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Fundamentals of Performance Improvement Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations Third Edition
Resource Guide Darlene M. Van Tiem James L. Moseley Joan C. Dessinger
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Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published by Pfeiffer A Wiley Imprint One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594 www.pfeiffer.com Except as specifically noted below, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the Web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748- 6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Certain pages from this book are designed for use in a group setting and may be reproduced for educational/training activities. These pages are designated by the appearance of the following copyright notice at the foot of the page: Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com This notice must appear on all reproductions as printed. This free permission is limited to the paper reproduction of such materials for educational/training events. It does not allow for systematic or large-scale reproduction or distribution (more than 100 copies per page per year), electronic reproduction, or inclusion in any publications offered for sale or used for commercial purposes—none of which may be done without prior written permission of the Publisher. Readers should be aware that Internet websites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read. For additional copies/bulk purchases of this book in the U.S. please contact 800-274-4434. Pfeiffer books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact Pfeiffer directly call our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 800-274-4434, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3985, fax 317-572-4002, or visit www.pfeiffer.com. Pfeiffer Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If the version of this book that you purchased references media such as CD or DVD that was not included in your purchase, you may download this material at http://booksupport .wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Once individuals or groups realize the potential of performance improvement, they often want to extend their practice.
Darlene, Jim, and Joan wish you the best!
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CONTENTS Preface—Preparing for the Future
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Introduction
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Overall Resources
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Chapter 1—Overview of Performance Improvement
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Chapter 2—Performance Improvement/HPT Model—An Overview
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Chapter 3—Change Management
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Chapter 4—Overview of Performance Analysis
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Chapter 5—Organizational Analysis
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Chapter 6—Environmental Analysis
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Chapter 7—Gap Analysis
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Chapter 8—Cause Analysis
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Chapter 9—Intervention Selection
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Chapter 10—Learning Interventions
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Chapter 11—Performance Support Interventions
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Chapter 12—Job Analysis/Work Design Interventions
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Chapter 13—Personal Development Interventions
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Chapter 14—HRD Interventions
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Chapter 15—Organizational Communication Interventions
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Chapter 16—Organization Design and Development Interventions
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Chapter 17—Financial Systems Interventions
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Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Chapter 18—Intervention Design
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Chapter 19—Making the Business Case
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Chapter 20—Intervention Development
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Chapter 21—Intervention Implementation and Maintenance
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Chapter 22—Techniques for Implementation and Maintenance
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Chapter 23—Overview of Evaluation
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Chapter 24—Planning and Conducting Evaluation
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Appendix A—HPT Models—Watkins and Leigh Wilmuth, Prigmore, Bray
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Appendix B—Research Themes in HPT—Linda Huglin
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Appendix C—Pershing’s Research on CPT
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Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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PREFACE—PREPARING FOR THE FUTURE Each month, new books and journals cross our desks filled with challenging ideas, creative new approaches to performance, compelling and engaging insights, and solid empirical research. The opportunities for sustainability continue to unfold and intrigue us. As instructors and learning leaders, here are some ideas for the readers of this Resource Guide.
We need to continue to focus on evidence-based results and outcomes in order to maintain credibility in our field and plan for long-range sustainability. The trend to move from results to proof is now beginning to gain momentum. How will this change our performance landscape?
Our vision must include a more concerted effort for generating metrics and tracking results. They need to become commonplace and always be on our lips as serious performance consultants. Performance measurement, key performance indicators, performance dashboards, balanced scorecards, and so forth must enter our performance vocabulary. As we move from evidence to proof, this will gradually happen; however, performance improvement specialists need to spearhead this effort and guide the changes that will result.
The intricacies of social media will help us embark on new journeys and explore new avenues with the clients we serve. Performance improvement specialists should remain open-minded regarding today’s networking technologies—wikis, blogs, Facebook, and Twitter, as well as other sites, as these arenas are rapidly transforming professional relationships and collaborative and team thinking.
