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Classroom academic and social context: relationships among emergent literacy, behavioural functioning and teacher curriculum goals in kindergarten a
Greta M. Massetti & Stacey Storch Bracken
a
a
Department of Psychology , State University of New York , Stony Brook, USA Published online: 12 Feb 2008.
To cite this article: Greta M. Massetti & Stacey Storch Bracken (2010) Classroom academic and social context: relationships among emergent literacy, behavioural functioning and teacher curriculum goals in kindergarten, Early Child Development and Care, 180:3, 359-375, DOI: 10.1080/03004430801917401 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004430801917401
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Early Child Development and Care Vol. 180, No. 3, April 2010, 359–375
Classroom academic and social context: relationships among emergent literacy, behavioural functioning and teacher curriculum goals in kindergarten
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Greta M. Massetti* and Stacey Storch Bracken Department of Psychology, State University of New York, Stony Brook, USA (Final version received 15 January 2008) Taylor and Francis GECD_A_291906.sgm
The teaching beliefs and classroom practices of 54 kindergarten teachers were assessed using a Q-sort measure. Cluster analysis of the Q-sort responses revealed four instructional approaches that differed in their focus on literacy skills, social development and self-esteem. In addition, measures of emergent literacy skills, classroom behaviour and peer relationships were obtained for 162 low-income children attending these kindergarten classrooms. Children in classrooms emphasising emergent literacy skills demonstrated greater mastery of such skills than did children in classrooms emphasising social development. Moreover, literacy skill-focused teachers also reported fewer disruptive behaviour and peer problems among these children. These findings highlight the importance of integrating an emphasis on emergent literacy development into kindergarten curricula for promoting literacy development among low-income children, and also suggest that children’s rates of problem behaviour may vary under different curricular approaches.
Early 10.1080/03004430801917401 0300-4430 Original Taylor 02007 00
[email protected] GretaMassetti 000002008 Childhood &Article Francis (print)/1476-8275 Development(online) and Care
Keywords: behaviour problems; emergent literacy; kindergarten curriculum; teacher practices
Research has demonstrated that a range of skills developed by the preliterate child lays the foundation for later reading and writing ability (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). The set of skills that serve as the groundwork for formal literacy are collectively referred to as emergent literacy skills. Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998) proposed a model of emergent literacy development and defined emergent literacy as the skills, knowledge and attitudes that are developmental precursors to reading and writing, as well as the environments that support these developments. Research on the course of literacy development from preschool through elementary school has identified three key component constructs of emergent literacy: print awareness, phonological awareness and emergent writing. Research has shown strong longitudinal continuity between individual differences in emergent literacy skills and later differences in reading ability (Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). Children from lowincome environments are at particularly high risk of poor emergent literacy skills in preschool and low reading achievement throughout development (Arnold & Doctoroff, 2003; Burkam, Ready, Lee, & LoGerfo, 2004; Chaney, 1994; Thomas-Tate, Washington, & Edwards, 2004). In light of the importance of specific emergent literacy skills in children’s developing literacy, it is of critical importance to develop an understanding of contextual influences on emergent literacy skills development. *Corresponding author. Email:
[email protected] ISSN 0300-4430 print/ISSN 1476-8275 online © 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/03004430801917401 http://www.informaworld.com
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There are also large social class differences in children’s exposure to experiences that might support development of emergent literacy skills. Studies have documented lower frequency and quality of emergent literacy-rich activities, such as shared reading, in lowincome homes compared to middle-class homes (Feitelson & Goldstein, 1986; McCormick & Mason, 1986; Ninio, 1980; Raz & Bryant, 1990). Recent reports indicate that children from low-income environments begin school substantially below national norms in all areas of emergent literacy. For example, recent findings have reported dramatic differences in the number of letters low-income and middle-class children can name upon entry to kindergarten (ACYF, 2000, 2001, 2003). This difference is critically meaningful, as alphabet knowledge at school entry is one of the strongest single predictors of short- and longterm literacy success (Stevenson & Newman, 1986). The data reviewed on low-income children’s exposure to literacy-enhancing environments and activities therefore suggest that they are receiving precious little exposure to such environments. Research on characteristics of early childhood environments that foster the growth of emergent literacy skills suggests that emergent literacy