Higher Education in Biology in Belgium B. within the Flemish Community Charles Susanne, Vrije Universiteit Brussel

1.

Introduction

The Dutch (Flemish) speaking Flanders represents 57% of the Belgian population. Flemish people tend to have a good knowledge of foreign languages. The second language is English: a survey conducted by the British company ATS Quest indicated that 38% of the students spoke English fluently, 50% sufficiently and 12% insufficiently. Belgian companies have very high expectations about the knowledge of languages: 9% expect candidates to speak 4 languages fluently, 22.6% 3 languages and 25.8% 2 languages. All these factors result in a tendency for higher mobility of the Flemish-speaking students.

2.

General organisation

A law in 1988 transferred the competence in education from the central state to the language communities. It resulted in a separate co-ordinating body grouping the Dutch-speaking universities (VLIR). Most of the data developed in this paper originate from internal documents published by the VLIR for the use of the Flemish universities. University teaching is regulated by the law (decree) of July 1991 issued by the Ministry of Education of the Flemish Community Government. There are different universities inside the Flemish community (see table 1) classified into state universities such as Gent and Limburg, catholic universities such as Leuven and Brussels (KUB), a free non catholic university such as Brussels (VUB), and an institutional grouping of 3 universities (Antwerpen). In all Flemish universities, the departments of biological sciences are grouped together within the Science Faculty. Teaching occurs in Flemish. At masters level, some tolerance exists towards teaching in English.

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Table 1 – List of Flemish universities 1. Antwerpen: Universiteit Antwerpen (overall name for 3 university institutions) - UFSIA Universitaire faculteiten St. Ignatius - UIA Universitaire instellingen Antwerpen - RUCA Universitair Centrum Antwerpen 2. Brussels - VUB Vrije Universiteit Brussel 3. Gent - RUG Rijksuniversiteit Gent 4. Leuven - KUL Katholieke Universiteit Leuven with a section in Kortrijk (KULAK) (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven afdeling Kortrijk) 5. Limburg - LUC Limburgs Universitair Centrum Diepenbeek Another university without biological sciences is the Katholieke Universiteit Brussel (KUB).

Studies of B.Sc. Biology last 4 years and consist of two parts, a first period of two years (kandidaat) and a second period of two years also leading to the final diploma (licentie). Those who want to specialise have the choice between • Masters with ‘complement’ teaching (GAS) • Masters with specialised teaching (GGS) • Ph.D. Biology is taught essentially in 5 universities (see table 1) : the 4 years in Brussels, Gent and Leuven, as well as in Antwerpen (2 first years in RUCA, 2 last years in UIA). Limburg offers only the first 2 years and the Kortrijk’s section of Leuven only the first year. Entry to university For biology no entry exams exist, and there is no limitation on numbers. In fact, those who finish secondary school successfully are allowed to register for any first year of university teaching, with the exception of engineering where an entry exam is arranged. Equivalent European diplomas from secondary schools are given the same opportunities to enter Flemish universities as are Belgian students.

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3.

Studies in biology

3.1. University teaching 3.1.1.Undergraduate teaching (B.Sc.) 3.1.1.1. Content There is no pre-defined curriculum at B.Sc. level in Flanders. Therefore, great variability of content exists. This variability is a function of the way universities define the importance of non-biological courses in the curriculum of biology, the ratio between theoretical and practical teaching plus the expertise of the staff available. The first two years (kandidaat) have a rather similar program: the background of the biological sciences has, of course, to be taught. The two last years (licentie) present a greater degree of variability, with much more specialised courses and with a greater divergence of curriculum structure. 1 st Cycle (candidature) The first 2 years of Biology (candidature) contain only basic courses in general biology, zoology or botany, plus a large amount of non biological courses, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, statistics, informatics and geology. Table 2 gives an overview of these different courses and the number of hours of theoretical and practical work as well as the equivalent credits (ECTS equivalents) in the universities where these 2 first years exist (Antwerpen, Brussels, Gent, Leuven, Limburg). Leuven also offers the possibility of doing the first year of biology in a decentralised place, such as Kortrijk.

