Gastrointestinal Carcinoma

Methods of Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis Volume 3

For other titles published in this series, go to www.springer.com/series/8172

Methods of Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis Volume 3

Gastrointestinal Carcinoma Edited by

M.A. Hayat Department of Biological Sciences, Kean University, Union, NJ, USA

Editor M.A. Hayat Department of Biological Sciences Kean University Union, NJ USA

ISBN 978-1-4020-8899-5

e-ISBN 978-1-4020-8900-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008930172 © 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com

New technology, for better or for worse, will be used, as that is our nature. Lewis Thomas

You have been given the key that opens the gates of heaven; the same key opens the gates of hell. Writing at the entrance to a Buddhist temple

Authors and Co-Authors of Volume 3

Nicole B. Baril Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Kaiser Foundation Hospital, Riverside, 10800 Magnolia Avenue Riverside, CA 92505 E-mail: [email protected] Laurent Bedenne Fédération Francophone de Cancérologie Digestive, Faculté de Médecine, BP 87900, 21079 Dijon-Cedex, France Martin Béhé Department of Nuclear Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Postbus 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] Thomas M. Behr Department of Nuclear Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Postbus 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] Oliver Bouché Service d’Hépato-Gastroentérologie, CHU Robert Debré, avenue du Général Koenig, 51092 Reims Cedex, France

Kanika A. Bowen Department of Surgery, University of Texas, Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555 Bruno Buecher Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Hotel-Dieu, 44093 Nantes Cedex 01, France Halagowder Devaraj Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, 600 025 Chennai, India E-mail: [email protected] Niranjali Devaraj Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, 600 025 Chennai, India Michel Ducreux Institut Gustave-Roussy, 39, Rue Camille Desmoulins, 94805 Villejuif, Cedex, France Jacqueline Duffour CRLC Val d’Aurelle, Parc Euromedecine, 34298 Montpellier cedex 5, France E-mail: [email protected] vii

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Turkkan Evrensel Uludag University Medical School, Department of Medical Oncology, Gorukle-16059, Bursa, Turkey Levente Ficsor Department of Internal Medicine, Semmelweis Egyetem II. Sz. Belgyogyaszati Klinika, Sejtanalitika Laboratorium, 1086 Budapest Szentkiralyi utca 46, Hungary E-mail: [email protected] Eric François Centre Antoine Lacassagne Nice, 06189 Nice Cedex 02, France Yoshitaka Fujii Nagoya City University Medical School, Department of Surgery II, Kawasumi 1, Mizuho-cho, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan Mitsuhiro Fujishiro University of Tokyo, Department of Gastroenterology, Graduate School of Medicine, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 1138655, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Kanwar R.S. Gill Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA E-mail: [email protected] Takehiko Gokan Department of Radiology, Showa University School of Medicine, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan

Authors and Co-Authors of Volume 3

Martin Gotthardt Department of Nuclear Medicine, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Postbus 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands E-mail: [email protected] David Y. Graham 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki, Okayama Prefacture 701-0192, Japan Ken Haruma 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki, Okayama Prefacture 701-0192, Japan Tadateru Hasuo Division of Surgical Pathology, Department of Biomedical Informatics, Kobe University, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan M.A. Hayat Department of Biological Sciences, Kean University, 1000 Morris Avenue, Union, NJ 07083, USA E-mail: [email protected] Tatsuya Higashi Department of Nuclear Medicine and Diagnostic Imaging, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 54, Kawahara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, 606-8507 Kyoto, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Atsushi Imagawa Tsuyama Central Hospital, Department of Gastroenterology, 1756 Kawasaki Tsumaya-City, Okayama, 7080841, Japan E-mail: [email protected]

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Authors and Co-Authors of Volume 3

Hideyuki Ishiguro Nagoya City University Medical School, Department of Surgery II, Kawasumi 1, Mizuho-cho, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Yoshihiro Kakeji Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Masaaki Kawahara Department of Radiology, Showa University School of Medicine, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan Seigo Kitano Department of Surgery I, Oita University, Faculty of Medicine, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Yufu, Oita 879-5593, Japan E-mail: [email protected] A. Anand Kumar Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, 600 025 Chennai, India Ender Kurt Uludag University Medical School, Department of Medical Oncology, Gorukle-16059, Bursa, Turkey E-mail: [email protected] Meral Kurt Uludag University Medical School, Department of Radiation oncology, Gorukle-16059, Bursa, Turkey