skills must be taught. They are not acquired through ordinary oral interactions with adults, or through sharing picture books, or in environments in which relevant teaching materials are absent (Senechal & LeFevre, 2002; Senechal, LeFevre, Thomas, & Daley, 1998; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). However, debate still exists regarding the most effective and developmentally appropriate approach to fostering growth in emergent literacy skills (Evans, Shaw, & Bell, 2000; Stipek, Feiler, Daniels, & Milburn, 1995; Stipek et al., 1998; Whitehurst, 2001). In addition to the risk for later reading problems posed by weaknesses in emergent literacy skills, recent evidence suggests that social and behavioural functioning are important developmental skills that are linked with school success. For example, Spira, Bracken, and Fischel (2005) demonstrated that disruptive behaviour and peer problems in kindergarten were significantly associated with poor growth in reading ability through fourth grade. There is a significant degree of overlap between poor reading ability and social and behavioural problems (Hinshaw, 1992a, 1992b). Much of the association between reading difficulties and behaviour is specific to problems with inattention and hyperactive behaviours; such associations have been documented among both clinical and epidemiological samples (August & Garfinkel, 1990; DuPaul, McGoey, Eckert, & Vanbrakle, 2001; Faraone et al., 1993; Fergusson & Horwood, 1995; Halperin, Gittelman, Klein, & Rudel, 1984; Hinshaw, 1992a; Lahey et al., 1998; Lonigan et al., 1999; McGee, Williams, Share, Anderson, & Silva, 1986; Shaywitz et al., 1995). Longitudinal studies indicate that preschoolers with problems of attention and hyperactivity exhibit lower levels of reading achievement in elementary school (DuPaul et al., 2004; Lonigan, Burgess, & Anthony, 2000; McGee, Partridge, Williams, & Silva, 1991; Rabiner, Coie, & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2000). In a recent study, Lonigan et al. (1999) indicated that at least part of the relationship between reading difficulties and problems of inattention and hyperactivity is mediated by the effects these behaviours have on the development of emergent literacy skills in the preschool and kindergarten periods. Given the links between behaviour problems in preschool and the early grade-school years and later academic problems, particularly for low-income children, it is imperative to identify classroom methods which emphasise children’s development of both critical early literacy skills and positive behavioural skills. As academic, social and behavioural functioning are the strongest predictors of successful outcomes throughout development (Agostin & Bain, 1997; Flanagan, Bierman, Kam, & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2003; Kokko & Pulkkinen, 2000; Rabiner et al., 2000; Spira et al., 2005; Vaughn, Hogan, Lancelotta, Shapiro, & Walker, 1992), it is important to determine which
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features of kindergarten programmes are likely to promote positive academic, social and behavioural development. As children grow older, their ability to negotiate peer relationships appropriately becomes increasingly important, and programmes that encourage positive peer relationships may foster protective factors for later outcomes (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2004; Dumas, Prinz, Smith, & Laughlin, 1999; Reid, Webster-Stratton, & Baydar, 2004). Common to current national concerns about early childhood education are questions regarding the mechanisms underlying the development of school-related competencies. There is a great deal of controversy regarding the ways to maximise children’s early school success, while maintaining an emphasis on important social and emotional growth in early childhood (Bryant, Clifford, & Peisner, 1991; Stipek et al., 1998). While programmes focusing on academic skills in early childhood classrooms have been found to have significant effects on children’s early literacy skills (Byrne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1995; Byrne, Fielding-Barnsley, & Ashley, 2000; Fielding-Barnsley, 1997; Lonigan et al., 2003; Meyer, 1984; Ross, Smith, Slavin, & Madden, 1997), there is concern that academic gains are made to the detriment of important growth in socio-emotional skills. For example, some research suggests that early childhood programmes that focus on skill development may negatively impact children’s school motivation and self-esteem (Phillips & Stipek, 1993; Stipek et al., 1995). Conversely, studies of preschool programmes focusing on socio-emotional development have documented significant effects on children’s language, socio-emotional functioning and some effects on academic skills (Marcon, 1992, 1999; Miller & Bizzell, 1984; Stipek, Daniels, Galluzzo, & Milburn, 1992). Much of the research on early childhood environments has focused on preschool and day care programmes rather than kindergarten environments. However, it may not be appropriate to generalise findings to kindergarten settings. A recent study by Stipek et al. (1998) examined the effects of classroom emphasis (basic skills vs. social climate) on cognitive competencies and motivation of preschool and kindergarten children. This study found that kindergartners in classrooms that emphasised basic skills performed better on maths and early literacy tasks than kindergartners who were in classrooms that did not emphasise basic skills but had a more positive social climate. Importantly, the