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Table 2 – Sum of hours in the 1st and 2nd year (‘kandidatuur‘, candidature)

Theory Mathematics

Physics

Chemistry (including biochemistry)

Statistics and informatics

Geology

Zoology

Botany

General biology, genetics

Philosophy and varia

Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC) Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC)

30 90 60 75 45 90 90 75 135 101 120 120 112.5 135 140 30 60 30 45 50 60 30 30 45 35 105 105 127.5 105 90 120 90 97.5 135 80 90 120 30 55 15 30 15 60 45

Pract. 45 90 72 75 60 60 90 40 115 96 75 120 96 180 150 60 60 72 45 60 30 40 24 54 25 181 105 168 115 115 120 90 144 120 80 45 55 -

ECTS

7 15 13 8 9 14 15 16 20 19 19 23 25 25 27 10 10 9 8 10 10 5 5 7 6 25 17 24 22 18 20 17 19 23 15 12 15 6 10 3 3 3 7 6

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The amount of course diversity is rather similar in these different universities with however some nuances such as • less mathematics in Antwerpen, Leuven and Limburg (7 to 9 ECTS) but more in Gent and Brussels (13 to 15 ECTS) • a variation in the amount of physics from 14 to 20 ECTS was also noted, the least being in Antwerpen, the most in Leuven. Gent has the lowest number of hours but with an average number of ECTS points. • a rather stable amount of hours for chemistry (although the ECTS points vary between 19 and 23) • a rather similar number of ECTS (8 to 10) for statistics and informatics with the greatest number of hours in Brussels • a low variation in geology, except for Antwerpen with the greatest number of points • in zoology a variation of 18 ECTS (Limburg) to 25 (Antwerpen) is observed (215 hours in Limburg to 295.5 hours in Gent) • in botany the fluctuation is higher (15 ECTS in Limburg to 23 in Leuven, 160 hours in Limburg to 255 in Leuven) • for general biology including genetics, the discrepancies are greatest (0 to 15 ECTS from Leuven to Brussels, 0 to 165 h from Leuven to Brussels); this situation could be partially explained by the teaching of general biology concepts within more classical courses such as botany and zoology in Leuven and Gent for instance.

Generally speaking, it means that the Flemish universities do not give the same importance to non biological courses,

ECTS

Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC)

60 68 68 68 71

Theory(h)

Pract.(h)

330 390 307.5 435 371

270 400 304 469 391

Antwerpen gives the lowest number of ECTS, although for theory the lowest number of hours are given in Gent, the greatest number of hours being given in Leuven but not in ECTS terms, where Limburg gives the most. In terms of practical work, the greatest number of hours are given in Leuven and Brussels.

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For the biological courses, large variation is again observed:

Antwerpen (RUCA) Brussels (VUB) Gent (RUG) Leuven (KUL) Limburg (LUC)

57 49 49 45 43

315 315 292.5 240 225

301 240 312 235 250

The lowest number of hours and credits was in Limburg, the largest number of credits in Antwerpen, the largest number of hours of theory are given in Brussels and Antwerpen. In the latter case the number of hours practical work is also higher. 2nd Cycle: B.Sc. (licentiaat) The 2 Bachelor years (‘licentiaat‘) are only present in 4 of the 5 universities developing the ‘kandidatuur’ curriculum: Antwerpen, Brussels, Gent and Leuven. An analysis of the curriculum is more difficult to do systematically because specialisation occurs during these studies also implying a differentiation in the four universities. In the 1st year, one university (Brussels) chooses a common year without specialisation; in the other 3 cases (Antwerpen, Gent and Leuven) a choice has to be made between the classical disciplines of zoology and botany. This differentiation was still present a few years ago when the Flemish universities were not awarding Bachelors in Biology but in Zoology or Botany and where complete separation existed from the 1st year B.Sc. level (see table 3). A considerable difference in number of hours is found, about 230 hours, with the lowest number being observed in Antwerpen and the highest in Brussels, the lowest number for theory is in Gent the highest in Antwerpen, the lowest number for practical work in Antwerpen and the highest (twice as much) in Brussels. In the 2nd year (see table 4), all universities choose optional directions which do not correspond to the previous separation of zoology and botany, with the exception however of Gent where the second year remains rather unitary. In other universities, the options can be summarised into 4 main directions. • environmental sciences • molecular biology • organisms and population • human biology. In terms of number of hours teaching the lowest number is in Leuven. It is in Gent that the relative importance of the thesis is the lowest, in the oth-

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er universities the thesis could be considered as more or less equivalent to a semester of work. In some of the universities, the last years of the Bachelor level are dedicated to more applied disciplines such as biotechnology or biochemistry. In the cases of Brussels, Gent and Leuven, possible bridges to the title of ‘bio-engineer’ are also possible (see table 5).

Table 3 – 1st year Bachelor

Antwerpen 1st licentie (1st year)

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

2 possible orientations Common compulsory courses 1) Zoology option (compulsory courses) 2) Botany option (compulsory courses) No real optional courses

210 195 165 -

110 210 240 -

26 34 34 -

Brussels 1st licentie (1st year)

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

One common year without orientations Compulsory courses Optional courses

270 30

655 -

54 6

Gent 1st licentie (1st. year)

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

Compulsory courses 1) Zoology option (compulsory courses) 2) Botany option (compulsory courses)

150 120 120

348 200 200

37 23 23

Leuven 1st licentie (1st. year)

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

Compulsory courses 1) Option zoology 2) Option botany

127,5 202,5 172,5

244 158 173

26 34 34

in summary, 1st licentie (1st. year) Antwerpen Brussels Gent Leuven

Th.