Yoshiyuki Kuwabara Nagoya City University Medical School, Department of Surgery II, Kawasumi 1, Mizuho-cho, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan Jean-Louis Legoux Service d’Hépato-Gastroentérologie, Hôpital du Haut Lévêque, 5 avenue de Magellan, 33604 Pessac, France Naoko Maeda Division of Surgical Pathology, Department of Biomedical Informatics, Kobe University, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan Yoshihiko Maehara Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan Osman Manavoglu Uludag University Medical School, Department of Medical Oncology, Gorukle-16059, Bursa, Turkey Chantal Milan Service d’Hepato - Gastroenterologie Chu - Le Bocage, Dijon Cedex, France Bela Molnar Semmelweis Egyetem II. Sz. Belgyogyaszati Klinika, Sejtanalitika Laboratorium, 1086 Budapest Szentkiralyi utca 46, Hungary Masaru Morita Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Toshio Morohoshi First Department of Pathology, Showa University School of Medicine, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan Hideji Nakamura Division of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Hyogo College of Medicine, 1-1 Mukogawa-cho, Nishinomiya, Hyogo 663-8501, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Korefumi Nakamura Division of Surgical Pathology, Department of Biomedical Informatics, Kobe University, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan Cristina Nanni Nuclear Medicine Service- PET Unit, Policlinico S. Orsola-Malpighi, Bologna University, Bologna, Italy Nobuyuki Ohike First Department of Pathology, Showa University School of Medicine, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan E-mail: [email protected]

Authors and Co-Authors of Volume 3

Lutfi Ozkan Uludag University Medical School, Department of Radiation Oncology, Gorukle-16059, Bursa, Turkey Nathan W. Pearlman Department of Surgery, University of Colorado, Health Sciences Center, C311 University Hospital, 4200 E. 9th Avenue, Denver, CO 80262 E-mail: [email protected] Zhihai Peng Department of Gastrointestinal Medical Oncology, Unit 426, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, TX 77030, USA Jean-Luc Raoul Centre Eugène Marquis, CS 44229–35062 Rennes Cedex, France Taylor S. Riall Department of Surgery, University of Texas, Medical Branch, 301 University Blvd., Galveston, TX 77555, USA E-mail: [email protected] Philippe Rougier Institut Gustave-Roussy, 39, Rue Camille Desmoulins, 94805 Villejuif, Cedex, France

Eiji Oki Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

Domenico Rubello Nuclear Medicine Service- PET Unit, S. Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Viale Tre Martiri, 140, 45100 Rovigo, Italy E-mail: [email protected]

Yasuhiro Omori Division of Surgical Pathology, Department of Biomedical Informatics, Kobe University, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan

Noriaki Sadanaga Department of Surgery and Science, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan

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Authors and Co-Authors of Volume 3

Shin-ya Satake Division of Surgical Pathology, Department of Biomedical Informatics, Kobe University, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan Lana Y. Schumacher Stanford University School of Medicine Department of Surgery 300 Pasteur Drive H-3591 Stanford, CA 94035 Jean-François Seitz Institut Paoli-Calmettes, Marseille, France Shuho Semba Division of Surgical Pathology, Department of Biomedical Informatics, Kobe University, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan Akiko Shiotani 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki, Okayama Prefacture 701-0192, Japan E-mail: [email protected] Norio Shiraishi Department of Surgery I, Oita University, Faculty of Medicine, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Yufu, Oita 879-5593, Japan Ayako Sugihara Department of Pathology, Meiwa General Hospital, Hyogo, Japan Nobuyoshi Sugito Nagoya City University Medical School, Department of Surgery II, Kawasumi 1, Mizuho-cho, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan Manabu Takahashi Pathology Division, Ebara Hospital, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan

Yasuhiko Tomita Department of Pathology, Osaka University, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamada-Oka 22, Suita, 565-0871, Osaka Japan E-mail: [email protected] Hirokazu Uyama Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Yamada-oka 2-2, Suita, 5650871, Osaka, Japan Denis Vetter CHU Hopital Civil, 67091 Strasbourg cedex, France Timothy Woodward Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA Sherry M. Wren Palo Alto Veterans Health Care System, Department of Surgery, G112 3801 Miranda Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA E-mail: [email protected] Keping Xie Department of Gastrointestinal Medical Oncology, Unit 426, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Houston, TX 77030, USA E-mail: [email protected] Kazuhiro Yasuda Department of Surgery I, Oita University, Faculty of Medicine, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Yufu, Oita 879-5593, Japan

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Marc Ychou CRLC Val d’Aurelle, Parc Euromedecine, 34298 Montpellier cedex 5, France Hiroshi Yokozaki Division of Pathology, Department of Pathology and

Authors and Co-Authors of Volume 3

Microbiology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, 7-5-1 Kusunoki-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0017, Japan E-mail: [email protected]