We need to be sophisticated in the use of Web 2.0 tools and prepare for Web 3.0 or the world will pass us by sooner than we think or are ready to accept.
More than ever, we need to rethink and develop our role as lifelong learners. Ellen Kullman, CEO, DuPont, delivered the commencement address on May 23, 2011, at Lehigh University. She said: “Your career, if it is to be a successful one, will be a series of collaborations as a member of many different teams. And the secret to being a valued contributor to those teams will be your development as a lifelong learner.” We need to go into the world and explore and journey where no one else has gone before. We need to be risk takers in learning and doing and in providing value while being accountable and ethically sound in our actions.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Change permeates everything we do in the workplace. As professionals we need to understand the change process, specifically organizational change and change management, and why change fails or succeeds. We need to be particularly attentive to organizational culture change within a dynamically diverse workplace where accountability for results is a valued commodity.
We live in an era of faster, cheaper, better. We need to capture a more solid level of meaning and understanding of what we value and its importance to performance improvement. We need to take customer focus to a higher plane.
We have introduced more than one hundred interventions in this guide, and we could have chosen numerous others. Certainly, experienced practitioners will have a wider and more diversified repertory of interventions in their toolkits than novices. We all, however, should expand our knowledge and knowhow of interventions. Social media and new ways of conceptualizing leadership and talent management will force us to be more proactive in our choice of interventions as we help our clients face challenging problems and greater and better opportunities. How will we learn about and from them? How will we apply them? How will we share our successes and failures in using them in different settings?
We need to be secure in our use of foundational tools so that we can make necessary linkages between assessment and evaluation and make real differences in outcomes.
We need to capture the oral history of our performance improvement pioneers as we, through them, record the history of our field and craft so that future generations can build on our solid foundational work.
Because we are competing with everyone from everywhere for everything, we need to revisit what it means to go global. We need to pay more attention to the new language of business, which includes personal, social, business, and cultural literacies.
We need to develop a business mentality mindset. Our strategies must reflect this new thinking if we plan to be the market leaders of tomorrow. Franklin D. Roosevelt who was elected President of the United States for an unprecedented four terms, in one of his radio broadcast “fireside chats” said: “Happiness lies in the joy of achievement and the thrill of creative effort.” We are happy with our achievement and our creative efforts in presenting the third edition of Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations. We hope that you will find it a very useful resource.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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We encourage you to share your thoughts and insights with us through email: Darlene M. Van Tiem:
[email protected] James L. Moseley:
[email protected] Joan C. Dessinger:
[email protected]
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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INTRODUCTION Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations is written with many audiences in mind, including senior executives who champion improvement intervention efforts, those who serve on teams or manage improvement groups, people with a general interest in performance improvement, and, very importantly, for those who educate, coach, mentor, of nudge toward a better society, organization, culture, work group, and so forth. This Resource Guide is designed primarily for university courses, corporate employee development, and continuing education courses. Mentors, coaches, quality leaders, and on-the-job trainers are encouraged to modify the activities based on their own goals and objectives, which are very similar to those of instructors and professors. Learning organizations can benefit from performance improvement communities of practice or mobile device applications. The purpose of this guide is to foster deeper understanding and application of performance improvement principles and practices. The goal is that learners and participants will become accomplished practitioners and leaders, improving workers, work, workplaces, and the world. The objectives are that the individual will be able to:
Apply performance improvement/HPT principles and practices efficiently and effectively Make decisions based on evidence and best practice Select optimum interventions based on sound performance analysis and astute consideration of options that are aligned with critical issues Function ethically focused on results and outcomes, adding value, systemically, and through partnering and collaborating Respect the complexity of performance improvement and seek adequately comprehensive solutions