Pract.

Total

375 -405 300 270 300-330

320-350 655 548 402-417

725 955 818 717-732

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Table 4 – 2nd year Bachelor

Antwerpen 2nd licentie (2nd year) 3 possible orientations 1) Physiology, biochemistry Compulsory courses Optional courses Thesis 2) Organisms and population Compulsory courses Optional courses Thesis 3) Environment Compulsory courses Optional courses Thesis Brussels 2nd licentie (2nd year) 3 possible orientations 1) Environmental sciences Compulsory courses Optional courses Thesis 2) Molecular biology Compulsory courses Optional courses Thesis 3) Human biology Compulsory courses Optional courses Thesis Gent 2nd licentie (2nd year) Compulsory courses 1) Zoology option (compulsory courses) 2) Botany option (compulsory courses) Optional courses Thesis Leuven 2nd licentie (2nd year) 1) Physiology and molecular biology Optional courses (oriented choice) Religion Thesis

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

150 120 -

20 360

24 16 20

135 105 -

50 360

26 14 20

200 90 -

20 360

28 12 20

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

90 60 -

120 400

26 12 22

75 75 -

120 400

23 15 22

75 75 -

120 400

23 15 22

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

45 45 45 60 -

120 45 45 60 250

14 12 12 16 18

Th.

Pr.

ECTS

130

70

37

15 -

360

3 20

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2) Animal ecology, morphology and biodiversity Optional courses (oriented choice) Religion Thesis 3) Plant physiology, biochemistry, molecular cell biology, molecular genetics Optional courses (oriented choice) Religion Thesis in summary 2nd licentie (2nd year) Antwerpen Brussels Gent Leuven

130

70

37

15 -

360

3 20

130

70

37

15 -

360

3 20

Th.

Pract.

Thesis

Total

240 -290 150 150 145

20-50 120 225 70

360 400 250 360

650-670 670 625 475

Table 5 – B.Sc. with applied orientations

Antwerpen: Brussels: Gent:

Leuven:

Biochemistry (Bachelor Sc. level) A title of ‘bio-engineer’ can be given after 3 years study (after the two preliminary years) with specialisation in cell and gene biotechnology, or chemistry. Biotechnology (Bachelor Sc. level) Biochemistry (Bachelor Sc. level) (*) Possible bridges exist with the title of ‘bio-engineer’ depending on the faculty of agronomy Biochemistry ( Bachelor Sc. level) (*) Possible bridges exist with the title of ‘bio-engineer’ depending on the faculty of agronomy

3.1.1.2. Organisation of studies Time span The 4 years required to reach the final diploma (licentiaat) is divided into two periods each of two years (a kandidaat being awarded after the first period); the final diploma is granted after 2 years of the second cycle. A normal student on entering the university at about 18 would reach the B.Sc. level at 21 years.

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Number of students Tables 6, 7 and 8 illustrate the total number of students in biology in the Flemish universities and the total number of diplomas awarded. The number of students in biology at B.Sc. level fluctuated in the years 1993-94 from 402 in the first year to 141 in the last year (table 6). It is estimated that between 25% and 50% of the students registered in the first year pass their examinations successfully. Those that fail can start their first year a second time, hence in Flanders, the frequency of registered students getting their final B.Sc. in biology reaches 57%: this corresponds to the average rate of success observed for the different university topics (58%) (Minon, 1989). The rather large number of B.Sc. students getting a degree which opens the doors to the teaching profession (table 6) does not necessarily mean students are choosing this profession. Many get this degree ‘in case’ they do not find any other job.

Table 6 – Number of students in biology (year 1993-94)

A*** B G Le K Li

1*

2

3

4

Ph.D.