Preface

Each year, tens of millions of people are diagnosed worldwide with cancer, and more than half of these patients eventually die from this disease. The severity of the burden of cancer becomes really clear by knowing that there were ∼ 10, 862, 496 new cancer cases (excluding skin cancer) in the world in 2002, and the number of deaths caused by this disease in the same year was ∼ 6,723,887 (GLOBOCAN). The number of deaths due to cancer in the United States was estimated to be 559, 650 (Am. Cancer Soc.). Cancer is caused by both external factors (tobacco, chemicals, radiation, and infectious organisms) and internal factors (inherited mutations, hormones, immune conditions, and mutations that occur from metabolism). All cancer types caused by cigarette smoking and heavy use of alcohol can be prevented. Currently, ∼ 5 million people are killed annually worldwide by tobacco use, and by 2030, this number will increase to ∼ 10 million, with 70% of deaths occurring in developing countries. This volume contains detailed discussion of methods of diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis of gastrointestinal cancers, while Volumes 1 and 2 detail similar aspects of breast cancer, and lung and prostate cancers,

respectively. The following data indicate the burden (seriousness) of gastrointestinal cancer, liver cancer, and colorectal cancers globally and in the United States. (Table 1) Surgical and molecular therapies and prognostic markers for gastrointestinal stromal tumors are discussed in this volume. Role of anticancer drugs and monoclonal antibodies specific for these tumors are also discussed. Imaging modality assessing the effect of anticancer imatinib on these tumors is included. Diagnostic and prognostic markers of clinical outcomes using chemotherapy and hormone replacement therapy for gastric adenocarcinoma are detailed. Also, are discussed immunohistochemistry of esophageal cancer progression, and diagnostic and therapeutic methodologies for biliary tumors. Immunohistochemistry of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma is included. Screening and multimodality therapies for advanced gastric cancer and response to chemotherapy are presented. Gastrointestinal cancer response to chemotherapy using the gene microrrays method is included. Photodynamic therapy and stenting for hilar cholangiocarcinoma are also discussed in this volume. In addition, discussion on the use of laparoscopy and ultrasound fine needle aspiration esophagectomy and xiii

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Preface

Table 1. Comparative rates of incidence and mortality of gastrointestinal cancers, liver cancer, and colorectal cancer between worldwide and the United States. Name of Cancer

Incidence

Mortality

Colorectal cancer (worldwide) Colorectal cancer (U.S.A) Stomach cancer (worldwide) Liver cancer (worldwide) Liver cancer (U.S.A) Pancreatic cancer (worldwide) Pancreatic cancer (U.S.A)

923, 152 153, 760 933, 937 626, 162 19, 160 232, 306 37, 170

529, 978 52, 180 700, 349 598, 321 16, 780 227, 023 33, 370

granulocytic sarcoma of the small intestine is included. In addition, the role of hepatoma-derived growth factor in carcinogenesis and prognosis of pancreatic ductal cancer is discussed. Use of the FDG-PET technique in the prognosis of pancreatic cancer is also explained. Advantages of the application of chemotherapy to patients with unresectable locally-advanced pancreatic cancer are detailed. This volume has been prepared through the efforts of 74 contributors representing eight countries. I am indebted to them for their promptness in accepting my suggestions. Strictly uniform style of manuscript writing has been accomplished. The very high quality of each chapter made my work as the editor an easy one. The methods presented here offer much more detailed,

tested information than is available in scientific journals. Each chapter provides unique practical information based on the clinical expertise of the authors. The chapters contain the most up-to-date information, and hopefully the volume will be published expediously. I am grateful to the Board of Trustees of Kean University and its president, Dr. Dawood Farahi and Vice President, Dr. Kristie Reilly for recognizing the importance of scholarship in an institution of higher education, and providing resources to complete this project. I am thankful to Betsy Mathew for her expert help in completing this volume. M.A. Hayat May 30, 2008

Contents

Authors and Co-Authors of Volume 3 ..................................................................

vii

Preface .....................................................................................................................

xiii

Contents of Volume 1 and 2 ..................................................................................

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Part I 1.

2.

Gastrointestinal Cancers

Introduction: Gastrointestinal Cancer.......................................................... M.A. Hayat Introduction .................................................................................................... Gastrointestinal Cancer .................................................................................. Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GISTs) ................................................. Gastric Cancer ............................................................................................ Esophageal Cancer ..................................................................................... Treatments .................................................................................................. Pancreatic Cancer....................................................................................... Treatments .................................................................................................. References ................................................................................................. Metastatic Gastrointestinal Cancer: Safety of Cisplatin Combined with Continuous 5-FU Versus Bolus 5-FU and Leucovorin (Methodology).................................................................. Jacqueline Duffour, Olivier Bouché, Philippe Rougier, Chantal Milan, Laurent Bedenne, Jean-François Seitz, Bruno Buecher, Jean-Louis Legoux, Michel Ducreux, Denis Vetter, Jean-Luc Raoul, Eric François, and Marc Ychou Introduction .................................................................................................... Patients and Methods ..................................................................................... Results ............................................................................................................

3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

13

13 14 15 xv

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Contents

Discussion ...................................................................................................... References ..................................................................................................... 3.

4.

5.

