Greenhouse Gas Measurements with Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Greenhouse gases from human activities are the most significant drivers of observed climate change since the mid-20th century (1). As greenhouse gas emissions from human activities increase, they build up in the atmosphere and warm the climate, leading to many other changes around the world—in the atmosphere, on land, and in the oceans. These changes have both positive and negative effects on people, society, and the environment— including plants and animals. Because many of the major greenhouse gases stay in the atmosphere for tens to hundreds of years after being released, their warming effects on the climate persist over a long time and can therefore affect both present and future generations. (2). Measuring emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and water vapor (H2O) from natural sources is a key part of global climate change study. The greenhouse gas emissions from different soil types are primarily biogenic by origin and the net production of each gas species in different soil and vegetation communities is known to vary a lot. The biological activity of micro-organisms living in the soil has an impact on the direction of the gas fluxes which determines whether the soil acts as a sink or a source of greenhouse gases. One of the most widely used and well-established techniques to measure soil fluxes is the chamber method. Researchers worldwide are employing portable FTIR analyzers to study the GHG emissions. The field applications include, for instance, measurements of GHG’s from soils (agricultural soils, fluxes from microbial activities in the soil, biofuel crops), geothermal sources, ruminants, manure and water systems. The objective of this document is to list links to some of these research articles, posters, academic dissertations and other scientific writings on GHG measurements using a portable FTIR analyzer.

The following measurements are introduced -

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GHG measurements from soils GHG measurements from geothermal sources GHG measurements from ruminants GHG measurements from manure GHG measurements in aquatic environments

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2014. Climate change 2014: Mitigation of climate change. Working Group III contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3. 2 http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/science/indicators/ghg/index.html

GHG measurements from soils Transparent and opaque chambers of known volume in combination with GasmetTM Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyzers have been used to measure GHG fluxes from soil samples. In the cases where fluxes from multiple chambers are measured, a multiplexer unit has been used to duct samples from chambers for analysis by a single FTIR analyzer. Soil fluxes have been measured from different soil types, such as forests, deserts, mires, agricultural fields and biofuel crops.

Figure 1. Measuring GHG fluxes from the arctic soil using a Gasmet DX4015 integrated with a transparent chamber.

1. M.E. Brummell, Greenhouse Gas Production and Consumption in Soils of the Canadian High Arctic, University of Saskatchewan, Academic dissertation, 2015, http://ecommons.usask.ca/... 2. M. E. Brummell, R. E. Farrell, S. P. Hardy, S. D. Siciliano, Greenhouse gas production and consumption in High Arctic deserts, Soil Biology & Biochemistry 68, p. 158-165, 2014, http://www.sciencedirect.com/... 3. B.N. Haegelin, J.O. Storlien, K. Rothlisberg-Lewis, Greengouse Gas Fluxes Affected by Urea Fertilizer, Nitrification Inhibitor, and Biomass Residue Application to Soil, 2014, https://scisoc.confex.com/... 4. J.M. Falk, N.M. Schmidt, L. Ström, Effects of simulated increased grazing on carbon allocation patterns in high arctic mire, Biochemistry, 119, p. 229-244, 2014, http://link.springer.com/... 5. D. von Schiller, R. Marcé, B. Obrador, L. Gómez-Gener, J.P. Casas-Ruiz, V. Acuña, M. Koschorreck, Carbon dioxide emissions from dry watercourses, Inland Waters, 4, p. 377-382, 2014, https://www.fba.org.uk/...

Figure 2. Climate change field research with Gasmet DX4030.

6. F. Krijnen, D. Richman, R. Lemke, R. Farrell, Evaluation of a Closed-Path Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) Multi-Component Gas Analyzer for the Simultaneous Measurement of Nitrous Oxide, Carbon Dioxide and Methane, University of Saskatchewan, Canada, 2013, http://www.usask.ca/... 7. K. J. Stewart, M. E. Brummell, R. E. Farrell, S. D. Siciliano, N2O flux from plant-soil systems in polar deserts switch between sources and sinks under different light conditions, Soil Biology & Biochemistry 48, p. 6977, 2012, http://www.researchgate.net/... 8. M. Paré, A. Bedard-Haughn, Net GHG emissions and soil properties: A slope study at Daring Lake, NWT, Canada, 2008, http://ipytundra.ca/... 9. D. Duggan, Advanced Gas Detection Technology Supports Arctic Greenhouse Gas Research, IET November / December 2011, http://www.gasmet.com/... 10. J. Storlien, F. Hons, J. Wight, J. Heilman, Monitoring Greenhouse Gases from Biofuel Crops, IET November / December 2014, https://www.envirotech-online.com/articles...

