Handbook of Sustainable Travel

Tommy Ga¨rling • Dick Ettema Margareta Friman Editors

Handbook of Sustainable Travel

Editors Tommy Ga¨rling Department of Psychology University of Gothenburg Go¨teborg, Sweden

Dick Ettema Faculty of Geosciences Utrecht University Utrecht, The Netherlands

Margareta Friman SAMOT/CTF Karlstad University Karlstad, Sweden

ISBN 978-94-007-7033-1 ISBN 978-94-007-7034-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-7034-8 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London Library of Congress Control Number: 2013950050 © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface

It has been a pleasure to work on this Handbook of Sustainable Travel even though its topic is not a pleasant one. It seems as we belong to a minority of people who are not optimistically biased about the future of the human habitat on the planet. Consensus among scientists is that by the end of the century, without effective changes in policy, the world will be much warmer than today with serious or catastrophic weather consequences. Emissions caused by the transport of people and goods continue to increase steadily, making the transport sector an important cause of global warming. This knowledge as well as knowledge of other long-term societal costs of current transportation systems motivated us to initiate this work. We believe it is urgent to disseminate what can be accomplished to increase sustainability of travel by households and individuals without seriously reducing their well-being and restricting their freedom of movement. Travel is a form of unsustainable consumption resulting from the Western lifestyle societies allow, encourage or occasionally seem to force citizens to adopt. In the Handbook of Sustainable Travel we disseminate current research findings of both the positive and negative sides of travel. We primarily target readers who are not active researchers of travel behaviour (many of whom are chapter authors) – but other specialists including researchers in environmental science as well as politicians and journalists who have a professional need for reviews, analyses, and syntheses of research findings. We thank all chapter authors and their co-authors for their contributions. They have fulfilled or exceeded our expectations leading to, as we think, an excellent coverage of most of the relevant research findings on travel behaviour. We also thank Margaret Deignan at Springer for her useful editorial assistance.

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Preface

Our editing work was made possible by grant #2004-02974 from the Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems (VINNOVA) to the Service and Market Oriented Transport Research Group (SAMOT). Go¨teborg, Sweden Utrecht, The Netherlands Karlstad, Sweden March 2013

Tommy Ga¨rling Dick Ettema Margareta Friman

Contents

Part I

Introduction

Overview of Handbook of Sustainable Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dick Ettema, Margareta Friman, and Tommy Ga¨rling

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Spatial, Generational and Gendered Trends and Trend-Breaks in Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lotta Fra¨ndberg and Bertil Vilhelmson

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Benefits of Travel: Needs Versus Constraints in Uncertain Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soora Rasouli and Harry J.P. Timmermans

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Satisfaction and Travel Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maya Abou-Zeid and Moshe Ben-Akiva Part II

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Car Use

The Unsustainability of Car Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bert van Wee

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Psychological Motives for Car Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Birgitta Gatersleben

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Pricing Methods to Influence Car Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peter Bonsall and Luis Willumsen

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Social Marketing in Travel Demand Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 John Thøgersen Psychological Contributions to the Development of Car Use Reduction Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Sebastian Bamberg

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Contents

Theoretical Underpinnings of Practical Strategies for Changing Travel Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Satoshi Fujii and Ayako Taniguchi Part III

Travel and Social Sustainability

Social Exclusion and Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 John Stanley and Janet Stanley Rose Tinted Memories as a Cause of Unsustainable Leisure Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Jeroen Nawijn and Paul Peeters Health and Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Susan Handy Business Travel and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Anne Aguile´ra Part IV

Future Sustainable Travel

Do Future Land-Use Policies Increase Sustainable Travel? . . . . . . . . . . 231 Bert van Wee and Susan Handy Integrated Transportation Solutions: Images of the Future . . . . . . . . . . 243 Robin Hickman, David Banister, Jian Liu, and Jimin Zhao High Quality Public Transport: Gaining Acceptance of Bus Rapid Transit Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 David A. Hensher, Corinne Mulley, and Zheng Li Non-motorized Travel as a Sustainable Travel Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Christina Bernardo and Chandra Bhat E-Commerce: Implications for Travel and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Orit Rotem-Mindali The Need to Change How People Think About the Consequences of Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Tommy Ga¨rling, Dick Ettema, and Margareta Friman About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Contributors

Maya Abou-Zeid Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon Anne Aguile´ra Department of Planning, Mobility and Environment at Ifsttar, LVMT, University of Paris East, Marne la Valle´e, Cedex 2, France Sebastian Bamberg Department of Psychology, University of Applied Science Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany David Banister Transport Studies Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Moshe Ben-Akiva Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA Christina Bernardo Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA Chandra Bhat Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA Peter Bonsall The Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK Dick Ettema Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Lotta Fra¨ndberg Department of Human and Economic Geography, University of Gothenburg, Go¨teborg, Sweden Margareta Friman SAMOT/CTF, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden Satoshi Fujii Department of Urban Management, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan Tommy Ga¨rling Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Go¨teborg, Sweden