Gastrointestinal Cancer: Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection (Methodology) ........................................................................... Atsushi Imagawa Introduction .................................................................................................... Indications ...................................................................................................... Method and Discussion .................................................................................. Setting of a High-Frequency Generator ..................................................... Complications ............................................................................................ Esophageal and Colorectal Lesions ........................................................... References ................................................................................................. Gastrointestinal Epithelial Neoplasms: Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection (Methodology) ..................................................... Mitsuhiro Fujishiro Introduction .................................................................................................... Application..................................................................................................... Noninvasive Carcinoma in the GI Tract ..................................................... Intramucosal Carcinoma ............................................................................ Submucosal Carcinoma with Minute Submucosal Penetration ......................................................................... Endoscopic Systems and Equipment ............................................................. Procedure ....................................................................................................... Marking Around the Lesion ....................................................................... Submucosal Injection ................................................................................. Mucosal Incision ........................................................................................ Submucosal Dissection .............................................................................. Bleeding ..................................................................................................... Perforation.................................................................................................. Management After Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection .......................................................................... Further Considerations ................................................................................... References ..................................................................................................... Inoperable Abdomino-Pelvic Tumors: Treatment with Radio-Frequency Ablation and Surgical Debulking ....................... Nathan W. Pearlman Introduction .................................................................................................... Technique ....................................................................................................... Patients and Results ....................................................................................... References .....................................................................................................

18 20

23 23 23 23 26 27 27 27

29 29 29 29 29 30 30 32 32 32 32 34 34 35 35 35 36 37 37 38 39 40

Contents

6.

Gastrointestinal Neuroendocrine Tumors: Diagnosis Using Gastrin Receptor Scintigraphy ...................................... Martin Gotthardt, Thomas M. Behr, and Martin Béhé Gastrointestinal Neuroendocrine Tumors ...................................................... Symptoms, Clinical Appearance, Therapy, and Prognosis ........................ Diagnostic Imaging Procedures ................................................................. Potential Improvement of Scintigraphic Imaging of NET by Using Alternative Radiopeptides ...................................................... Radiopeptide Scanning Versus Anatomical Imaging Modalities................... Radiolabeled Peptides: Development, Advantages, and Shortcomings......... Minigastrin for Detecting Metastasized Neuroendocrine Tumors ................. Cholecystokinin 2 (CCK2) Receptor Expression ....................................... Labeling ..................................................................................................... Scanning Protocol ...................................................................................... Biodistribution of Minigastrin ................................................................... Clinical Imaging in Neuroendocrine Tumors ............................................ Future Perspectives of DGlu1-Minigastrin ..................................................... References .....................................................................................................

xvii

43 43 43 44 45 45 46 48 48 48 48 49 49 50 51

Part II Esophageal Cancer 7.

8.

Distal Esophagus: Evaluation with 18F-FDG PET/CT Fusion Imaging ............................................................................................ Domenico Rubello and Cristina Nanni Introduction .................................................................................................... 18-Fluorodeoxyglucose-Positron Emission Tomography/ Computed Tomogaphy (18F-FDG-PET/CT) ............................................. 18F-FDG-PET and PET/CT in Esophageal Cancer....................................... Positivity Criteria ....................................................................................... Staging ....................................................................................................... Disease Relapse ......................................................................................... Neoadjuvant Therapy Response................................................................. 18F-FDG-PET/CT Versus Other Techniques ............................................ PET/CT and Other Radiotracers ................................................................ References ................................................................................................. Endoscopic Ultrasound and Staging of Esophageal Cancer ....................... Kanwar Rupinder S. Gill and Timothy A. Woodward Objectives....................................................................................................... Basic Principles.............................................................................................. Equipment ...................................................................................................... Procedure and Tumor Invasion (T), Nodal (N) and Distant Metastasis (M) Classification .................................................

55 55 56 57 57 58 59 59 60 61 61 63 63 63 64 65

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Contents

Role of Endoscopic Ultrasound-fine Needle Aspiration in Esophageal Cancer ................................................................................. Endoscopic Ultrasound in Assessing Primary Tumor (T Staging) ............ Endoscopic Ultrasound in Assessing Nodal Metastasis (N Staging)......... Endoscopic Ultrasound in Assessing Distance Metastasis (M Staging) ............................................................................................ Restaging of Esophageal Cancer After Chemoradiation ............................... Endoscopic Ultrasound-fine-needle Aspiration Molecular Diagnosis of Esophageal Cancer ............................................................... Complications and Safety .............................................................................. References ..................................................................................................... 9.

10.