Teacher**

85 20 141 92 17 47

32 8 62 39 16

26 12 31 38 -

23 6 16 26 -

38 7 9 69

5 7 26 19

123

57

Biochemistry A*** G Le

21 10 8

9 3 16

Biotechnology G Total

402

157

18

4

164

141

* 1 = 1st year candidature, 2 = 2st year candidature, 3 = 1st year licentiate, 4 = 2d year licentiate ** Preparation to the teacher profession (aggregatie) *** A = Antwerpen (Ruca for 1 and 2, UIA for 3, 4. Ph. D. and teacher) B = Free University Brussels (VUB) G = Gent (RUG) Le = Leuven (KUL) K = Kortrijk, section of Leuven only for the 1st year biology Li = Limburg (LUC)

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Table 7 – Total number of students in biology (year 1993-94)

A* B G Le K Li Total Biochemistry A G Le Total Biotechnology G

1st cycle

2nd cycle

117 28 203 131 17 63 559

49 18 47 64 178

-

30 13 24 67

-

60

* A = Antwerpen (Ruca for 1st cycle, UIA for 2nd cycle) B = Free University Brussels (VUB) G = Gent (RUG) Le = Leuven (KUL) K = Kortrijk, section of Leuven only for the 1st year biology Li = Limburg (LUC)

Table 8 – Number of diplomas (year 1992-1993)

Biology A* B G Le Li Total Biochemistry A G Le Total Biotechnology G

1st cycle (kandidatuur)

2nd cycle (licentie)

20 10 36 30 16 112

22 11 22 33 88

-

12 1 6 19

-

23

* A = Antwerpen (Ruca for 1st cycle, UIA for 2nd cycle) B = Free University Brussels (VUB) G = Gent (RUG) Le = Leuven (KUL) K = Kortrijk, section of Leuven only for the 1st year biology Li = Limburg (LUC)

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Table 9 – First year students 1980 A* B G Le Li Total

81 42 135 108 75 441

1985 68 26 93 83 90 (2) 360

1990 56 19 (1) 92 67 69 (2) 303

1993 85 20 (1) 141 92 47 (2) 385

(1) after evaluation, 1st year is common to the scientific topics (2) after evaluation, 1st year is common to chemistry * A = Antwerpen (RUCA) B = Free University Brussels (VUB) G = Gent (RUG) Le = Leuven (KUL) Li = Limburg (LUC)

Table 10 – Total number of degrees awarded 1980

1985

1990

Bachelor Sciences (licentie) A* 31 B 16 G 46 Le 55 Total 148

39 16 78 50 183

28 12 30 28 98

22 11 22 33 88

7 4 7 14 32

5 7 26 19 57

17 4 21 14 56

17,** 4 4 31 56

Preparation to the teacher profession (aggregatie) A u 21 B u 16 G u 28 Le u 23 Total u 88 Ph.D. A u 6 B u 13 G u 12 Le u 11 Total u 42 u = unknown * A = Antwerpen ( UIA for 2d cycle) B = Free University Brussels (VUB) G = Gent (RUG) Le = Leuven (KUL) Li = Limburg (LUC) ** estimated numbers

1993

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Between 1980 and 1990, a decrease in students registering for the first year has been observed, this decrease has been recouped more recently (table 9). However, the number of diplomas in B.Sc. biology awarded is still decreasing (table 10), and has not yet been affected by the increase in first year students in the last few years. This decrease is also observed in the specific teaching programs. The number of Ph.D. diplomas awarded is however stable. Assessment of B.Sc. Students have to pass written and/or oral examinations for each course: the student can ask for an oral presentation of an examination which must be open to the public. Each course is marked in a 0 to 20 system. In the overall assessment of the whole year, variations can exist from university to university. In Brussels for instance, a student fails when he\she does not reach an average of 11 and/or they have 2 or more courses with a result of less than 10. The thesis (final work) has to be presented and defended orally in front of the relevant board of teaching staff of the department of biology and is judged by this board. The marks for the thesis form a substantial part of the final year results, equivalent to the number of credits. For each year, if a student fails, he is obliged to register for the same year of study in the following academic year, but he can receive some exemption for courses where he obtained excellent results. Exceptionally, he can even group the 2 years of the 1st cycle or of the 2nd cycle. 3.1.1.3. Impact of European Union programmes In the Flemish universities, many Erasmus programmes exist, specifically in biology such as in Antwerpen (UIA) and Brussels. Some of these ICPs are more research oriented programs or are linked to far larger faculty or university programs. These programs allow fairly free exchange of all students in biology. Most of our Erasmus students are at B.Sc. level and some at M.Sc. level. Impacts have been multiple, at student, staff and curriculum level for instance. At staff level, the Erasmus programmes result in teaching exchanges with staff going to do teaching abroad, whilst others come to our universities. This results in a broadening of teaching methodologies by comparison with methods used in other E.U. partner universities. For less motivated colleagues, these programs are also of interest, obliging them to compare CVs, quality of teaching and assessment possibilities for credits. Moreover, the programs have often had multiplicative effects at an R&D level, as in Human Capital Mobility. Many individual postdoctoral grants have resulted, as well as some research networks.

