow but at least it got us through today and that was huge, if not for her I don’t know how any of it would be working. The importance of open, fluid conversation between teachers was an aspect of collaboration that was mentioned by all three participants. Namely, T1 discussed the teamwork dynamic between the special education inclusion teacher and herself:

80 I guess for me I always have felt like it’s sort of a team effort. I felt like, um, I, I can’t myself meet all of the demands of their IEP goals solely in the classroom. It’s not, it’s not possible to, um, work that much one-on-one or two to three on one or whatever, um, throughout the day because of 33 other, you know, there are just like so many demands. And um, so, uh, you definitely could not do it without another teacher who is like helping support that. Because last year I had a student who was not in the OI [Orthopedic Impairment] program but he was working at like a preschool level. And I had him for third and fourth grade and so, um, that was when, like those two years were really eye-opening for like how that team of teaching could really help and support. Because he was like closer to my OI students in his abilities and what they were working on in some of their smaller groups um for math and for reading. And so, um, like in the classroom, we usually have a reading group that they are a part of when we’re doing that leveled grouping. Sometimes it’s a little bit higher that where they can really work, you know. Um, I think again, it helps bridge that sense of belonging in the classroom. It helps them be a part of that group and it helps students that are in that lower level group be sorta that lead you know because they often times don’t get to feel that way, you know in the bigger classroom. Um, like I definitely could not, um, do it without another person. Like I don’t think I’m the sole person in that dynamic. Like I think it’s definitely in order to really give them a solid foundation in you know meeting some of those goals like I don’t think you could just do it in a classroom with just one teacher. For sure. I think, I don’t know if

81 I’m answering that question all the way. Like, I don’t know. To me, I guess I have to support the specialist because I don’t feel like I would, like, I know I could if I took some more training, you know, write all the goals and do all that. Like I’m definitely not at a place for all that you know, having to do all that by myself that’s how I feel about it. But I feel like I’m pretty good at taking what I do really well and bringing it in or you know what’s coming from that side. Does that make sense? Because I think that coming from, you know, working with someone like [inclusion teacher’s name] where she has, you know, I’ll bring ideas like ‘ok, this is what I want to do’ (laughs). And I think that we could do it this way and sometimes she’ll tweak it like ‘well, ok, I’ll bring this to that project or whatever.’ You know. Her expertise at modifying it. Because I don’t always have that. You know. Like working with different people over time, I’ve learned to sort of, think more creatively and how can you use, um, you know, one of those devices which I’m still not a super expert on how to do all that (laughs). Like I’m um, but. I think it’s definitely a partnership. When asked what would foster more successful inclusive practices, all three participants declared that having more time to collaborate with the special education teachers would be beneficial for the students. T2 stated that it would be helpful if she had more time to collaborate built into her schedule: [The special education teacher and I] talk about [having more time to collaborate] all the time. We talk about how we’re both cool with kinda flying by the seat of our pants because there really isn’t that structure built in where that collaboration

82 is expected. Or it might be expected but nobody has built it into the day. So we’re forever trying to figure out, where are we going to fit it in throughout the day amongst all the other meetings we have. Um, but yes, I would love to have more time to collaborate throughout the day. That might make it easier and seem less chaotic. If you can’t tell, have you ever been in here when the co-teacher and I were in here, and if you couldn’t tell we were flying by the seat of our pants, then woohoo cuz there is no planning time. Literally. So sometimes, I’m calling her on the phone ten minutes before she’s gonna come in this is what we’re doing in math today, what do you think about that? And she’s like, “Yeah, let’s try it that way.” And that’s just how it is. She and I can communicate through eye contact. We haven’t planned a thing. So she walks in, we make eye contact and somehow she discerns what I am saying or whatever. You know. Or there are days. We try to experiment with different co-teaching models because we don’t always want it to come across as one teach and one assist. Because truly, she is a professional just like I am. And it took me a minute to get there. Because she’s as much a part of the teaching as I am. It shouldn’t be I’m always doing all the talking and she is monitoring kids. So we have learned together how to, we don’t say, “Tomorrow we’re going to parallel teach.” Or on Thursday, we’re gonna do stations. She can come in and judging by whatever is happening in the classroom, or by the look I give her or she listens as I explain to the kids what’s about to happen, she knows what we’re doing that day. It’s good but it’s bad. Because just because it’s working for us this year, it’s not a good model. It’s not