reverse was found for preschool children. The evidence related to motivation was also mixed, suggesting that children in kindergartens with a strong basic skills focus were more motivated to complete difficult tasks, showed greater preference for challenge and demonstrated greater persistence towards a goal. However, they also expressed more negative affect, and were more dependent and less compliant than children in programmes that did not emphasise basic skills as much and had a more positive social climate. The results of this study suggest that the effects of curricular emphasis may vary from preschool to kindergarten, and emphasise the need for careful examination of these effects in kindergarten. One critical issue in this area has received relatively little attention; that is, how well do these empirical distinctions (e.g. skills-focused vs. social development-focused) reflect actual teacher practices? Although a review of the literature would suggest a distinction that dichotomises teachers into neat categories, in practice most classrooms utilise a mixture of elements from both the academic and social development domains (Fowell & Lawton, 1992; Stipek et al., 1992). Moreover, teachers may apply different instructional approaches in different subject areas and with different groups of children (Stipek & Byler, 1997; Stipek et al., 1995). Given the importance of emergent literacy skills to later literacy development, and the stability of literacy, social and behavioural skills throughout childhood and adolescence
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(Kokko & Pulkkinen, 2000; Stevenson & Newman, 1986; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002; Vaughn et al., 1992), it is critical to gain an understanding of teacher practices and their impact on children’s academic and behavioural development. Furthermore, given findings highlighting the predictive value of specific emergent literacy skills to later reading achievement, it is important to understand the impact of different curricular approaches on emergent literacy. However, none of the extant work on kindergarten curricular approaches has included an extensive assessment of the specific emergent literacy skills that have been shown to be of greatest importance in the early grade school years. The present study examined the association between kindergarten teachers’ curriculum goals and the behavioural functioning and emergent literacy skill development of former Head Start children in their classrooms. We used data from a longitudinal study of Head Start children’s academic progress from preschool into elementary school. Given their low-income status, Head Start children are at particular risk for the development of learning and behaviour problems. A previous report from this study utilised cluster analysis to identify four types of classroom instruction observed in the sample of kindergarten teachers, which varied in their emphasis on academic and social skills development (Payne, 1996). We expected that children in classrooms whose teachers endorsed an emphasis on emergent literacy skills would perform better on standardised tests of emergent literacy that closely resemble the activities and tasks that were endorsed by their teachers. In addition, as problem behaviours have not been directly assessed within this context, we also sought to identify which classroom type(s) were associated with the lowest rates of problem behaviours, while expecting to find similar domain-specificity of classroom focus on social development. Therefore, we hypothesised that teachers who emphasised social development would have children with lower rates of behaviour problems and better social functioning in their classrooms. Finally, we also examined ways in which teachers combined emphases on skills, self-esteem, social development, and the relative impact on emergent literacy and behaviour of kindergarten children. Method Participants Children The participants for this study were 162 former Head Start children evaluated by both independent examiners and their teachers in their kindergarten year. All participants originally were recruited from nine Head Start centres on Long Island, NY. All families met economic criteria for participation in Head Start and were drawn from a population of Head Start families in which the median family income in 1993 (the year the children attended Head Start) was $10,500 as determined through Head Start records. The sample of 162 children was 53% male, 30% Caucasian, 48% African-American, 18% Latino and 4% multiracial. The children attended kindergarten in 54 classrooms in 19 schools. The average number of Head Start children per kindergarten teacher was 3.5 (range = 1–7). The children were recruited for the study through information packets that included an introductory letter and a consent form. Children were given the packets in Head Start preschool. Parents were asked to sign the consent forms and return them to their children’s teachers. If parents did not return a consent form, they were given two additional opportunities to fill it out. The consent forms gave permission to follow the children through elementary school. Each year, prior to data collection, parents were sent a reminder letter that informed them of data collection for that year. If parents chose to remove their children from the study at any time,
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they were permitted to do so. Informed consent was obtained from all parents prior to the participants’ involvement in the study.