Esophageal Cancer: Role of RNASEN Protein and microRNA in Prognosis..................................................................... Hideyuki Ishiguro, Yoshiyuki Kuwabara, Nobuyoshi Sugito, and Yoshitaka Fujii Introduction .................................................................................................. Real-Time RT-PCR Analysis Using TaqMan Probes .................................. A. Isolation of RNA from Tumor Samples and Reverse Transcription Reaction ................................................................. B. Real-Time PCR Using TaqMan Probes ............................................ References .................................................................................................... Esophageal Cancer: Initial Staging ............................................................. Lana Y. Schumacher, Nicole B. Baril, and Sherry M. Wren Introduction .................................................................................................. Preoperative Staging Modalities .................................................................. Primary Tumor (T Stage) ............................................................................. Regional Lymph Node (N Stage) ................................................................. Metastatic Disease (M Stage) ...................................................................... Thoracoscopic and Laparoscopic Staging ................................................... Restaging After Neoadjuvant Therapy ........................................................ Treatment Overview..................................................................................... References ...................................................................................................

67 67 69 70 70 72 72 72 77

77 78 78 78 80 83 83 83 85 86 89 91 91 92 93

Part III Gastric Cancer 11.

Automated Disease Classification of Colon and Gastric Histological Samples Based on Digital Microscopy and Advanced Image Analysis ................................................................. 99 Levente Ficsor and Bela Molnar Introduction .................................................................................................. 99 Materials and Methods................................................................................. 100

Contents

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Samples .................................................................................................... Digitizing of Glass Slides ........................................................................ Developer Tools ....................................................................................... Detection of Cells, Tissue Components, and Structures .......................... Cell Detection of Tissue Components and Measuring of Tissue Specific Parameters .............................................................. Gland Detection ....................................................................................... Epithelium Detection ............................................................................... Feature Determination and Measurement ................................................ Determination of Tissue Cytometric Parameters ..................................... Statistical Analysis ................................................................................... Results .......................................................................................................... Gastric Samples ....................................................................................... Colon Samples ......................................................................................... Results Visualized by Virtual Microscopy ............................................... Discussion .................................................................................................... References ................................................................................................... 12.

13.

Early Gastric Cancer: Prediction of Metachronous Recurrence Using Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection (Methodology) ........................................................................................... Hiroshi Yokozaki, Tadateru Hasuo, Shin-ya Satake, Yasuhiro Omori, Naoko Maeda, Korefumi Nakamura, and Shuho Semba Introduction .................................................................................................. Application................................................................................................... Equipment .................................................................................................... Facilities for Processing Histopathological Specimens ........................... Thermal Cycler for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) .......................... Automated DNA Sequencer with Fragment Analysis Software .............. Procedure ..................................................................................................... DNA Extraction ....................................................................................... Microsatellite Assay................................................................................. Immunohistochemistry ............................................................................ Further Considerations ................................................................................. References ................................................................................................... Helicobacter pylori-Infected Neoplastic Gastric Epithelium: Expression of MUC2 as a Biomarker...................................................... Halagowder Devaraj, A. Anand Kumar, and Niranjali Devaraj Introduction .................................................................................................. Molecular Mechanism of Gastric Cancer .................................................... Cell and Tissue Specific Expression of Mucins ...........................................

100 101 101 101 102 102 103 104 104 104 105 105 106 108 109 110

113

113 114 115 115 116 116 116 116 116 116 117 118 121 121 121 123

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Contents

Molecular Genetic Alterations and Mucin Expression as Indicators of Molecular Lesions .......................................................... Characterisation of MUC2 Expression and Early Molecular Diagnosis of Gastric Cancer .................................................................... Type I Intestinal Metaplasia ..................................................................... Type II Intestinal Metaplasia.................................................................... Type III Intestinal Metaplasia .................................................................. Molecular Mechanism of Differential Expression of MUC2 ...................... References ................................................................................................... 14. Gastric Cancer: Role of Intestinal Metaplasia by Histochemical Detection Using Biopsy Specimens............................ Akiko Shiotani, Ken Haruma, and David Y. Graham Introduction .................................................................................................. Detection and Classification of Intestinal Metaplasia .................................. Detection of Intestinal Metasplasia .......................................................... Alcian Blue/Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Staining ................................... Alcian Blue/High Iron Diamine (HID) Staining ...................................... MUC Staining .......................................................................................... Classifications of Intestinal Metaplasia ................................................... Relation of MUC Expression and Type of Intestinal Metaplasia ................ Grading on Intestinal Metaplasia Using Biopsy Specimens ........................ Assessment of Atrophy ................................................................................ Pathogenesis of Atrophic Gastritis and Intestinal Metaplasia ..................... Gastric Cancer and Intestinal Metaplasia .................................................... CDX2 Expression in Intestinal Metaplasia .................................................. CDX2 in Gastric Cancer .......................................................................... Histological Markers for Increased Risk for Gastric Cancer ....................... Eradication of H. pylori and Future Studies ................................................ References ................................................................................................... 15.

Gastric Cancer: Antitumor Activity of RUNX3......................................... Zhihai Peng and Keping Xie Introduction .................................................................................................. RUNX3 as a Gastric Cancer Suppressor...................................................... Mechanisms Underlying the Tumor Suppressor Activity of RUNX3 ......... Materials ...................................................................................................... Methods........................................................................................................ Tissue Slide Preparation........................................................................... Deparaffinization...................................................................................... Rehydration .............................................................................................. Antigen Retrieval ..................................................................................... Tissue Digestion ....................................................................................... Immunostaining Procedure ......................................................................