GHG measurements from geothermal sources FTIR analyzers have been used to measure greenhouse gas fluxes from geothermal sources, for example, in a case of sudden gas eruption in Italy, from geothermal and petroleum systems in Romania and from ophiolite hyperalkaline springs in Greece.

Figure 3. Gasmet DX4040 together with a chamber was used to measure methane flux from geothermal sources.

1. G. Etiope, A. Ionescu, Low-temperature catalytic CO2 hydrogenation with geological quantities of ruthenium: a possible abiotic CH4 source in chromitite-rich serpentinized rocks, Geofluids, 2014, http://www.researchgate.net/... 2. G. Ciotoli, G. Etiope, F. Florindo, F. Marra, L. Ruggiero, P. E. Sauer, Sudden deep gas eruption nearby Rome’s airport Fiumicino, Geophysical research letters, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 40, 1-5, 2013, http://www.academia.edu/... 3. G. Etiope, B. Tsikouras, S. Kordella, E. Ifandi, D.Christodoulou, G. Papatheodorou, Methane flux and origin in the Othrys ophiolite hyperalkaline springs, Greece, Chemical Geology 347, p. 161-174, 2013, http://www.sciencedirect.com/...

GHG measurements from ruminants GasmetTM FTIR analyzers have been used to measure greenhouse gases from the ruminants by using open circuit respiration chambers, polyethylene film sealed crates and FTIR analyzers connected to automatic milking machines. Obviously the most interesting gas to be measured and monitored have been methane (CH4) since ruminants produce methane as a by-product of their digestion process.

Figure 4. Gasmet DX4040 for measuring the methane emissions from ruminants (cows’ breath).

1. L. Wu, P.W.G.G. Koerkamp, N. Ognik, Design and test of an artificial reference cow to simulate methane production, International Conference of Agricultural Engineering, 2014, http://www.geyseco.es/... 2. S. Winding, Methane emission from nitrate-treated tannin rich feed for cattle in Vietnam, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Bachelor thesis, 2014, http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/... 3. I.M.L.D. Storm, A.L.F. Hellwing, N.I.Nielsen, J. Madsen, Methods for Measuring and Estimating Methane Emissions from Ruminants, Animals, 2, p. 160-183, 2012, http://www.mdpi.com/... 4. J. Lassen, P. Løvendahl, J. Madsen, Accuracy of noninvasive breath methane measurements using Fourier transform infrared methods on individual cows, Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. 95, Issue 2, p. 890-898, 2012, http://www.sciencedirect.com/... 5. S. Inthapanya, T.R. Preston, D.N. Khang, R.A.Leng, Effect of potassium nitrate and urea as fermentable nitrogen sources on growth performance and methane emissions in local “Yellow” cattle fed lime (Ca(OH)2) treated rice straw supplemented with fresh cassava foliage, Livestock Research for Rural Development, 24 (2), 2012, http://www.lrrd.org/... 6. R.A. Leng, T.R. Preston, S. Inthapanya, Biochar reduces entric methane and improves growth and feed conversion in local “Yellow” cattle fed cassava root chips and fresh cassava foliage, Livestock Research for Rural Development, Vol. 24, Issue 11, 2012, http://www.lrrd.org/...

7. K. Bäckman, The effect of additional nitrate and sulfur in the diet on the methane production in cattle, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Bachelor thesis, 2012, http://stud.epsilon.slu.se/... 8. J. Madsen, B.S. Bjerg, T. Hvelplund, M.R. Weisbjerg, P. Lund, Methane and carbon dioxide ratio excreted air for quantification of the methane production for ruminants, Livestock Science 129, p. 223-227, 2010, http://www.sciencedirect.com/... 9. F.K. Teye, Microclimate and gas emissions in dairy buildings: Instrumentation, theory and measurements, University of Helsinki, Department of Agrotechnology, Academic dissertation, 2008, https://helda.helsinki.fi/...

GHG measurements from manure It is known that the greenhouse gas fluxes and the nitrogen (NH3, NO, NO2) gas fluxes of animal wastes can be considerable during composting. The understanding of microbial processes and compost practices is the key factor in reducing the greenhouse gas and nitrogen gas losses. The moisture content and the temperature of manure have an impact on the production and consumption of gases.