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At student level, the exchanges promoted, such as in many disciplines, an open mind, and counterbalanced tendencies towards nationalism. As in all ICPs, students were sometimes disappointed by the small grants they received but were stimulated to learn new languages and were faced with new cultures. More specific to biology, students were enriched by the increase in topics they could discover in other E.U. universities: the high variability of biological concepts results in specialisation of many universities, because of the staff available. In no university can all topics be taught, so the student is inevitably limited in his choice. This choice is vastly increased through universities with complementary syllabuses. After an Erasmus stay, many students choose to continue some research and eventually a Ph.D. in the previous host university, as common research has developed, and a common jury has been created. The high variability of biological topics in teaching and research stimulates, more easily than in other sciences, synergism and internationalisation. Let also note that marriages have resulted from some student exchanges, I suppose we can consider, even if this remark will not be considered serious enough for such a report, that this is a normal and positive product of Erasmus exchanges. At curriculum level, all Flemish universities developed a credit system where less rigidity is present than in the past: this credit system is at least of use for Erasmus exchanges and for transferring results between 2 academic years.

3.1.2.

Post-graduate studies M.Sc.

3.1.2.1. Content This is no official organisation of the teaching programmes at Master’s level, they are linked to the research facilities present in each institution and to the expertise of the staff available. These master’s are usually awarded on the basis of a new research thesis different from the B.Sc. thesis. The Flemish community decided in a law of 1991 to distinguish at Master level. • GAS: complementation or enlargement in one year of a basic Bachelor degree • GGS: specialisation teaching in one or two years In biology, it means • for GAS (in Flemish except where otherwise indicated)

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Environment Environmental sciences (also in English) Environmental sciences Human ecology Ecotechnology (in English) Environmental effect reporting Environmental management Environmental sanitation (in English) Molecular biology Biochemistry Cellular biotechnology Bio-industrial sciences Aquaculture (in English)

Antwerpen

1 year

Gent Brussels Brussels Brussels Leuven Leuven

1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year

Antwerpen Leuven Leuven Gent

1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year

• for GGS (all are taught in English) Environment Fundamental and Applied marine ecology Human Ecology Nematology Environmental sanitation

Brussels Brussels Gent Gent

2 years 2 years 1 year 1 year

Molecular biology Tropical molecular biology Molecular biology and biotechnology Aquaculture

Brussels Brussels Gent

2 years 2 years 1 year

Others Nematology Biostatistics

Gent Limburg

1 year 1 year

3.1.2.2. Organisation As indicated in 3.1.3.1., a distinction must be made between complementation teaching (GAS), where all Master’s are offered in one year and where most occur in Flemish (8 in Flemish, 4 in English), and specialisation teaching (GGS) where many master’s occur in 2 years (5 in 2 years, 5 in 1 year) and all are taught in English. Even if the GAS are distributed over the different universities, only Brussels and Gent offer highly specialised Masters (GGS). Number of students Table 11 shows that most GAS students follow environmental sciences, in GGS most students follow Human Ecology or Marine Ecology as well as Molecular Biology or Tropical Molecular Biology. The only prerequisite is a B.Sc. level in Biology. In many cases, GAS and GGS are in fact open for

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B.Scs in other topics such as chemistry for molecular orientated master’s. In other cases, such as for some master’s in environmental sciences, the prerequisites can even be even broader giving the opportunity to social scientists, economists, engineers or lawyers... to follow the courses.

Table 11 – Member of Masters students during the academic year 1993-94 Years 1st

2nd

GAS

A B A G Le G B Le G

Biochemistry Human Ecology Environmental Sciences Aquaculture Cellular biotechnology Environmental sanitation Environmental reports Environmental management Environmental sciences

B B B G B G G Le B

Ecotechny Marine Ecology Human Ecology Nematology Tropical Molecular Biology Aquaculture Environmental sanitation Environmental management Molecular biology

3 51 107 9 6 13 30 37 55 GGS

15 21 57 9 16 3 12 3 16

11 28 17

7

3.1.2.3 Impact of European Union Programmes Many arguments developed in 3.1.1.3 about the B.Sc. level are still relevant here. Many masters are more research oriented, and offer specialised courses and/or technologies. There are still, much more than at B.Sc. level, linked to the presence of available staff and to the research potential. Due to this specialisation, many of these master’s were in fact, already international even before the Erasmus programmes. Europeanization has of course been accelerated. This internationalisation is also a guarantee of quality: the student has many more choices of ‘environmental linked’ or ‘molecular linked’ teaching, they can more easily choose a university corresponding to their hopes for a profession and career, to their need of specialisation or alternatively for a more holistic approach.