83 something that I would want to tell somebody else to do but it’s been working for us. But I think that being organized and prepared makes it easier to know where or how it just kinda works. The use of formal, scheduled meeting times weekly had worked with T1 in the past although this year, she has seen a shift in the kind of collaboration she has been doing: For, my relationship right now, we don’t have to necessarily formally meet on a regular schedule all the time where I know she does with some other teachers. But she and I know each other pretty well and the student I have this year is easier to modify for and is actively involved in everything we do so I don’t feel like I need a whole lot of extra meeting time to get like what I need. But if we’re going to do something bigger or something that I would like, need help with, I’m really comfortable with going to her and say “Let’s talk about this” or here are the things I’m going to do, what should I do [to modify for students with disabilities]?” According to the ST-1 who worked with T1, collaboration time was beneficial because T1 usually was always in the planning stages of her lessons. It lended itself to incorporating modifications and adaptations within lessons as opposed to backward planning with lesson plans that had already been written: With T1, collaboration is very informal because a lot of times when we collaborate, she’s still kinda in the middle of, because we do it ahead of time, still not in a written format. With T1, it’s always in the planning stage and I think

84 that’s very helpful. From the basic plan it already incorporated the ideas or adaptations. It also helps me because I know that she’s thinking and I’m hearing her planning versus when I see it on a lesson plan and they know and it’s already pretty solidified in what they want it to look like but I don’t know. All team members who were interviewed and observed appeared to be committed to work with one another as professionals in order to benefit of all students. One salient aspect of co-teaching and collaborating with a special education teacher was the ability of the general education teacher to make sure that the special education teacher was seen as a teacher within the classroom. During one observation, the special education student teacher was having difficulty keeping her small group of students at the back table on track. Noticing this, T2 observed from afar as she continued to teach her own small group during language arts. When asked about what she was thinking during this specific situation, knowing that some general education teachers may have difficulty giving some of the control and management of the classroom to another professional, she responded honestly: I can remember specially what day you are talking about and luckily the group that I was working with were being self-guided they were on task independently because I don’t know if you noticed but my full attention was over there. It took everything in me not to get up and walk over there and kinda settle everything down and then walk away, because that is what I would normally do. So that was a struggle, but I think I won. I just wanted to see, because that particular student I have never seen him act like that before, ever! So I wanted to see what is

85 happening, what is causing this because he was out of character and what is she going to do about it because she has to learn too, because when she is in her own classroom there wont be anyone to come fix the situations? It took a lot of biting my tongue and breathing deeply and I finally just said focus on the kids that are sitting around you and they didn’t appear to be needing help and later on I just mentioned it to the supervising teacher that there was a little struggle or whatever because I wanted to stay out of it because I didn’t know how it was settled but I just looked up and it was. I was thinking what a waste of time—fix it already, get back on task, you are being a distraction to me, but I have to learn to let those things go. Even with having an aide when you give directions to do something and you know you just have to let it go and just let it happen. I had to teach myself that because again I come from a traditional one teacher that is your class mind set, I do everything, I correct homework, I staple paper, I discipline the kids, and this is more a community setting. The co-teacher, the student teacher, everyone has to be able to do it all. It is hard not to think of it as my classroom so I practice saying “our classroom” and “the teachers” and “our students” and it is just staying the vocab and the mindset. Now for good or for bad you don’t have to be in control of everything even if you want to be. It is okay to sit back and see someone else in action and maybe you will learn something too. Was it easy? No. In T2’s classroom, ST-2 taught a lesson and prepared group activities with T2. This observation gave an insight into how T2 and ST-2 were able to successfully collaborate within the classroom.