Figure 5. Gasmet DX4015 analyzer integrated with LICOR long-term chamber and multiplexer.

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J. Rutter, M. Tenuta, M. Gervais, Development of an Automated System for Greenhouse and Nitrogen Gas Flux Determinations from Compost, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 2013, https://umanitoba.ca/... J. Rutter, M. Tenuta, Measuring Gaseous Losses From Composting Hog Manure Separated Solids, Soil Science Department, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, https://umanitoba.ca/... Powell, J.M., Duval, B.D., Vadas, P.A. 2013. Greenhouse gas fluxes from experimental dairy barnyards. International Conference on Greenhouse Gasses and Animal Agriculture. 7(2):264. www.ars.usda.gov/... P. Sutitarnnontr, E. Hu, R. Miller, M. Tuller, S. B. Jones, Measurement Accuracy of a Multiplexed Portable FTIR-Surface Chamber System for Estimating Gas Emissions, Utah State University, University of Arizona, 2013, http://mysare.sare.org/...

Figure 6. Measuring gas fluxes from experimental dairy barnyard with DX4030.

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P. Sutitarnnontr, E. Hu, R. Miller, M. Tuller, S. B. Jones, Drying and Rewetting Effects on Gas Emissions from Dairy Manure in Semi-arid Regions, Utah State University, University of Arizona, 2013, http://www.extension.org/... P. Sutitarnnontr, R. Miller, M. Tuller, S. B. Jones, Monitoring Temporal Variations in Greenhouse and Regulated Gas Emissions From Cow Manure in Relation to Moisture Content and Temperature, Utah State University, University of Arizona, 2012, https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/... P. Sutitarnnontr, R. Miller, M. Tuller, S. B. Jones, Temporal Variations in Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Dairy Cow Manure, Utah State University, University of Arizona, 2012, http://ci-water.org/...

GHG measurements in aquatic environments GHG fluxes (mainly CO2, CH4, N2O and H2O vapor) have been measured from water systems, such as lakes, rivers and hydroelectric reservoirs, by extracting gases from the water surface with buoyant floating chambers and performing the analysis with GasmetTM FTIR analyzers. Continuous Emission Monitoring systems (CEMs) have also been used in measuring the greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants.

Figure 7. GHG measurements from the water/air-interface by using floating closed-loop chambers integrated with Gasmet DX4015.

1. D. von Schiller, R. Marcé, B. Obrador, L. Gómez-Gener, J.P. Casas-Ruiz, V. Acuña, M. Koschorreck, Carbon dioxide emissions from dry watercourses, Inland Waters, 4, p. 377-382, 2014, https://www.fba.org.uk/... 2. S. Webzell, Nitrous emissions monitoring – Analysis could boost process control, Water & wastewater treatment, Vol. 57, Issue 06, June 2014, http://wwtonline.edie.net/... 3. J. Bastien, M. Demarty, A. Tremblay, CO2 and CH4 diffusive and degassing emissions from 2003 to 2009 at Eastmain 1 hydroelectric reservoir, Québec, Canada, Inland Waters, p.113-123, 2011, https://www.fba.org.uk/... 4. M. Demarty, J. Bastien, Measuring Greenhouse Gases in Aquatic Environments with floating chambers, Reservoirs’ net greenhouse gas emissions research project, http://www.eastmain1.org/... 5. Stewart, J. Mosher, P. Mulholland, A. Fortner, J. Philips, M. Bevelhimer, Greenhouse Gas Emissions from U.S. Hydropower Reservoirs: FY2011 Annual Progress Report, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2011, http://info.ornl.gov/... 6. F. Guérin, G. Abril, A. Tremblay, R. Delmas, Nitrous oxide emissions from tropical hydroelectric reservoirs, Geophysical research letters, Vol. 35, 2008, http://carbama.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/... 7. G. Abril, F. Guérin, S. Richard, R. Delmas, C. Galy-lacaux, P. Gosse, A. Tremblay, L. Varfalvy, M. Dos Santos, B. Matvienko, Carbon dioxide and methane emissions and the carbon budget of a 10-year old tropical reservoir (Petit Saut, French Guiana), Global Biochemical Cycles, Vol. 19, 2005, http://www.bicusa.org/...