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Contributors

Birgitta Gatersleben Department of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, UK Susan Handy Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis, Davies, CA, USA David A. Hensher Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, The University of Sydney Business School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Robin Hickman Bartlett School of Planning, University College London, London, UK Zheng Li Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, The University of Sydney Business School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Jian Liu Transport Studies Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Corinne Mulley Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, The University of Sydney Business School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Jeroen Nawijn Academy for Tourism, Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands Paul Peeters Academy for Tourism, Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport, NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands Soora Rasouli Urban Planning Group, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands Orit Rotem-Mindali Department of Geography and Environment, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel Janet Stanley Monash Sustainability Institute, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia John Stanley Faculty of Economics and Business, Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Ayako Taniguchi Department of Risk Engineering, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan John Thøgersen Department of Business Administration, School of Business and Social Sciences, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark Harry J.P. Timmermans Urban Planning Group, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands Bertil Vilhelmson Department of Human and Economic Geography, University of Gothenburg, Go¨teborg, Sweden Bert van Wee Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Contributors

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Luis Willumsen Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, University College of London, London, UK Jimin Zhao Division of Social Science, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

List of Figures

Chapter 2 Fig. 1 Mobility growth in the Swedish population, 1873–2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 2 Car access among women and men in Sweden 1978–2011. Car access ¼ a person holding a driving licence and belonging to a household owning a car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 3 Driving licence holding in cohorts aged 18–24 years, in Sweden 1978–2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 4 Long-distance travel in 1995 and 2006 for various purposes by distance travelled; Swedish population 15–84 years old . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 4 Fig. 1 The dynamic nature of the relation of SWB to behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 2 Standard discrete choice framework based on the random utility model . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . Fig. 3 Discrete choice framework with well-being indicators in a static context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 4 Discrete choice framework with well-being indicators in a dynamic context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fig. 5 Modelling framework and parameter estimates from a public transport experiment (t-statistics are shown in parentheses) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 5 Fig. 1 Contribution of road-traffic-related emissions as a function of the distance to the road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Fig. 2 A conceptual framework identifying factors having an impact on transport volumes, and the impact of transport volumes on the environment, accessibility, and safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Fig. 3 A conceptual model of the health impacts of transport emissions . . . . 75

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List of Figures

Chapter 9 Fig. 1 Structural equation model (n ¼ 517) with standardized path coefficients (all significant at p < .05 except one marked by *) and explained variance (R2) supporting the integrative theory of car use . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 134 Fig. 2 The Stage Model of Self-Regulated Behavioural Change . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Fig. 3 A framework for the prediction of travel behaviour by impulsive versus reflective precursors and associated boundary conditions (moderators) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Chapter 10 Fig. 1 Integrated model of travel behaviour modification proposed by Taniguchi and Fujii (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Fig. 2 Structural relationships among travel behaviour change, moral obligation, ascribed responsibility, awareness of public and egoistic consequences, self-transcendence and enhancement, and consideration of future outcomes proposed by Fujii (2010) . . . . . 158 Chapter 11 Fig. 1 Mobility, social exclusion, and well-being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Fig. 2 Percentage respondents reporting difficulty accessing activities due to lack of transportation ...... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... 178 Chapter 13 Fig. 1 Death rates by mode of transport in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Chapter 14 Fig. 1 Major connections and communication activities within business travel .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . 216 Chapter 16 Fig. 1 Levels of residual uncertainty . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 246 Fig. 2 Scenario matrix .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 250 Fig. 3 Modelled scenarios .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . 252 Chapter 17 Fig. 1 Tracking the growth in BRT systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Fig. 2 Daily ridership per corridor (46 systems) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Chapter 20 Fig. 1 The consequences of choice of cooperation (C) or defection (D) by the individuals A and B in the Prisoner’s Dilemma Game (PDG) . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . 311 Fig. 2 Model of how information about long-term societal costs demonstrated in research is conveyed to the individual by different sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

List of Tables

Chapter 2 Table 1 Modes of transport, 1978 and 2011 .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . Table 2 Daily travelled distance by age and gender 1978 and 2011 . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 4 Table 1 Efficiency of extended and standard random utility model; β^ denotes the parameter estimates and V^ denotes the fitted systematic utility component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 5 Table 1 Shares of transport in emissions in the USA, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 2 Dominant relationships between determinants of environmental impact of transport (rows) and policy instruments (columns) . . . . .

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Chapter 7 Table 1 Changes in traffic entering central London charging zone . . . . . . . . . 108 Table 2 Changes in traffic flows in Stockholm between spring 2005 (pre-charging) and spring 2006 (shortly after introduction of charges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Chapter 9 Table 1 Pooled correlations (r) between the TPB and NAM constructs and self-reported car use . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 133 Chapter 11 Table 1 Dimensions on which 139 respondents with three or more risk factors were at risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Table 2 Wellbeing measures for groups with different levels of social exclusion (SE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

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List of Tables

Chapter 13 Table 1 Description, sources, and health effects of criteria pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Table 2 Impacts of strategies on health concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Chapter 16 Table 1 Contextual trends and uncertainties to 2030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Chapter 17 Table 1 Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) scoring standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 2 Profiles of candidate variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 3 Random effects regression model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 4 Correlation matrix of selected system and context variables . . . . . .

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Chapter 20 Table 1 Hypothetical rank order of consequences of travel from most salient (6) to least salient (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315