86 Fieldnote: Students are on the carpet. T2 used direct instruction to explain how students will be working independently at some rotations. “How are you going to be working?” (students respond with “Independently.”) T2 asks the ST-2 to read something for her. “You want to jot these down (to ST-2).” St-2 writes on board. “What else did we talk about, ST-2?” ST-2: “Unique features.” T2: “I like those words.” T2 goes on to explain each station. “When you are being an independent worker, you might be…” (explains what it will look like) “Don’t be boring. Don’t tell me it’s cute. We don’t care if it [the animal] is cute.” “You are researchers. What are you?” Students: “Researchers.” Are you ready to be scientists? “Move with a purpose so don’t be a distraction.” Paraeducator relationship. The final theme that emerged was that all three teacher participants had a good working relationship with the paraeducator who worked in their classrooms. The participants utilized the paraeducators as another professional in the classroom and collaborated with them in order to meet the needs of the students with significant disabilities that were included in the classes. T2 discussed how it was an adjustment for her to become comfortable having extra adults in the room because she was used to very traditional settings or paraeducators who only worked with one student throughout the day: It absolutely was a concern for me because of my background experience was the traditional one teacher classroom full of kids shut the door and go about your business and I didn’t have to think about you have done inclusion before it wasn’t

87 called inclusion. But you had students before with IEPs with the special needs. And you figure out with an aide or without an aide and I have been both ways. So I don’t know if it was the aide or if it was having it all lumped together it was just overwhelming. Extra bodies. Extra responsibilities. Who is in charge of what? Nobody knows. I was like how many bodies is that? Oh wow. So that took some getting used to. And luckily the co-teacher—the special ed teacher, and I are more alike. You figure out how to work together because we are all here for the same reason and as for having the aide all day it is different because the aide before was assigned specifically to a student her duties and responsibilities were well defined. In this structure they are classroom aide. I have never had a classroom aide before. So it was figuring out how to most effectively see a classroom aide who is not supposed to shadow someone in particular. So how to make her feel useful and needed. It was a bit much at first but like everything else you work through it. I am more comfortable now that I was before. And my co-teacher and I have talked about this, if we were to co-teach in it’s true form she and I would know that we are co-teaching before the first week, and we could set up the classroom together, it would truly be our classroom. She would be in here all day everyday. As it stands now, she is just in an out an hour here and there and I understand that but I don’t think it is effective at all and she would probably agree with me. And the models that were shown to us where not models in elementary classrooms it was interesting, they were in secondary setting where there was junior high or high school. So the co-teachers were literally in that classroom all together all the

88 time it wasn’t coming and going. And you can say I put air quotes around that training. T2 went on to further explain how the paraeducator was a classroom aide not simply an aide for the students with significant disabilities: She is the classroom aide. She’s not their aide. So she, she helps where help is needed. I think that’s the fine line we have to watch out for. Teaching learned helplessness. And doing things for kids that they can actually do themselves. I think that has been a challenge that I think we have kinda overcome. I think the classroom aide now understands that you know your job is to support all the students in the classroom and just because we have these two students with specific needs, doesn’t mean that every time to get to work, you run to them. Because we’re teaching them to ask for help when they need it and giving them the opportunity to be independent. You know. And figure out when they need help. And some of those natural partnerships. It was like one person saying, ‘I’m going to help him all the time.’ The fieldnote observations showed this as well; an example was when the paraeducator sat at the back table in the classroom assembling homework packets while T2 was at the rug teaching the entire class. The paraeducators in both T2’s and T3’s classrooms also were responsible for small group lessons at tables within or outside of the classroom, working with students with and without disabilities. In one instance, T2 got two markers, handed a marker to the paraeducator & told her to go around and check the back of the paper for the correct answers. T2 went around and checked work—and put a

89 big happy face if all was correct—and told them (quietly) to go put it away and go back to the rug. The paraeducator drew money signs and stars on correct papers to denote the students had everything correct. This was an example of how both the pareaeducator and teacher were doing the same thing and working together to ensure that all students understood the concept by correcting their papers. They both appeared to be part of a teaching team. The paraeducator worked in conjunction with the teachers to ensure that the students were able to participate successfully in activities the entire class was doing. T2 described working with the paraeducator during the interview: Right now, Ms. [Paraeducator] is in my room everyday for five and a half hours. So she leaves a half an hour early. Her focus is, I would say, during math, is on my student [STUD-C]…so for the majority of the day, I really want her not to be focused on one specific student. That’s more like a SDC class or a special ed class when you have a one-on-one. And I want each student to feel like they are supported by both of us. So, I think the only time I would say where my paraprofessional is focused just one student is during math. And then the rest of the day, we tag team it. We go to specific students. She has a list of students with special needs who would need additional support during math or additional support during language arts. Um, but even my general ed students struggle during those times as well. So you never know who is going to be needing that extra help.