126 128 131 131 131 132 134 137 137 137 137 137 138 139 139 141 141 142 143 144 144 145 146 148 149 153 153 154 156 158 158 158 158 159 159 159 159

Contents

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Specimen Analysis ................................................................................... 160 References ............................................................................................... 160 16.

17.

Early Gastric Cancer: Laparoscopic Gastrectomy (Methodology) ......... Seigo Kitano, Kazuhiro Yasuda, and Norio Shiraishi Introduction .................................................................................................. Current Status of Laparoscopic Gastrectomy for Cancer in Japan .............. Indications for Laparoscopic Gastrectomy for Early Gastric Cancer .......... Laparoscopy-Assisted Distal Gastrectomy .................................................. Patient Positioning and Operating Room Setup....................................... Equipment ................................................................................................ Port Placement ......................................................................................... Surgical Procedure ................................................................................... Dissection of the Greater Omentum and Division of the Gastroepiploic Vessels ............................................................... Dissection of the Lesser Omentum and Division of the Right Gastric Vessels ................................................................. Division of the Left Gastric Vessels and Dissection of the Right Paracardial Lymph Nodes ................................................ Dissection of the Extragastric Lymph Nodes........................................... Mini-Laparotomy and Division of the Stomach ...................................... Reconstruction ......................................................................................... Laparoscopy-Assisted Proximal Gastrectomy ............................................. Surgical Procedure ................................................................................... Mobilization of the Upper Half of the Greater Curvature of the Stomach ..................................................................................... Mobilization of the Upper Portion of the Stomach and Division of the Left Gastric Vessels .............................................. Mini-Laparotomy and Division of the Proximal Stomach....................... Gastric Tube Reconstruction .................................................................... References ............................................................................................... Gastric Cancer: Overexpression of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 as a Prognostic Factor ............................................................... Yoshihiro Kakeji, Eiji Oki, Noriaki Sadanaga, Masaru Morita, and Yoshihiko Maehara Introduction .................................................................................................. Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1 ......................................................................... HIF-1a Signaling Pathway ...................................................................... HIF-1a Regulated Products ..................................................................... Glucose Metabolism ................................................................................ Angiogenesis ............................................................................................ Cell Proliferation...................................................................................... Apoptosis .................................................................................................

163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 166 166 166 166 167 167 167 167 168 168 168 168 169 171

171 172 172 173 174 174 174 174

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Contents

HIF-1a in Tumor ..................................................................................... HIF-1a in Gastric Cancer ........................................................................ HIF Targeted Therapeutics....................................................................... References ............................................................................................... Part IV 18.

19.

20.

174 175 176 178

Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic Cancer: Hepatoma-Derived Growth Factor as a Prognostic Factor............................................................................... Yasuhiko Tomita, Hirokazu Uyama, and Hideji Nakamura Hepatoma-Derived Growth Factor Molecule............................................... Role in Carcinogenesis and Cancer Progression ..................................... Immunohistochemical and Analytical Methods .......................................... Materials .................................................................................................. Method ..................................................................................................... Evaluation of Hepatoma-Derived Growth Factor Expression in Pancreatic Ductal Cancer ..................................................................... Prognostic Significance of HDGF in Pancreatic Ductal Cancer and Other Cancers .................................................................................... References ................................................................................................... Pancreatic Cancer: 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography as a Prognostic Parameter ................................ Tatsuya Higashi Introduction .................................................................................................. Predicting Malignant Potential or Aggressiveness ...................................... Improving Accuracy in the Evaluation of Clinical Staging ......................... Monitoring Therapeutic Effect..................................................................... Conclusion ................................................................................................... References ................................................................................................... Imaging and Pathologic Findings of Peculiar Histologic Variants of Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors.............................................. Nobuyuki Ohike, Masaaki Kawahara, Manabu Takahashi, Ayako Sugihara, Takehiko Gokan, and Toshio Morohoshi Introduction .................................................................................................. Case 1 ........................................................................................................... Imaging Findings ..................................................................................... Pathologic Findings ................................................................................. Case 2 ........................................................................................................... Imaging Findings ..................................................................................... Pathologic Findings ................................................................................. Case 3 ........................................................................................................... Imaging Findings ..................................................................................... Pathologic Findings .................................................................................

183 183 184 185 185 186 187 187 188 191 191 191 196 198 200 200 205

205 205 205 206 206 206 207 208 208 208

Contents

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Discussion .................................................................................................... 209 References ................................................................................................... 210 21.

22.