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Teachers The 54 kindergarten teachers of the 162 former Head Start children were recruited to complete the Kindergarten Curriculum Q-sort and behavioural measures for this project. All of the 54 teachers agreed to participate in the project. Demographic information on participating teachers is presented in Table 1. Three of the kindergarten classes (6%) were inclusion classes and all others were regular education classes. The 54 teachers taught at 19 schools in 10 different school districts. Assessments Emergent literacy skills Assessments of children’s emergent literacy abilities were conducted in the spring of the Head Start preschool year (pre-test) and in the spring of the kindergarten year (post-test). Assessments were conducted individually for each child. All assessors were graduate students in clinical psychology at SUNY Stony Brook who had extensive training and experience in the administration of the measures. The children’s emergent literacy skills were measured using subtests from the Developing Skills Checklist (DSC) (CTB McGraw-Hill, 1990). The DSC is a comprehensive assessment package that measures pre-kindergarten and kindergarten skills. The full DSC measures emergent reading, emergent math, social and emotional skills, and fine and gross motor development. Only the four subtests pertaining to emergent literacy were administered for this project, which are arranged into four subscales labelled Memory (naming letters, identifying sounds and letters), Auditory (segmenting sentences, segmenting compound words, segmenting words, rhyming), Print Concepts (holding a book and turning its pages, identifying people engaged in reading, differentiating print from pictures and letters from numerals, identifying functions of print, identifying components of written communication), and Writing (demonstrating left-toright progression, printing first name, drawing a person, message writing mechanics, Table 1.
Descriptive statistics for teacher and classroom variables. Mean (s.d.)
Years of experience teaching Years of experience teaching kindergarten Number of children in class
Percent (%)
14.44 (9.03) 8.17 (7.34) 23.21 (2.68)
Highest degree earned Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree
31 69
Teacher race Caucasian African-American Latino/a
91 2 7
Female Class: full-day programme
96 47
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message writing quality). The DSC Prereading Total provides an overall score based on the sum score of the four subtests; this aggregate score was used for all analyses. The skills comprising the DSC Prereading Total have been used extensively in studies of emergent literacy development with low-income populations (Crone & Whitehurst, 1999; Storch & Whitehurst, 2001, 2002; Whitehurst, Arnold, et al., 1994; Whitehurst, Epstein, et al., 1994). Additionally, the DSC Prereading Total has been standardised using a large sample of pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children, and has internal reliability of .80 or higher as determined from the standardisation sample (Kuder-Richardson 20 scores >.80 for each subscale of the DSC). The Kuder-Richardson 20 score for the Prereading Total is .93. Behaviour problems The level of each child’s problem behaviour in the classroom was measured using the Inattention/Overactivity, Oppositional/Defiant and Peer Problems scales from the Pittsburgh Modified IOWA Conners Scale (Waschbusch, Willoughby, & Pelham, 1998), a widely used rating scale that provides measures for identifying a variety of behaviour problems in children ages 4 to 12. The Inattention/Overactivity scale is a measure of hyperactive and inattentive behaviours and includes five items such as ‘constantly fidgeting’ and ‘inattentive, easily distracted’. The Oppositional/Defiant scale includes five items such as ‘disturbs other children’ and ‘demands must be met immediately – easily frustrated’. The Inattention/Overactivity and Oppositional/Defiant scales were combined to form a single Disruptive Behaviour Problems score in order to minimise the number of outcomes. This measure was used to assess the extent to which each former Head Start child exhibited problem behaviours in the classroom. The Conners Peer Problems scale is a measure of socialisation problems and includes five items such as ‘appears to be unaccepted by group’ and ‘isolates him- or herself from other children’. All items on the Conners are rated on a four-point scale (0–3) ranging from ‘not at all’ to ‘very much’ in describing the degree to which an individual child engages in a particular behaviour. Teachers completed the Conners Scale for each child in the sample in the spring of the Kindergarten year.