Organization of the Resource Guide The guide begins with an introduction and discussion of overall resources. Each chapter has a separate one-page lesson support with an introduction, goal of the lesson, objectives of the lesson, activities, and resources. Finally, two appendices are from the International Society for Performance Improvement’s Performance Improvement Journal discussing performance improvement models. Appendix A provides a breadth of models representing the history and variations in practice. Appendix B is an overview of using a positive approach to minimize resistance, particularly in situations when there are diverse views and cultures. Appendix C provides James Pershing’s research on CPT. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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OVERALL RESOURCES There are many helpful general resources available through the joint sponsor and publisher of this book, the International Society of Performance Improvement (ISPI.org). General: Many resources are available to ISPI members (such as the Performance Improvement Journal) and to those who subscribe to Performance Improvement Quarterly. Other invaluable resources are available to members and non-members alike. There is “What is HPT?” and the graphical representation and model of HPT. PerformanceXpress is available to anyone who is interested. These articles are available on the ISPI.org website. In addition, there are archives, particularly for many Performance Improvement Journal articles. Trend Spotters: Monthly, Roger Addison and Carol Haig write a column in PerformanceXpress titled TrendSpotters. Each month Roger and Carol write about a new method, model, worksheet, or systemic effort to enhance human performance technology (HPT). An archive of the many, many articles that Roger and Carol have produced throughout the years is available. The entire collection represents very innovative and thoughtful approaches to applying our principles and practices in an evidenced-based manner. Guy Wallace and EPPIC: If there ever was a gold mine, it is on Guy Wallace’s EPPIC website (EPPIC.biz). The website contains one of the greatest treasurers of our field. Guy has podcasts of the greats of our field, including Geary Rummler, Robert Mager, Roger Kaufman, Roger Chevalier, Dale Brethower, Joe Harless, Harold Stolovitch, Denny Langdon, Miki Lane, Judith Hale, Jeanne Farrington, Roger Addison, and the many other experts in our field who have contributed greatly. Spend an evening on Guy’s website and you will feel personally connected to performance improvement. You will have a “ring-side seat’” into the thinking that led our field to greatness. Additional Resources: Other associations, such as the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), Association of Educational Communication and Technology (ACET), American Psychological Association (APA), Organization Development Network (ODN), American Society for Quality (ASQ), Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), and many more provide resources that are helpful and offer an enriched perspective. Professional associations often have local chapters and offer virtual webinars and virtual chapters. Since performance improvement is complex and comprehensive, it is advantageous to have a network of professionals with complementary capabilities to augment and supplement performance improvement practice.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 1 Overview of Performance Improvement Introduction: Performance improvement focuses on making a situation, an organization, or a workplace better, perhaps by enhancing the customer experience, providing effective fire safety or police security, increasing talent opportunities within a company, or increasing the quality of fresh produce in the market. Lesson Goal: The goal is to develop a firm foundation for applying the theories and principles to the practice of performance improvement. Lesson Objective: After studying this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Discuss the evolution of performance improvement, such as craftsman and artisans, work design, quality, information, and people. 2. Describe and use key terms. 3. Associate key concepts to practice. 4. Realize and benefit from the foundations, leading contributors, and early leaders of our field. 5. Engage in multidisciplinary collaboration. 6. Recognize opportunities to apply performance improvement to emerging trends. Activities
Consider the value of drawing from many disciplines when planning for, designing, and developing performance improvement. Identify experts who are familiar and consider why their contributions are important. Discuss, in general, the opportunities and challenges in applying performance improvement. Apply the concepts of performance improvement on the individual (worker) level using the family game, Perfection, from Milton Bradley–Hasbro. The object of the game is to insert all of the plastic geometric pieces in the matching holes within one minute (60 seconds) using a timer. When time runs out, the board springs up, causing many of the pieces to pop out of the framework.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Have two or three classmates play the game. Then discuss differences in outcomes, approaches, skill level, and other factors that affect success.