90 An example of how T1 utilized the paraeducator within her classroom was evident in her response to an interview question: This year, she has really been an awesome support for the whole class. Like management-wise because, um, she and I worked together not last year, but the year before. You know, I’ve seen a huge amount of growth. Some of it comes from, like, um, I talked to her about different things that I was learning about at workshops that I had been to or you know the parent meetings at the preschool or um, I have this one book called Yardsticks, it’s like stages of development for kids and I had shared it with her when her daughter was in like 6th grade and so she would read it and stuff so we started having conversation about, you know, student behavior, and stages of development. And I think it sorta helped her know me and my philosophy more. And how to help students. In the past, with her and with other paraeducators I’ve worked with, they tend to work and support just that one student and um the other students in the class don’t necessarily see them as the teacher because they aren’t necessarily leading lessons. And so this year it’s been awesome because she will help coach students like ‘what are we working on…what are we doing?’ so she has sorta become more of a, um, teacher role in the classroom as to how students look to her. There’s still some of that, you know, depending on the particular student. Sometimes I think the students see them and think, ‘I don’t have to listen to them. You know, they’re not my teacher…’ that sorta thing around the campus so I think that the more you can bring them in as the teacher role and the more they play a part, like in morning

91 meeting. I know in the past, I was trying to let my students have some independence and you know so she’d kinda hang back out of things at times like at morning meeting or something that she wanted that student to be able to experience the whole thing on their own and not be like always right with them. Which I think is important and powerful, but instead of dropping out all together, go sit by other students. Or you know, go be with and coach, right now. So they start to be that lead in the classroom, that there’s an adult who knows what’s going on. Oh, they’re going to make sure that they’re learning too. So when I’m doing reading groups, she’s been really good this year letting the student come and be with me. Then helping coach other students, whether it’s on the computer or at their seats. I think it’s a nice balance. If I needed her to come and help support the OI student, then she’s there, but she’s also able to let her have that independence with the group and feel that sense of “oh now I have that time and be part of that.” And also giving her a chance to make those connections with other kids in the room because I think you have a more powerful, functioning classroom, when you can find ways for them to support. It’s like you want them to have connections with more than just that student. As T1 described how the paraeducator and herself worked together, it was apparent that there was a consistent, open communication between T1 and the paraeducator in order to plan ways in which students with disabilities can access the curriculum.

92 T1 also discussed in the final interview how she has witnessed a progression in the paraeducator’s classroom management skills and her willingness to be part of the classroom teaching team not just as a support person: The person I work with this year. I love working with her. And it’s been fun because I worked with her the year before last year. She and I have had a lot of conversations about different things job articles, and I’ve shared with her over time that she…she has her own two kids and so there was a parent meeting that I had gone to that had connected and so we started talking about. She has taken it upon herself to read some of the professional books I have on stages of development. Like Yardsticks and it has connected to her personally as a parent and it also has helped her in the classroom. Through building that stronger relationship with her, she has become, like, a stronger presence in the classroom. Like she’s become more comfortable and confident in what her role could be. Whereas before she used to kinda just come in and help the student she was assigned to. And she told me at one point, “I always felt like maybe I misinterpreted the comment of like, ‘letting the students have a little bit of independence not just always being at their side. So if it was read aloud or something, then she would step away. Before, she used to just isolate herself rather than ok, maybe you don’t want to sit with those students so they have some time to just be them but go sit by those ones that might need you to be like, ‘Hey, let’s find out what this story is about!’ Engage other students. And now she’s doing that and it’s really great. So I think it can be a really powerful thing. And

93 I’ve had that connection with some of the other paraeducators and people that have been in my room. And I’m not really uncomfortable with it at all. Overall, the data from the interviews, observations, and artifacts over this six month period gave the researcher new insights into the complexities of teaching in general, and especially teaching heterogeneous groups of children. The organization of the eight themes described above was an attempt to make meaning of these in-depth discussions and observations. While there were many more quotes and observations, an attempt was made to utilize only those which best illustrated the points most important to take away.