Periampullary Adenocarcinoma: Diagnosis and Survival After Pancreaticoduodenectomy ............................................................. Kanika A. Bowen and Taylor S. Riall Introduction .................................................................................................. Risk Factors ................................................................................................. Clinical Presentation .................................................................................... Diagnosis...................................................................................................... Staging ......................................................................................................... Pancreaticoduodenectomy ........................................................................... Survival ........................................................................................................ Adjuvant Therapy ........................................................................................ Neoadjuvant Therapy ................................................................................... Underutilization of Surgical Resection ........................................................ References ................................................................................................... Unresectable Locally Advanced Pancreatic Cancer: Concurrent Chemotherapy ...................................................................... Ender Kurt, Meral Kurt, Turkkan Evrensel, Lutfi Ozkan, and Osman Manavoglu Introduction .................................................................................................. Treatment of Locally Advanced Pancreatic Cancer..................................... Radiotherapy ............................................................................................ Concurrent Chemotherapy ....................................................................... Novel Approaches .................................................................................... Conclusions and Further Considerations ..................................................... References ...................................................................................................

211 211 211 213 213 215 216 218 220 222 223 223 227

227 227 228 230 232 233 233

Index ......................................................................................................................... 237

Contents of Volume 1 and 2

Volume 1 1.

Breast Cancer: An Introduction

2.

Breast Cancer: Computer-Aided Detection

3.

Sebaceous Carcinoma of the Breast: Clinicopathologic Features

4.

Breast Cancer: Detection by In-Vivo Imaging of Angiogenesis

5.

Breast and Prostate Biopsies: Use of Optimized High-Throughput MicroRNA Expression for Diagnosis (Methodology)

6.

Familial Breast Cancer: Detection of Prevalent High-Risk Epithelial Lesions

7.

Differentiation Between Benign and Malignant Papillary Lesions of Breast: Excisional Biopsy or Stereotactic Vacuum-Assisted Biopsy (Methodology)

8.

Multicentric Breast Cancer: Sentinel Node Biopsy as a Diagnostic Tool

9.

Breast Cancer Recurrence: Role of Serum Tumor Markers CEA and CA 15-3

10.

Breast Cancer Patients Before, During or After Treatment: Circulating Tumor Cells in Peripheral Blood Detected by Multigene Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction

11.

Breast Cancer Patients: Diagnostic Epigenetic Markers in Blood xxv

xxvi

Contents of Volume 1 and 2

12.

Breast Cancer Patients: Detection of Circulating Cancer Cell-Related mRNA Markers with Membrane Array Method

13.

Prediction of Metastasis and Recurrence of Breast Carcinoma: Detection of Survivin-Expressing Circulating Cancer Cells

14.

Node-Negative Breast Cancer: Predictive and Prognostic Value of Peripheral Blood Cytokeratin-19 mRNA-Positive Cells

15.

Breast and Colon Carcinomas: Detection with Plasma CRIPTO-1

16.

Breast Cancer Risk in Women with Abnormal Cytology in Nipple Aspirate Fluid

17.

Tissue Microarrays: Construction and Utilization for Biomarker Studies

18.

Systematic Validation of Breast Cancer Biomarkers Using Tissue Microarrays: From Construction to Image Analysis

19.

Phyllodes Tumors of the Breast: The Role of Immunohistochemistry in Diagnosis

20.

Phyllodes Tumor of the Breast: Prognostic Assessment Using Immunohistochemistry

21.

Metaplastic Breast Carcinoma: Detection Using Histology and Immunohistochemistry

22.

Invasive Breast Cancer: Overexpression of HER-2 Determined by Immunohistochemistry and Multiplex Ligation-Dependent Probe Amplification

23.

Operable Breast Cancer: Neoadjuvant Treatment (Methodology)

24.

Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer

25.

Locally Advanced Breast Cancer: Role of Chemotherapy in Improving Prognosis

26.

Relevance of Dose-Intensity for Adjuvant Treatment of Breast Cancer

Contents of Volume 1 and 2

27.

Advanced Breast Cancer: Treatment with Docetaxel/Epirubicin

28.

Systemic Therapy for Breast Cancer: Using Toxicity Data to Inform Decisions

29.

Chemotherapy for Metastatic Breast Cancer Patients Who Received Adjuvant Anthracyclines (An Overview)

30.

Estrogen Receptor-Negative and HER-2/neu-Positive Locally Advanced Breast Carcinoma: Therapy with Paclitaxel and Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor

31.

Breast Cancer: Side Effects of Tamoxifen and Anastrozole

32.

Breast Cancer: Expression of HER-2 and Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor as Clinical Markers for Response to Targeted Therapy

33.

Young Breast Cancer Patients Undergoing Breast-Conserving Therapy: Role of BRCA1 and BRCA2

34.

Radiation Therapy for Older Women with Early Breast Cancer

35.

Acute Side Effects of Radiotherapy in Breast Cancer Patients: Role of DNA-Repair and Cell Cycle Control Genes

36.

18

37.

Sentinel Lymph Node Surgery During Prophylactic Mastectomy (Methodology)

38.