Resources Burkett, H. (Ed.). (2011, October). Special Issue: Exploring a universal performance model for HPT: Notes from the field. Performance Improvement Journal, 50, 9. This special issue contains articles recommending a universal model for performance technology and provides considerations that multiple models also have value.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 2 PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT/HPT MODEL—AN OVERVIEW Introduction: Although many models are used to explain the theory and the practice of performance improvement, this is a comprehensive process model that applies generically to retail, manufacturing, finance, healthcare, service, armed services, government, nonprofits, and many more situations. It is aligned with the Performance Technology Standards, which are the basis for the Certified Performance Technology designation. Lesson Goal: The goal is to understand the Performance Improvement/HPT Model as an evidence-based process model designed to improve situations efficiently and effectively. Lesson Objectives: After completing this lesson, individuals will be able to: 1. Describe why performance improvement practice is responsive, adaptable, and focused on accountability and integrity. 2. Describe why performance improvement practice is results-oriented, systemic, value-added, and based on partnering and collaboration (RSVP). 3. Describe how to apply the concepts of positive psychology and appreciative inquiry. 4. Compare and contrast the performance improvement phases among the case studies within Section One of the book. 5. Identify other interventions that could have been used to improve the situations described in the case studies in Section One. Activities
In small groups, create a two-column table to determine when to use the Performance Improvement/HPT Model and when to use the alternative appreciative approach. In small groups, discuss the performance improvement phases within each case study and propose alternative interventions. Explain why the alternative chosen would be beneficial. Based on local, national, and international business-oriented stories from business journals or local newspapers, identify a concern at the work, worker, workplace, or world level. Speculate about what could be done to ease the situation. Complete Performance Support
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Tool 2.1. Initial Pre-Project Situation Description to predict benefits and obstacles for a potential performance improvement approach. Resources Lande, R.E. (2002, Spring). Performance improvement. Population reports, Series J, No. 52. Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Population Information Program.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 3 CHANGE MANAGEMENT Introduction: All performance improvement is change, so change is totally integral. It is easy to become so involved in resolving a challenge or an opportunity that the details of the change experience are taken for granted. Change should be managed so that improvements are embraced by senior leadership and sustained. Lesson Goal: The goal is to prepare for and implement a positive and robust improvement experience using a radical or gradual change approach, as appropriate. Lesson Objectives: After learning the contents of this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Identify and discuss change models and why they are important. 2. Determine and prepare for the appropriate level, mode, and control of change for a particular situation. 3. Recruit individuals for change role positions. 4. Anticipate and be ready to minimize resistance. 5. Include a positive approach as often as possible. Activities
Change is occurring rapidly on the global scene, affecting all aspects of life including social, economic, family, legal, and other considerations. Often the need for performance improvement is recognized quickly and performance improvement practitioners are called on to provide assistance. Most global change ultimately impacts the workplace, work, and workers in one way or another. Choose a global change topic that is of interest and consider how changes can possibly occur and in what way performance improvement practitioners might be involved. In groups, select one possible change topic and complete Performance Support Tool 3.1. Change Management Planner, learning how to anticipate ways in which external changes can impact internal workplace situations.
Resources Harvard Business Review, 88(6). The June 2010 issue spotlights three interesting articles on managing change, how to do it, and when to do it in a showcase piece titled “Strategies for a Changing World.” Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Holman, P., Devane, T., Cady, S., & Associates. (2007). The change handbook: The definitive resource on today’s best methods for engaging whole systems (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Profiles sixty-one change methods, including Appreciative Inquiry, the World Café, Six Sigma, Future Search, and Open Space Technology. There are more than ninety international contributors. Jarrett, M. (2009). Changeability: Why some companies are ready for change—and others aren’t. Harlow, England: Pearson Financial Times. The book addresses readiness and strategies for change. It has examples, insights, and cases to make organizations change-ready.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 4 OVERVIEW OF PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS Introduction: Performance analysis is the crux for the whole performance improvement system. It is determining the gap or opportunity, who is affected, when and where it first occurred, and how that gap or opportunity surrounds performance and affects the organization. Lesson Goal: The goal is to present an overview of performance analysis with foci on the desired and the actual states, the gap between desired and actual, and the causes of gaps in performance. Since performance issues are not always problem-focused, opportunities are explored, too. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Define performance analysis listing essential components and elements. Discuss techniques for completing a performance analysis. Link basic analysis techniques to various purposes. Determine when to use specific analysis techniques and tools.