94 Chapter 5 Discussion This study yielded information that may be useful in examining general education teachers’ inclusive practices in the future. Namely, the data collected showed that while there is no one specific kind of general education teacher needed for implementation of inclusion to be successful, there were many characteristics and behaviors that were found across all three general educator participants. Impact of the Study The common qualities of general education teachers that enhanced their attitude towards inclusion of all students with disabilities were identified as a result of the inperson interviews, classroom observations, interviews of the special education inclusion support teachers, and collection of artifacts. The most prominent aspect of the results was that the general education teachers all had a sense of ownership of the students with significant disabilities in their classes. They all saw the students as their students who were supported by the paraeducator as well as the special education support teacher. Another important aspect of the results was that there was a strong sense of unity among each class observed. There appeared to be a supportive, accepting belief among the students that the teacher not only hoped for, but intentionally taught as well. There was an emphasis on creating an atmosphere of respect for all individuals despite one’s abilities or disabilities by all the teacher participants. It is important to note that all the participants had formed some kind of attitude towards people with disabilities before participating in this study. The personal

95 experiences or lack of experiences that they have had with people with disabilities affected the way in which they supported their students with disabilities. While both T1 and T2 had grown up with individuals with disabilities who they always had treated with respect, T3 had little experience during childhood and even adulthood with people with disabilities. Consistent with the findings from Giangreco et al. (1993), T3 admitted that her attitudes toward inclusion became more positive over time simply because of the experience she gained having a student with significant disabilities in her classroom. An aspect of the results, however, that cannot be learned necessarily as a teacher, is the foundational belief that all students can learn and that all students deserve a quality education. This sense of equality for all students was something that all participants adhered to with strong beliefs. It is interesting to note, though, that T3 declared that, while she strongly believed in the implementation of inclusion, she understood through years of experience and listening to teachers who may be hesitant, that it may not be something that all teachers are capable of successfully implementing. Implications Towards Practice As a result of this study, it is apparent that collaboration of the general education teachers with other professionals was essential to ensure that students with significant disabilities were able to participate within the classroom activities and lessons. The three participants shared how both their relationships with the special education support teacher and the paraeducators were important in order for the students with significant disabilities to have their needs met. The joint team effort of the professionals was one

96 finding that could be used for professional development for teachers. Learning how to successfully collaborate with other professionals is an important skill for any teacher. Another finding of this study is that challenging students, by holding everyone to high expectations, allows for students to see their peers with significant disabilities as competent, hard-working peers. In other words, the three teachers were able to differentiate instruction for all the students in the class and were able to challenge them to gain more knowledge, social skills, and communication skills by doing so. The participants’ positive language and approach as fair, but firm leaders of the class translated into a cohesive, group of individuals who learned to cooperate, collaborate, and listen to each other. The peer supports allowed for high expectations as students of varying levels learned the importance of teamwork. Limitations The teachers selected for this study were recommended based on their positive attitudes. The study focused on how their positive attitudes toward inclusion were shaped, specifically what different factors may have influenced their perceptions of including students with significant disabilities in their classes. The results described the common qualities of these three teachers. However, the findings may not generalize to all teachers. While patterns of behavior were identified throughout this study, the time period was limited. Namely, the interviews and observations occurred over a span of six months. Had the study been completed during an entire school year, the results may have differed.

97 Future Research This study yielded information that could be used as a basis for future studies about inclusive general education teachers’ attitudes that are illustrated through their practices and philosophy. Because teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion can change for the better over a period of time, it would be interesting to see if preservice general education teachers were given the opportunity to student teach in an inclusive setting if their attitudes towards inclusion would be positive because they had practical experience of working with students with significant disabilities. Another possible area of further research that is based on the results of this study would be to see if a correlation exists between teachers who are non-Caucasian and positive attitudes towards inclusion. As T2 indicated, she reflected on how her ethnicity as an African American woman had helped her identify with being someone, like a person with disabilities, who may be perceived as different from others in the “majority” group. Conclusions One question that was posed to each of the participants was what advice they would offer to a general education teacher who was apprehensive about including students with disabilities. These answers seemed to capture the essence of their belief that all students have the right to be educated along side their same age peers. T3 answered this question having been a teacher with much apprehension about teaching in an inclusive classroom:

98 I would say, and I didn’t get the chance to, but I would say, “Go and watch one. Go and observe. Go get some hands on experience if you possibly can.” Um, talk to teachers exactly like me who was very, um, leery. Very worried going to the IEP. Like “How am I going to change this diaper? How am I going to teach this child to not hit or not throw?” And then stepping back and realizing that general ed students do that too. (laughs) You know, it’s not just my students in special ed, actually it’s probably more my students who are not who are having negative consequences more than my students with special needs. T1 reflected on this question by saying: I guess like, I’ve heard, there’s been time, where there’s different people where there are huge gaps. But it goes back to treat people the way you would want to be treated or what if it was your child. How would you want them to be treated or be a part of having that ‘regular school experiences’ although it has it’s challenges, the kids deserve to be a part of the community. They are in our world; they are in our life. They deserve to be treated with respect. I subbed once in a classroom, I don’t even know what the name of the class was everyone had special needs, behavior, and one girl was brand new to the country. It was the scariest day ever. There weren’t any role models. It was just one thing feeding off the other. If someone was nervous about it, I would just share some of the great things about it. What are your students going to gain from it instead of what are my students going to be missing out of?

99 T2 agreed with T1 and declared that the students with significant disabilities are kids first and foremost: I would say, “Don’t worry about it.” The same way that you are able to connect with, support students is the same way that you’re going to connect with and support these students. And not to compartmentalize these students, those students, my general ed, my special ed, How about they’re just kids. They’re students. And anything that you feel like that you are lacking, like “I don’t know how to do it, I don’t know how to handle it.” There’s support for that. She’s called your co-teacher or your administrator or someone so you ask for help. And don’t be afraid to switch it up. You might have to do things differently. It might not be “cookie cutter” which it shouldn’t be anyway. But just don’t worry about it. Just do it. Perhaps what can be gained from this study is the notion that there is not one “type” of general education teacher who can successfully include students with disabilities within his or her classroom. Instead, this study appeared to show how with a positive attitudes towards students with disabilities—understanding they are people first who deserve a quality education like every other child—general education teachers can support all students within their general education classrooms. T2 captured the essence of this by saying in her responses to two different questions during the final interview: From an ethical standpoint, yes, all kids can be included. All kids should be included. We don’t want to start segregating, separating because if you can do it with one segment of the population, why can’t you do it with another segment of

100 the population. But at the same time, we want to be equitable in how we do that so we don’t just start shoving kids everywhere and thinking that’s it. Fix it. Make it so that it works in their best interest. Some teachers will try that and some will be like “Whatever . Sit over there in the corner. Don’t bother me, and I won’t bother you.” You know and that’s not right. What is that kid learning? There’s a lot more conversation that needs to happen from the top down...I think it is rooted in your belief system. Is it your belief that all kids can learn? It just looks different and you may not even recognize it. So with [STUD-W], was I saying is he even learning anything? Because it didn’t look like what I thought it would look like. And when he was taken from me, I noticed some differences in his behaviors and academic abilities so apparently he was learning, absolutely. It wasn’t traditional, it wasn’t how I would picture it in my own head, but he is learning. So, are there students that aren’t able to handle being in a general ed classroom? Maybe. I don’t know. Maybe if they are strapped in a hospital bed and can’t get here, you know that I mean? Otherwise I think, I think it is about community, it is about, I don’t know, exposure, that is just the gist of it. But for example with [STUD-W] if he were in a classroom where all the kids had his same disability how would he ever experience anything different. How would you know if he was able to do x, y, and z if all he is every doing is this because that is the box that he was put in. So on the one hand I could say that I think all kids could be included but to fall back and say with some common sense.