Curriculum goals The Kindergarten Curriculum (KC) Q-sort (Payne, 1996) was administered in order to assess each teacher’s curriculum goals and instructional focus. Kindergarten teachers were asked to complete this 63-item Q-sort in the spring of the kindergarten year. Although existing measures of kindergarten curriculum utilise questionnaires (Bryant et al., 1991; Charlesworth et al., 1993; Marcon, 1999), these approaches suffer from two important shortcomings that can be adequately addressed by Q methodology (McKeown & Thomas, 1988; Sexton, Snyder, & Wadsworth, 1998; Stevenson, 1953; Taylor, Delprato, & Knapp, 1994). First, many items on these questionnaires are prone to response biases in that they contain a socially desirable response in the set. In fact, teachers often rate as highly likely all items that ask them to identify activities they use in their classrooms (Massetti, 2003). Q methodology, however, requires teachers to sort curriculum items into categories that represent high and low priorities. Since all items in the KC Q-sort are stated positively and the teacher is not able to agree with all items, there is reduced opportunity for social desirability to affect teachers’ responses. Second, questionnaires that assess beliefs may provoke answers that reflect district policy, broad philosophical orientations, or currently popular maxims rather than actual practice. Items in the KC Q-sort use specific behav-
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ioural descriptions, which may produce a better reflection of actual kindergarten teaching practices than a questionnaire on attitudes. Furthermore, in developing the items efforts were made to avoid language that was reminiscent of common popular early childhood philosophy. Items for the KC Q-sort were selected through reviews of the literature on kindergarten curriculum practices, examination of published questionnaires, discussions with school personnel and examination of kindergarten materials. Teachers were asked to sort the 63 Q-sort item cards into three piles: one pile that represented practices that were ‘characteristic’ of the teacher’s class, one pile that represented practices that were ‘uncharacteristic’ of the teacher’s class and one pile for ‘intermediate’ cards. Teachers were asked to shift cards so that there were 21 cards in each preliminary pile. These three piles were each further sorted into three sub-piles of seven cards each. When completed, each teacher’s sort produced a total of nine piles of seven cards, ranging from pile one (least characteristic) to pile nine (most characteristic). Each teacher received a score for each Q-sort item based upon the pile in which each item was placed (ranged from a score of 1 for items in pile 1, to a score of 9 for items in pile 9). In this way, the curriculum priorities of each teacher were established. One common method of scoring Q-sort data is to utilise cluster analysis. This approach allowed us to evaluate the types of curriculum goals that actually exist in the classrooms regardless of their relation to ideal or conceptual curriculum types. Using this method, teachers were sorted into groups based on their scores on the individual Q-sort items. Hierarchical cluster analysis using the complete linkage method and squared Euclidian distances was used to group the sample of 54 teachers using the 63 Q-sort items. This analysis was exploratory, with no previous expectation about the cluster pattern. Visual inspection of the dendrogram suggested that there were four major clusters of 11, 10, 21 and 12 teachers. Furthermore, this cluster analysis method minimised within-group error (sum of squared deviations about the cluster mean) for all variables in all groups at the same time. Table 2 shows the Q-sort items that had the highest mean scores for each cluster. The Q-items with the highest mean score are the priority curriculum items for the teachers in that cluster. The analysis thus revealed four clusters: Cluster 1 indicated that skill development was the primary focus of their curriculum. This cluster was thus dubbed the Literacy Skills cluster (LS). Cluster 2 indicated that self-esteem was the highest priority, with a secondary emphasis on skill development. This group was named the Self-Esteem/Literacy Skills cluster (SE/LS). Cluster 3 indicated that self-esteem was the highest priority, with secondary emphasis on social development. This cluster was referred to as the Self-Esteem/Social Development cluster (SE/ SD). Cluster 4 indicated that social development was the primary focus of their curriculum. This cluster was named the Social Development cluster (SD). The mean number of children in each classroom type was 3.36 for the LS classrooms (s.d. = 1.43; range = 1–6); 2.90 for the SE/LS classrooms (s.d. = 1.37; range = 1–5); 3.24 for the SE/SD classrooms (s.d. = 1.81; range = 1–7); 2.33 for the SD classrooms (s.d. = 1.23; range = 1–5). Results All data were aggregated across children and analysed at the classroom level. Therefore, all analyses use classroom means on the literacy and behavioural measures. This was done in order to reduce the possible within-classroom effects, as children in the same classrooms are likely to have scores that are correlated with each other (Bloom, Bos, & Lee, 1999; Goldstein, 1987). Aggregating scores by classrooms thus reduces within-classroom variance and provides a more conservative analysis of the data. The Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems variables were reverse-scored, so that higher scores
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Table 2.
G.M. Massetti and S.S. Bracken Curriculum priorities by teacher cluster (n = 54 teachers).