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3.1.3.Ph.D.level 3.1.3.1. Content Although there is no pre-defined programme for the Biology Ph.D., the law of July 1991 completed in January and February 1993 required the addition to a Ph.D. programme of some courses or credits to be accumulated by the student beforehand to support his\her research thesis. Considerable freedom is given to each university for this Ph.D. preparation (doctoraats opleiding) (table 12). We will take the examples of Antwerpen and Brussels. The preparation programme is compulsory in Antwerpen but is based on a system of optional courses which may even be followed outside the university of Antwerpen. During the Ph.D., usually over 4 years, the student will accumulate 60 points: - 20 points for courses recognised by the doctoral commission - 40 points for specific activities organised or recognised by the department of biology, usually 20 points at departmental level and 20 points at research level, such as masters courses, seminars,…

Table 12 – Preparation for a Ph.D. Antwerpen: 60 credits 1) 20 credits for courses recognised by the doctoral commission 2) 20 credits for specific departmental activities 3) 20 credits at research level (Master, seminars....) Brussels: 60 credits 1) maximum 24 credits for courses (at B.Sc or M.Sc level, at faculty, university or interuniversity level) 2) maximum 20 credits for summer schools, congresses, profess. placements 3) max. 10 credits for exams for grants 4) max. 15 credits for research reports 5) max. 15 credits for publications with referees 6) max. 5 credits for seminars 7) max. 10 credits for a second thesis - The jury has at least 3 staff members from Brussels,and at least 2 staff members from outside the institution Gent: 60 credits 1) courses at B.Sc or M.Sc level 2) seminars, stages - Jury with 5 staff members Leuven - Jury with at least 3 staff members Limburg- Credit system not yet of application

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In Brussels, the goals of the Ph.D. preparation are to gain a more profound knowledge of the research topic and a more holistic approach. Each student is encouraged to participate. It is structured around • maximally 24 points for specialised courses • minimally 36 points for more holistic teaching. The Ph.D. student proposes his\her own programme for agreement to a doctoral commission. In all universities, the student has to prove by a written report of his\her thesis and by an oral defense, the capacity to do independent and original research. In some cases, a second more limited research report has to be presented. 3.1.3.2. Organisations of studies Entry to Ph.D. The Ph.D. candidate must have a B.Sc. diploma, he\she must present a programme and a topic for research agreed by the doctoral commission. Time span of Ph.D. The length of the Ph.D. programme depends partly on the quality of the student but also on the student’s other activities. It usually takes between 3 to 6 years because the Ph.D. student is a full-time researcher or is nominated as a member of the teaching staff. Assessment of Ph.D. The thesis is examined by a jury of at least 5 staff members, usually including some members from outside the institution and often from another E.U. university. The jury first examines the thesis in ‘private’ in the presence of the candidate only. The candidate can then be allowed a public defense where the jury members contribute to the discussion but where members of the audience with a Ph.D. degree can also contribute. 3.1.3.3. Impact of European Community Programmes Again the arguments developed in 3.1.1.3. are still relevant here. Ph.D. students are also allowed to participate in Erasmus exchanges, for instance to learn new technologies. Erasmus programmes have broadened the possible topics of research, opening possibilities not present in the home university. Many common Ph.Ds have been developed, many Ph.Ds have been evaluated by a common jury. Students choose to develop research in the new host university or over 2 (or more) universities. It is due to this tendency for internation-

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alisation that some colleagues propose a move to an European Ph.D. in Biology (see annex 1 – Erasmus and Biology) Many Ph.D. students have also stimulated, directly or indirectly, common research programmes and even Human Capital Mobility networks.

3.2 Professional education 3.2.1.Job recruitment For biology students, various professions exist • basic biological research • applied biological research • teaching (in secondary schools, biologists are allowed to teach biology and chemistry) In applied branches, especially in the topics of • environment • industry • pharmaceutical industry • agricultural industry • food industry • pesticide industry etc. • public laboratories • hospital and medical laboratories. For biochemistry students, employment can be found in the pharmacy industry, in clinical laboratories as well as in state laboratories where control of food and medicines occur. For biotechnology, equivalent professional possibilities exist, especially in the pharmaceutical industry, the food industry and in the health sector. 3.2.2.

Continuous education

Rapid changes in the biological fields imply the need for continuing education as knowledge should be permanently accessible. No systematic institutional initiatives have been taken but staff initiatives are numerous. They are present in Flanders • at an individual level, many staff members leave their ‘ivory tower’ from time to time to give lectures to the public in cultural centres or to give lessons in secondary schools • at an institutional or a private level through ‘universities’ for adults, open for active senior people • at a professional level through masters with flexible timetable, involving ‘Saturday’ teaching or ‘summer’ teaching.