Activities
Which specific questions would you be inclined to ask a client in order to conduct a thorough performance analysis? Why would you choose to ask these questions?
Make contact with participants of your local chapter or a neighboring chapter of ISPI to see what advice they would give you for conducting a thorough performance analysis.
Resources Rossett, A. (2009). First things fast: A handbook for performance analysis (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. The author discusses analysis in a straightforward, practical way. The book contains templates, illustrative cases, and innovative ideas to guide the practitioner through the phases of performance analysis. www.josseybass.com/legacy/rossett/rossett/what_is_pa.htm. Check this website for activities that you may do as part of a performance analysis: Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 5 ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS Introduction: Organizational analysis identifies and articulates the organization’s expectations for optimal performance. It is an examination of the organization’s vision, mission, values, goals, strategies, and critical business issues. Lesson Goal: The goal of the lesson is to describe the process of conducting an organizational analysis, including the selection of the proper tools for conducting the analysis. Lesson Objectives: After reading the chapter individuals will be able to: 1. Define organizational analysis and identify the organizational elements that are included in it. 2. Distinguish among various strategic planning definitions, such as vision, mission, goals, and strategies. 3. Identify the types of data and data collection tools that should be used during an organizational analysis. Activities • Complete Performance Support Tool 5.2. Organizational Analysis Survey for your own organization. Which pieces of information are easy to obtain and which are more difficult? How many sources do you need to consult in order to complete the tool? • Complete Performance Support Tool 5.2 with a classmate, using his or her organization as the basis of the activity. Is it easier to complete the survey for your own company or for someone else’s? Why? • An annual report is a comprehensive review of an organization’s activities for a certain year. It gives a detailed description of an organization’s business operations. Secure an annual report from an organization in your home town. What does it have to say about the vision, mission, values, goals, strategies, and critical issues facing the organization? Why do all these elements need to be strategically aligned?
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Resources Rummler, G.A. (1995). Improving performance: How to manage the white space on the organization chart. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. This book provides a clear roadmap for process change. It takes a holistic approach to the organization and helps to identify the relationships among the various “what is” and “what should be” elements. It contains helpful diagrams, flow charts, and practical examples. Silber, K.H., & Kearny, L. (2010). Organizational intelligence: A guide to understanding the business of your organization for HR, training, and performance consulting. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. The book defines and describes the seven logic elements (external, economic, strategy, customer, product, process, structural) of the Business Logics Model.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 6 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS Introduction: Environmental analysis identifies and explains the organization’s current actual performance at every level. It assesses what is happening inside and outside of the organization in order to understand why the organization functions as it does. Lesson Goal: The goal is to develop an understanding of the world, workplace, work, and worker environments related to the organization and to provide tools for analyzing these environments. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter individuals will be able to: 1. Define the terms “world,” “workplace,” “work,” and “worker” as they relate to an environmental analysis. 2. Identify the purpose and timing of an environmental analysis. 3. Determine some questions that should be asked to help uncover what is really happening within organizations. Activities • Look at Performance Support Tool 6.1. What Is Happening? What other questions should be asked to find out what is happening at each level of the organization? • It might overwhelm high-level members of an organization if you ask them “What is the organization’s commitment to the greater society?” How could you find the answer to this question in other ways? • Conduct a mock environmental analysis with a small group of classmates. Discuss which questions were effective and which were not. Resources Kotler, P., & Lee, N. (2005). Corporate social responsibility: Doing the most good for your company and your cause. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. The book addressed the world commitment level through corporate social responsibility and communities of practice.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Rummler, G.A. (2007). Serious performance consulting: According to Rummler. San Francisco: Pfeiffer/ISPI. The “Anatomy of Performance” diagram is a useful tool to help visualize the relationships among the various environmental levels.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 7 GAP ANALYSIS Introduction: The purpose of performance gap analysis is to identify present and future gaps between the desired performance state (identified in the organizational analysis) and the actual performance state (identified in the environmental analysis). Lesson Goal: The goal is to bring all of the performance pieces together to identify the problem or opportunity for improvement. By comparing the desired performance with the actual performance, reasonable goals can be achieved. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals will be able to: 1. Describe the purpose of a gap analysis in terms of the benefits it will bring to the organization. 2. Discuss the six potential gaps in performance and the relative opportunities and threats afforded by each. 3. Identify the steps involved in conducting a gap analysis. Activities
Work in groups of two or three to develop lists of examples of each of the following types of gaps: present positive, present neutral, present negative, future positive, future neutral, and future negative. Look at the list of “yellow caution flags” in the chapter. Would any of these flags apply to the examples developed by the group?