Highest priorities
High priorities
Literacy Skills cluster (11 teachers) Teaching children to know their letters Teaching children school rules Teaching children that letters make sounds Preparing children academically for first grade
Teaching children to be independent Giving children homework Teaching children print concepts Teaching children listening skills
Self-Esteem/Literacy Skills cluster (10 teachers) Warmth in the classroom Enhancing self-esteem
Self-Esteem/Social Development cluster (21 teachers) Enhancing self-esteem Warmth in the classroom Teaching children that school is fun Teaching interest in learning Teaching children to work with others Social Development cluster (12 teachers) Teaching negotiation skills Teaching children to work with others
Teaching children to work with others Teaching that letters make sounds Teaching children listening skills Teaching interest in learning Teaching children that school is fun Teaching children to know their letters Teaching children to believe they are smart Teaching negotiation skills Making children happy Teaching self-confidence Supporting social interactions in class Organising class into centres Warmth in the classroom Enhancing self-esteem Teaching school rules Teaching interest in learning Organising the classroom into centres Teaching children to be confident
indicated fewer problem behaviours, aiding in interpretation of findings and allowing for comparability between the DSC Prereading Total and the Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems scales. The DSC Prereading Total, as well as the Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems scores were all standardised for the sample, with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1, to allow for comparisons across the domains of literacy skill and behaviour problems. Means and standard deviations for the kindergarten standardised DSC Prereading Total (residualised on preschool exit DSC Prereading Total scores), Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems variables are shown in Table 3. In order to assess differences in emergent literacy skills and problem behaviours of children in different classroom types, one-way MANCOVAs were conducted with cluster type (LS, SE/LS, SE/SD, and SD) as the independent variable, and standardised kindergarten DSC Prereading Total scores and Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems subscales scores as dependent variables. In order to obtain a measure of children’s kindergarten emergent literacy skills independent of prior performance, children’s pre-test DSC Prereading Total scores – those obtained at the end of the Head Start preschool year – were covaried out of the analysis. Although we collected Conners data in the Spring of Head Start,
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Table 3. Means and standard deviations for kindergarten DSC Prereading Total scores and kindergarten scores on the Conners Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems subscales by kindergarten classroom type (all scores standardised, means on DSC adjusted for covariates, Conners reverse-scored). LS cluster (n = 11)
SE/LS cluster (n = 10)
DSC Prereading Total M s.d.
.899a,b .657
−.355a 1.335
Peer Problems M
.960a,b
.197c
−.017a,d
s.d.
.139
.497
.868
Disruptive Behaviour Problems M s.d.
.691a .225
.425b .811
−.155 .876
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Variable
SE/SD cluster (n = 21)
−.009 .760
SD cluster (n = 12)
−.513b .841 −1.014b,c,d
Cohen’s d
1.19a, 1.24b
1.57a, 2.58b, 1.45c, 1.02d
1.073
−.717a,b 1.261
1.55a, 1.08b
Note: Scores on all tests standardised with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 for the complete sample of children. Means on DSC Prereading Total scores are adjusted for DSC Prereading Total scores at pre-test. Conners subscales reverse-scored (higher scores = fewer problem behaviours). Within a row, means sharing a superscript are significantly different. LS, Literacy Skills cluster; SE/LS, Self-Esteem/Literacy Skills cluster; SE/SD, Self-Esteem/Social Development cluster; SD, Social Development cluster
33% of our sample of 162 children was missing Conners data at the Head Start time point, yielding a reduced sample of 108 children with both Head Start and Kindergarten Conners data. Therefore, we did not use Head Start Conners scores as a covariate in the analysis. Results for this analysis are shown in Figure 1. As the figure indicates, there were significant effects of classroom type on kindergarten DSC Prereading Total scores, F(3, 50) = 5.58, p = .002, Conners Peer Problems scores, F(3, 50) = 12.63, p < .001 and Conners Disruptive Behaviour Problems scores, F(3, 50) = 5.83, p = .001. Tukey honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc tests for unequal ns (p < .05) were used to further clarify differences between the four kindergarten classroom types on the three domains of behaviours. As shown in Table 3, post hoc tests revealed that children in the LS cluster performed significantly better than children in both the SE/LS cluster and the SD cluster on the DSC Prereading Total score. Children in the LS cluster also were reported to have significantly lower levels of Peer Problems than children in the SE/SD cluster and children in the SD cluster, and significantly lower levels of reported disruptive behaviour problems than children in the SD cluster. Children in the SD cluster exhibited significantly higher levels of impaired peer relationships than children in the other three clusters, and reportedly engaged in significantly more disruptive behaviour than children in the LS and SE/LS groups. Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated for significant comparisons (Table 3). In order to ensure that these results did not simply reflect differential assignment of children with greater levels of behaviour problems to more developmentally oriented classrooms, a MANCOVA was conducted on the reduced sample of 108 children using Head Start Conners scores as covariates. The results paralleled those of MANCOVA conducted on the full sample of 162 children; significant effects of classroom type were evident for kindergarten DSC Prereading Total scores, F(3, 47) = 7.33, p < .001, Peer Problems scores, Figure 1. Mean performance on kindergarten DSC Prereading Total and Conners Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems subscales by teacher curriculum priority groups.