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3.2.3.Preparation of teachers Table 13 shows that the number of courses followed can be highly variable in the different Flemish universities from 90 in Gent to 210 in Antwerpen for theoretical courses, and between 45 in Gent and 70 in Antwerpen for practical work or stages. In all cases, the student is allowed to follow these courses in 1 or 2 years during the 2 last years of the B.Sc. (licentiaat). 3.2.4.

Role of national scientific societies

Some national associations exist, which are research oriented; this is the case for zoology, botany and anthropology for instance. They edit journals based on a referee system. They are however, not involved in teaching programmes or in their evaluation.

Table 13 – Preparation for a teaching career (Aggregatie) Theory

Pr

ECTS

135 75 -

70

15 9 -

Antwerpen Compulsory courses Optional courses Stage (may be followed in 1 or 2 years) Brussels Methodology Pedagogy Biology stages Optional courses (followed preferably in 2 years)

30 credits 9 credits 10 credits 7 credits 4 credits

Gent Compulsory courses (can be followed during the Bachelor years or afterwards)

90

45

-

Leuven Compulsory courses (can be followed during the 2 years of the Bachelor level)

150

60

-

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4.

New needs in biology

4.1. Shortcomings and gaps 4.1.1.

From the point of view of the development of biological topics

Our knowledge of biology has broadened so much over the last decade especially in recent years, that teaching has had to adapt. This has occurred in all Flemish institutions and has resulted in the disappearance of the division between zoological or botanical studies, with their replacement by new specialisations like environmental aspects, molecular studies and human biology. However, the specialisation of programmes depends heavily on the staff available. Moreover due to budget limitations in each of our universities, no single institution is able to cover the whole range of biology: lacunae are appearing in the final years of the B.Sc. level, and already exist at M.Sc. and Ph.D. levels. This change is probably not restricted to Flemish universities. It implies different challenges: • complementation of the needs of the different universities or special topics • collaboration in common Master’s courses • networking at research (and Ph.D.) level These challenges are perhaps more easily realised at an international level than at the Flemish community level. Similar challenges are appearing when biologists are involved in life sciences, in agriculture, in veterinary or in medical sciences. Universities will have to take up their responsibilities for public education. If indeed, as I believe, the 21st century will become the century of biology, especially biotechnology, procreatics, population biology, and environmental management; a biological culture will have to be developed. Discussion is needed to explain the limits and/or the dangers of some techniques: these discussions can not occur democratically without basic knowledge, otherwise poor science and prejudice will develop. Even, at an industrial level, education is important: the success of new industrial technologies is highly dependant on social acceptance. In terms of environmental sciences, difficult decisions must be made at a global level, over sustainability, population growth and health. Long term decisions have to be made. Many different levels of teaching are needed: • at a technical level, for the management of air, sea, water pollution, waste treatment, conservation of biodiversity.... • at a holistic level, for a better approach to the long term effects of global development and sustainability • at a professional level

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• at the level of continuous education, the public must be aware of the fragility of our biosphere and of the possible solutions. In terms of molecular biology teaching dedicated to health problems and to the treatment of human or animal diseases is becoming essential. ‘Bridge’ teaching is also important between biology and chemistry or biochemistry. Specialised master’s in immunology, microbiology, and neural sciences, … are lacking in Flanders. At a human biology level, specialised teaching of human genetics, epidemiology, genotoxicology, … are also lacking. For all biological topics, basic research is in financial difficulty : this brings difficulties for applied research, there are already alarming trends in the lack of basic research undermining the competitiveness of biotechnology industries. However, problems also appear in education where research is an indispensable teaching tool. E.U. programs clearly promote the competitiveness of our industry, research has to have industrial and/or economic relevance. Basic research is far too poor a parent of the E.U. research policy, even if everyone agrees that basic research is the only guarantee of creativity. University education is not limited to understanding of established knowledge, the challenge of the unknown is as important. The influence of industry on E.U. research policy is however disproportionate, short-term profiles are preferred to long term aspects.

4.1.2.

From the point of view of new professions

New professions have developed in three main areas, biotechnology, the environmental sciences and the human biology health-related sector. In biotechnology challenges are multiple: studies in bioengineering are trying to answer to these problems. However biologists with their less technical background and their larger scientific knowledge have an important role to play not only at a professional, but also at a research level. It is becoming of strategic importance to develop new ideas based on fundamental biology research if the bio-industries do not want to lack future strategies or to depend on non European licenses. In environmental sciences, the function of consultants for nature conversation and pollution control are necessary at different levels such as industry, local administration, national authorities or even international bodies. For these different competencies, and for environmental impact assessment studies for instance, new master’s must be developed. In health studies, many master’s could be developed including the biological aspects of agriculture, animal production, pharmacy, parasitology, bacterial or viral diseases, genotoxicology, anthropology...