Breast Conservation Surgery: Methods

39.

Lymph Node-Negative Breast Carcinoma: Assessment of HER-2/neu Gene Status as Prognostic Value

40.

Multifocal or Multicentric Breast Cancer: Understanding Its Impact on Management and Treatment Outcomes

41.

Are Breast Cancer Survivors at Risk for Developing Other Cancers?

F-Fluorodeoxyglucose/Positron Emission Tomography in Primary Breast Cancer: Factors Responsible for False-Negative Results

xxvii

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Contents of Volume 1 and 2

42.

Distant Metastasis in Elderly Patients with Breast Cancer: Prognosis with Nodal Status

43.

Concomitant Use of Tamoxifen with Radiotherapy Enhances Subcutaneous Breast Fibrosis in Hypersensitive Patients

44.

Malignant Phyllodes Tumor of the Breast: Is Adjuvant Radiotherapy Necessary?

45.

Locally Advanced Breast Cancer: Multidrug Resistance

46.

Breast Cancer: Diagnosis of Recurrence Using 18 F-Fluorodeoxyglucose-Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography

47.

Role of Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy in Ductal Carcinoma In Situ: Diagnosis and Methodology

48.

Breast Conservation Treatment of Early Stage Breast Carcinoma: Risk of Cardiac Mortality

Volume 2 Part I

General Methods and Overviews

1.

Metabolic Transformations of Malignant Cells: An Overview

2.

Detection of Recurrent Cancer by Radiological Imaging

3.

Tumor Gene Therapy: Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

4.

Assessment of Gene Transfer: Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Nuclear Medicine Techniques

5.

Role of Mutations in TP53 in Cancer (An Overview)

6.

Personalized Medicine for Cancer

7.

Radiation Doses to Patients Using Computed Radiography, Direct Digital Radiography and Screen-Film Radiography

Contents of Volume 1 and 2

8.

Cancer Vaccines and Immune Monitoring (An Overview)

9.

New Insights into the Role of Infection, Immunity, and Apoptosis in the Genesis of the Cancer Stem Cell

10.

Successful Cancer Treatment: Eradication of Cancer Stem Cells

11.

Overexposure of Patients to Ionizing Radiation: An Overview

Part II

Lung Cancer

12.

Lung Carcinoma

13.

Extra-Pulmonary Small Cell Cancer: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis

14.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Lung: Automated Segmentation Methods

15.

Peripheral Lung Lesions: Diagnosis Using Transcutaneous Contrast-Enhanced Sonography

16.

Small Pulmonary Nodules: Detection Using Multidetector-Row Computed Tomography

17.

Secondary Primary Cancer Following Chemoradiation for Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

18.

Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Second-Line Treatment with Docetaxel

19.

Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer with Brain Metastases: Platinum-Based Chemotherapy

20.

Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma: EGFR Gene Mutations and Response to Gefitinib

21.

Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma: Acquired Resistance to Gefitinib

22.

Prognostic Significance of [18F]-Fluorodeoxyglucose Uptake on Positron Emission Tomography in Patients with Pathological Stage I Lung Adenocarcinoma

xxix

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Contents of Volume 1 and 2

23.

Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Prognosis Using the TNM Staging System

24.

Differentiation Between Malignant and Benign Pleural Effusions: Methylation Specific Polymerase Chain Reaction Analysis

25.

Pathological Distinction of Pulmonary Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma from Small-Cell Lung Carcinoma Using Immunohistochemistry

26.

Differentiating Between Pleuropulmonary Desmoid Tumors and Solitary Fibrous Tumors: Role of Histology and Immunohistochemistry

27.

Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer with Brain Metastasis: Role of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Gene Mutation

Part III

Prostate Cancer

28.

Prostate Carcinoma

29.

The Role of Intermediary Metabolism and Molecular Genetics in Prostate Cancer

30.

Array-Based Comparative Genomic Hybridization in Prostate Cancer: Research and Clinical Applications

31.

Prostate Cancer: Role of Vav3 Overexpression in Development and Progression

32.

Prostate Cancer: Detection and Monitoring Using Mitochondrial Mutations as a Biomarker

33.

Prognostic Markers in Prostate Carcinoma

34.

Prostate Cancer: Detection of Free Tumor-Specific DNA in Blood and Bone Marrow

35.

Prostate Carcinoma: Evaluation Using Transrectal Sonography

36.

Prostate Cancer: 16β-[18F]Fluoro-5α-Dihydrotesterone(FDHT) Whole-Body Positron Emission Tomography

37.

Effects of Standard Treatments on the Immune Response to Prostate Cancer

Contents of Volume 1 and 2

38.

Vinorelbine, Doxorubicin, and Prednisone in Hormone Refractory Prostate Cancer

39.

Locally Advanced Prostate Cancer Biochemical Recurrence After Radiotherapy: Use of Cyclic Androgen Withdrawal Therapy

Index

xxxi