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Figure 1. Mean performance on kindergarten DSC Prereading Total and Conners Peer Problems and Disruptive Behaviour Problems subscales by teacher curriculum priority groups.
F(3, 47) = 13.07, p < .001 and Disruptive Behaviour Problem scores, F(3, 47) = 6.90, p < .001. Therefore, the results seem to reflect significant differences in children’s emergent literacy skills and behaviour problems in the spring of the kindergarten year, independent of their literacy and behavioural skills at the end of preschool. Discussion The present study adds to a growing body of literature that addresses potential points of intervention for enhancing the emergent literacy development of preschool children from low-income families. Whereas many previous studies focused on preschool variables for potential points of intervention, this study examined the relationship between kindergarten teachers’ instructional goals and practices and children’s growth in early literacy and behavioural skills. The KC Q-sort, a self-report measure of kindergarten teachers’ curriculum priorities, was used to classify classrooms. Existing measures of kindergarten curriculum are either observational measures that are impractical for use in a large number of classrooms or are survey measures that allow teachers to endorse a wide variety of goals and practices that
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may be part of the current educational zeitgeist. This study expands the current literature by using Q-sort methodology, which is likely to be a more discriminating measure of teachers’ preferences. In addition, the Q-sort measure is practical for use in many classrooms due to its brief administration time. Teachers needed 25–30 minutes to complete this measure, unlike some commonly used measures of classroom practices, which require long periods of observation by a trained rater (Harms & Clifford, 1980). The present findings indicate that there are associations between children’s emergent literacy growth, behavioural functioning and the kindergarten classrooms they attend. Comparisons between various classroom approaches endorsed by teachers indicated that children in classrooms that emphasised emergent literacy skill development made significantly greater gains in emergent literacy skills than children in classrooms that placed greater emphasis on social development. Moreover, children in literacy skills-oriented classrooms also exhibited lower levels of behavioural and social problems. There has been much controversy in the literature regarding ways of appropriately integrating skills instruction and a focus on socio-emotional development. Some studies have found that skill-focused curricula are more effective in promoting pre-academic skills (Becker & Gersten, 1982; Byrne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1995; Byrne et al., 2000), while others have reported the opposite association (Marcon, 1999; Schweinhart & Weikart, 1997; Stipek et al., 1995). Data from the present study suggest that the kindergarten classroom is an important context for children’s growth in academic and socio-emotional skills. Specifically, certain characteristics of kindergarten classrooms are more strongly associated with growth in emergent literacy skills of low-income children. Those characteristics are related to teachers’ endorsement of a skills-focused curriculum approach. Interestingly, children in these skills-focused kindergarten classrooms also were reported to have lower rates of problem behaviour. Overall results demonstrate that children in social development-oriented classrooms consistently underperformed children in the other three kindergarten classroom types, whereas children in skills-oriented classrooms consistently outperformed children in other classrooms in both the literacy skills and behavioural domains. While the curriculum debate has been inconclusive, early childhood education practitioners have whole-heartedly embraced developmentally and emotionally focused curricula. Cluster analysis indicated that only 20% (11 out of 54) of the kindergarten teachers in this study espoused a skill-focused curriculum. Given the findings of the present study, including more skills-oriented classroom practices may significantly impact emergent literacy skills and problem behaviours of at-risk kindergarten children. It is important, however, to integrate skills instruction within a developmentally appropriate framework. Moreover, it is critically important that the integration of such approaches be accessible and feasible for teachers, in order to maximise the proper balance of focus on skills and social development (Atkins, Graczyk, Frazier, & Abdul-Adil, 2003). There are several limitations of the current study. First, the relatively small sample size limits the generalisability of the conclusions. However, given the strength of and consistency in the pattern of findings, the data point to the need to continue such research and replicate the current findings with a larger, more representative sample of teachers and lowincome children. Furthermore, an earlier study found that a particular academically oriented programme produced better skill development, but that children from these programmes also evidenced lower motivation, higher anxiety, greater avoidance of challenging tasks and less pride in their accomplishments (Stipek et al., 1995). Although these findings have not been consistently replicated (Cameron & Pierce, 1994), these concerns are still important to address. Importantly, a previous study conducted with a larger sample (which included this study’s participants) found that skill-focused teachers did not oppose