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4.1.3.From the point of view of European structures European structures should help solve some challenges. More stimulation of basic research has to occur: industrialists prefer short time-scales and are not always motivated enough to support basic research where innovative technology follows only after 10 to 20 years. Only large European industries fully support the universities’ roles as centres of basic research. In education, we have to keep the multiplicative effects Erasmus programs have had in the past and avoid losing creativity through a highly centralised system in each university. Much more than in the past, we need • complementation of topics at the B.Sc. level • creation of common specialised M.Sc.s • a formalisation of a European Ph.D. (see annex 1 – Erasmus and Biology) The high variability of biological concepts, and topics of basic and applied research, make internationalisation and networking a necessity.

4.2. Prospects 4.2.1.

From the point of view of the evolution of biological topics

Shortcomings have already been mentioned in 4.1.1., challenges for the future of biology education are numerous: • responding to the increase of new research directions, although the number of staff members is limited and is even tending to decrease • responding to the lack of some specialisations in different universities • stimulating networking at the Ph.D. level • taking initiatives in public education Much specialised M.Sc. teaching will have to be created to answer the needs of • management of the various environmental problems (from air to water, from waste to biodiversity) • a holistic approach to long term environmental problems • environmental impact assessment • specific professions oriented to environmental management • specialised molecular biology teaching • bridges between molecular biology and health care • human genetics programmes, including genotoxicology and perhaps in the future gene therapy. Many of these challenges far exceed the abilities of each university, of each little country, even of each Member State, so an E.U. solution will have to be sought (see 4.2.3.).

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From the point of view of new professions

The different master’s required (developed in 4.2.1.) must correspond to new professional directions for biologists. These masters must create the possibility of professional diversification, and recycling in each of these new directions must also be foreseen. 4.2.3.

From the point of view of European structures

As mentioned in 4.2.1. most of the prospective needs can not be resolved without an E.U. input to stimulate networking. Basic research is stimulated by European networking and finds more synergies at a European rather than at a national level. A European network in biology could have many advantages • to propose a place for transversal meeting inside one discipline, favouring meeting above and/or between the topical subdisciplines • to harmonize qualifications throughout Europe • to propose curriculum development, especially in Master Sc. and Ph.D. • to regulate a European Ph. D. (see annex 1 – Erasmus and Biology) • to promote common graduate and postgraduate courses • to help to develop a European Credit Transfer System in biology • to develop exchanges of students and staff • to contribute to public and continuous education • to contribute to the creation of materials for distance teaching • to promote biological knowledge for the advancement of human welfare • to promote the geo-political ‘cohesion‘ • to favour the recycling of scientists and professors.

5.

Ways to satisfy these new needs

5.1. At university level Many of the challenges can only be opened through • a less rigid structure of teaching, directed to credits • departments or faculties more open to collaboration outside their classical sciences, not only paying lip service to interdisciplinarity but practising it without reservations • greater opportunities for teaching initiatives to be taken by the university • an open mind to mature adult education and to distance learning • bridging courses where biology could also be taught to future decision makers such as lawyers, economists, politicians, administrators, engineers.... where confrontation with new biological discoveries is inevitable.

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5.2. Governmental level Collaboration must not only be stimulated with words but by an increase in funding for joint courses. The Flemish law strictly limiting the recognition of new master’s (or at least financially supporting their students) must be revised, because at present new master’s must have more than 20 or 40 registered students. Does the Flemish community really think that for specialised masters, even with inter-university collaboration or with European networking, 20 or 40 students will be found. A smaller number of students is not related to a lower quality of teaching or to an absence of absolute necessity but to the specialisation itself.

5.3. European Union level Many biological challenges, even in professional terms and in applied options, are linked to the development of co-ordinated basic research programs. The future is not necessarily linked to short-term industrial benefits, the economic influence of many E.U. programs is no guarantee of long term solutions and of real political vision. The future of Europe is dependent on the quality of their leading innovators and of the adaptability of their research and teaching staff. Skills are in much shorter supply than venture capital. In biology, we could suggest as possible European dimensions: • the adding of quality to higher education • the complementation of teaching in subdisciplines • the complementation of research areas • the development of joint programmes • promoting adaptability of students and staff • promoting adaptability of biology curricula • the recognition of quality of teaching biology between E.U. members • the possibility of modular courses transportable on a European scale • the possibility of credit transfers (ECTS) on a European basis • the recognition of joint diplomas

Reference Minon, P. 1989. La réussite au terme des études universitaires dans les institutions francophones de Belgique. In Le rendement de l’enseig-nement universitaire. Université et société, n° 3, 43-72