101 Appendix A Copies of Participant Consent Forms

102 March 12, 2012 Principal XXXXXXX Elementary School XXXXX XXXXXX XXX XXXXXXX, XX ###### Dear Principal: My name is Katherine Flores, and I am a graduate student in the College of Education at California State University, Sacramento. Currently, I am a third grade general education teacher at an elementary school in Sacramento. In addition, I am seeking to earn my master’s degree in education with a concentration in special education. I have recently graduated from two California State University, Sacramento teaching credential programs. The two credentials I currently hold include a California K-6 Multiple Subject credential as well as an Education Specialist Credential for Students with Moderate/Severe Disabilities. The area of special education that I am most interested, which is the focus of my thesis, is inclusive education for students with significant disabilities. The purpose of this study is to examine the factors that make general education elementary teachers inclusive and accepting towards students with significant disabilities in their classes. Two general education teachers at your school have been identified by a colleague in special education as being successful inclusive teachers for all students. The following information is provided to help you decided whether you wish to participate in the present study. You should be aware that you are free to decide not to participate or to withdraw at any time without affecting your relationship with this researcher or the university. Data will be collected through in-person, audio taped interviews as well as classroom observations of the teachers. In addition, artifacts such as student work, Individualized Education Plan notes and other relevant paperwork will also be examined. The interviews and observations will be coded to ensure anonymity; all audio tapes will be destroyed after they are coded. Dr. Kathy Gee will be an informed colleague during this research and will also be examining the data for analyses and coding in addition only to the researcher, Katherine Flores. Do not hesitate to ask questions about the study before participating or during the study. I would be happy to share the findings with you after the research is completed. Your name will not be associated with the research findings in any way, and only the researchers will know your identity. There are no known risks or discomforts associated with this study. The expected benefits associated with your participation are the information about the experiences in learning about what makes general education teachers “inclusive” in their classrooms. By signing this consent form, I agree to allow Katherine Flores to conduct this study in our school. I am signing it with full knowledge of the nature and purpose of the procedures. A copy of this form will be given to you to keep. ______________________________________ Signature Sincerely,

Katherine V. Flores CSUS Graduate Student (916) ###-#### March 12, 2012

______________________________________ Date

103 Teacher XXXXXXXXXX Elementary School XXXX XXXXXXX XXX XXXXXXXX, XX #######

Dear Teacher, My name is Katherine Flores, and I am a graduate student in the College of Education at California State University, Sacramento. Currently, I am a third grade general education teacher at a private school in Sacramento. In addition, I am seeking to earn my master’s degree in Education with a concentration in special education. The area of special education that I am most interested, which is thus, the focus of my thesis is inclusive education for students with significant disabilities. I have recently graduated from two California State University, Sacramento teaching credential programs. The two credentials I currently hold include a California K-6 Multiple Subject credential as well as an Education Specialist Credential for Students with Moderate/Severe Disabilities. The purpose of this study is to examine the factors that make general education elementary teachers inclusive and accepting towards students with significant disabilities in their classes. You have been identified as a successful inclusive general education teacher by a colleague in special education. The following information is provided to help you decided whether you wish to participate in the present study. You should be aware that you are free to decide not to participate or to withdraw at any time without affecting your relationship with this researcher or the university. Data will be collected through in-person, audio taped interviews as well as classroom observations of the teachers. In addition, artifacts such as student work, Individualized Education Plan notes, and other relevant paperwork will also be examined. The interviews and observations will be coded to ensure anonymity; all audio tapes will be destroyed after they are coded. Do not hesitate to ask questions about the study before participating or during the study. I would be happy to share the findings with you after the research is completed. Your name will not be associated with the research findings in any way, and only the researchers will know your identity. There are no known risks or discomforts associated with this study. The expected benefits associated with your participation are the information about the experiences in learning about what makes general education teachers “inclusive” in their classrooms. By signing this consent form, you agree to participate in this research. You are signing it with full knowledge of the nature and purpose of the procedures. A copy of this form will be given to you to keep. ____________________________________ Signature Sincerely, Katherine V. Flores, Graduate Student California State University, Sacramento (916)###-####

__________________________ Date

104 Appendix B Semi-Structured Interview Questions

105 Semi-structured Participant Initial Interview Questions Participant Number:

Researcher:

Date and time of interview:

Location:

Number of years taught in general education: Number of years taught in an inclusive classroom: Number of student without disabilities: Number of students with significant disabilities: 1. What is your teaching philosophy? 2. What training have you received in regard to inclusion? 3. What are your goals for all your students? 4. What do you see your role/responsibility as to the students with disabilities who are included in your classroom? 5. Describe your teaching style. 6. Has your attitude towards inclusion changed over time? 7. Do you use collaborative partnerships in your classroom, such as peer buddy systems? 8. How do you utilize the paraprofessional in the classroom (if applicable)? 9. What do you see as your greatest challenge as a teacher? 10. How often do you collaborate with the special education inclusion teacher? 11. Describe your experience with students with disabilities as part of your classes over the years. 12. Do you always plan on teaching in inclusive classrooms? Why? Or Why not?