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including socially or emotionally focused activities in their curricula (Payne, 1996). These findings suggest that teachers need not ignore other aspects of child development in order to have a skill-focused curriculum, and that skill-focused approaches do not necessarily use only whole-group, teacher-directed activities to the exclusion of other strategies. The present study reports on data that is cross-sectional. Therefore, the current findings do not allow for examination of the long-term effects of different kindergarten programmes. While longitudinal studies have examined the long-term effects of preschool programmes (Marcon, 1999; Montie, Xiang, & Schweinhart, 2006; Schweinhart & Weikart, 1989, 1997), there is no data on long-term effects of kindergarten classroom approaches. Furthermore, studies examining the specific long-term effects of classroom variables and setting characteristics at preschool ages, such as the International Association for Evaluation of Education Achievement (IEA)’s Preprimary Project, have not assessed emergent literacy in the primary ages and did not report on literacy outcomes at later ages (e.g. Montie et al., 2006). Given the importance of literacy development in early ages, further work is needed to explore the development of literacy skills longitudinally. Furthermore, future work should explore development of early and formal literacy skills in the context of different curricular approaches. Another limitation of the present study is the way in which problem behaviour was measured. Since only teacher reports of children’s behaviour were obtained, it is possible that teacher bias was a factor in the level of problem behaviour reported in each classroom. For example, it is possible that teachers who place emphasis on social development are more attuned to behaviour problems exhibited by the students in their classrooms. Therefore, they may be more likely to report higher rates of problem behaviours than teachers in academically oriented classrooms. Interestingly, teachers in the Self-Esteem/Social Development group reported fewer instances of peer problems than teachers in the Social Development group. If differences between groups can be attributed to teacher perception, this perception differs for two groups that report focus on social development, albeit with different emphasis. Future studies should further explore this issue by conducting independent observations and/or collecting information from multiple sources, particularly parents, regarding children’s behaviour. The strongest limitation of the current study is the fact that it was not an experimental design. Children in this study attended local public kindergartens. Therefore, random assignment to classrooms was not possible. Children received whatever instructional practice was in place in the classroom they attended. Recent studies using random assignment of preschool teachers to implement a skills-focused programme in the context of their own developmentally focused curriculum (Fischel et al., 2005, under review; Massetti, 2003) provide important information with respect to the feasibility and effects of integrating different curricular approaches. With respect to the present study, results must be interpreted with caution, as differential associations between curricular approaches and children’s development do not imply causal relationships. Furthermore, because teachers were asked to report on their own classroom practices, there were no independent measures of validity of the Q-sort characterisation of classroom types. Validation studies using other measures of teacher behaviour should be conducted before the present Q-sort is utilised outside of a research context. This study emphasises the need to further explore the kindergarten classroom as an important context for low-income children’s social, behavioural and cognitive development. In the current policy context, it is particularly important to understand which characteristics of kindergarten classrooms are associated with the greatest growth in emergent literacy skills. This is an important first step to understanding ways in which emergent
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literacy development can be integrated in the context of kindergarten curricula. It is critical to find ways in which teachers can be aided in placing emphasis on early literacy development, while maintaining their curricular goals. For example, children in classrooms that emphasised both self-esteem and social development did not differ significantly in emergent literacy development from the skills-oriented group. This suggests that children can learn emergent literacy skills in the context of an approach that also emphasises social and emotional development. In other words, the two are not mutually exclusive; rather both represent key areas of development we must strive to promote in young children.
Acknowledgements This research was supported by a Head Start Scholars Grant to Greta M. Massetti (90YDf) from HHS/ the Administration for Children and Families and a Head Start University Partnership Grant (90YD0079).
Notes on contributors Greta M. Massetti is a behavioural scientist at the Centers for Disease Control’s Division of Violence Prevention in the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control in Atlanta, GA. Stacey Storch Bracken is a research scientist in the Department of Psychology of the State University of New York at Stony Brook.
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