106 13. What is the best part about working in an inclusive classroom? 14. Has anything in particular (a significant event, a challenging experience, a great colleague) helped shaped your attitude/perspective towards students with disabilities? 15. What would you say/advice would you give to general education teachers against or worried about teaching in an inclusive classroom? 16. Do you do any specific ability awareness activities/discussions/etc. with your students? How? When? 17. How are you able to prevent students from disabilities from simply being “helped” by peers and instead thought of as an equal, competent member of the class and friend to others?

107 Follow-Up/Final Participant Interview Questions: I’ve noticed how you allow the students to have so many choices. Could you please talk about your decision to embed choices throughout your activities? I’ve heard you mention that not all student can be included. What do you mean by that? Are you thinking about a student with certain disabilities? IF the student had a better support system in place, do you think that would make a difference? Is it because you have never seen somebody like the student you described be included successfully? Who do you think could benefit from having all students included in general ed classrooms? Or is it because you haven’t had the training for working with students with multiple disabilities? What are some of your emotions that you have felt through the inclusion process? (Frustration? Excitement? Joy? Exhaustion?) Did you have conversations with the special ed inclusion teacher about your feelings and frustrations? Trying times? How was inclusion introduced to you at this site? What was the scariest part about including students in your classroom? How do you feel like with the extra adults in the room? Do you like having extra adults in the room? T2: How did she feel when the student teacher did not have any management/control of a small group, including the student with significant disabilities? Was she frustrated? How does T3 feel when para is unable to get her student with significant disabilities to do work? What type of student do you think would not be able to be successfully included in your classroom? If you could ask for three things to improve inclusion and your practices as a successful inclusive g.e. teacher, what would they be? When have you/do you feel most successful about inclusion? Do you feel like it would be more helpful to know more about the policies and special education systems and what drives supports? How comfortable are you with the terminology?

108 What do you think is the most important thing to make an inclusive classroom work? I notice you’re very intentional in the way you talk to the kids…always with respect, however, with high and clear expectations for their behavior. How did you come to be so good at this? Is there a specific philosophy you follow? To T2: Could you talk about the student with disabilities who ended up leaving your class earlier this year and your experience with this? I found it great that you take ownership over the students with disabilities in your class, did you naturally do this & come to the conclusion that you are responsible for their education? Or was it a process? How did it happen? Would it be more helpful if the special ed teacher spent more time in and outside the classroom collaborating with you?

109 Special Education Teachers Interview Questions 1) Why did you suggest the teacher(s) you suggested? 2) What do you think makes them so successful? 3) Do you collaborate with them recently? 4) What do you think her attitude towards inclusion is? 5) What kinds of things does she do that support your feeling that they are very inclusive? 6) Does she consider your students to be her students? 7) What has she done that makes you think that she believes in inclusion? 8) Does she participate in IEPs? Write reports? Home visits? 9) What kind of disabilities does the students in their classes with significant disabilities have? 10) Have you talked about plans for the future in regards to inclusion (with this teacher)?

110 Appendix C Definitions for Coding

111 Classroom Community: The general education teacher used positive language, had clear behavioral expectations for all students, valued the social and emotional development of the students, allowed for peer support and teamwork among all students, and worked directly with students with disabilities. Choices: The general education teacher gave multiple opportunities for students to make different kinds of choices for themselves throughout the day. Engaging Activities: The general education teacher created and implemented lessons that were creative, engaging, interactive, and fun—a cornerstone of Universal Design for Learning. High Academic Expectations: The general education teacher held all students accountable for: knowing the information, focusing on their work, and being on task during lessons and activities. Personal Experience: The personal experience of the general education teacher with people with disabilities, included interaction with close friends or family members and any training she has received on inclusion. Intentional Teaching: The general education teacher designed organized, well-planned out lessons to meet goals for all students; she is thoughtful and reflective about her teaching practices and does not just react to situations without thoughtful consideration and planning. She wants things to be good in the classroom and demonstrates her love of teaching through the apparent love and care she shows her students.

112 Collaboration with Special Education Colleague: The general education teacher met regularly and communicated consistently to plan and discuss modifications and adaptations of lessons for students with significant disabilities in her class; the special teachers worked together inside and/or outside of the general education classroom. Paraeducator Relationship: The general education teacher used the paraeducator as a respected member of the teaching team.

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