Fill out a copy of Performance Support Tool 7.1. Sample Priority Matrix using an example from your own organization. Trade papers with a partner and prioritize the gaps. Discuss your prioritization with your partners. Do you have the same priorities? Why or why not?
Review Case Study 2.2, which focuses on gap and cause analysis. Do you agree with the author’s approach? If not, what would you have done differently?
Resources Chevalier, R. (2010). Gap analysis revisited. Performance Improvement, 49(7), 5–7. The author discusses the importance of setting a reasonable goal to encourage people to close the performance gap. He also considers milestones to measure one’s progress as the gap is Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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closed. Contact Roger Chevalier at
[email protected] to discuss his thoughts about setting reasonable goals to close performance gaps.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 8 CAUSE ANALYSIS Introduction: Cause analysis is the key to successful performance improvement initiatives. Accurate identification of the root causes of performance gaps is essential in order for the intervention recommendations to close the gaps effectively. Lesson Goal: The goal is to describe the most common causes of performance gaps as well as the correct steps to take to identify and articulate the gaps. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter individuals will be able to: 1. Describe the six most common causes of performance gaps. 2. List the steps used to conduct a cause analysis. 3. Identify key questions to ask that will help identify the gaps. Activities
Peruse the website www.mindtools.com for free tools to help with the cause analysis phase of the HPT model.
Think of a performance issue in your professional life. Using the Mager and Pipe Performance Analysis Model available at www.cognitivedesignsolutions.com, try to identify the cause of the performance gap.
The two case studies at the end of Section Two are excellent resources for understanding performance analyses including organizational, environmental, gap, and cause. Thoroughly discuss each case. Consider the Issue, the Goal, Options (legitimate solutions to the problem), Specific Recommendation(s), and Implementation (ramifications of one’s actions).
Using the resources listed below, compare the Binder cells with the Gilbert cells. Does one have greater leverage over the other? Resources Binder, C. (2007). The six boxes: A descendant of Gilbert’s behavior engineering model. Retrieved from www.binder.riha.com/sixboxes.html. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Chevalier, R. (2003). Updating the behavioral engineering model. Performance Improvement, 42(5), 8–14. The author adapts terminology from Gilbert to common parlance. He introduces cause analysis using Kurt Lewin’s force-field analysis. He brings the concepts of gap analysis, cause analysis, and force-field analysis together in a useful performance support tool.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 9 INTERVENTION SELECTION Introduction: Intervention selection is integral to performance improvement. Since performance improvement is complex, an infinite range of interventions exists to address problems, opportunities, and challenges. Collaboration and openness to new ideas play a vital role in developing an appropriate change mindset that can produce sustainable results in organizations. Lesson Goal: The goal is two-fold: introduces a three-phase systematic approach to intervention selection and provides a tool that engages individuals or groups to select possible interventions that improve performance in their organizations. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Distinguish between interventions and intervention selection. 2. Discuss the steps in the three phases of the performance improvement selection process. 3. Review the description and best practice example of each intervention in Performance Support Tool 9.4. Intervention Selection Tool. Activities
Review the interventions listed in Performance Support Tool 9.1. Intervention Selector. From your limited or extensive experiences in consulting, which interventions would you be inclined to add to this list? Why?
Using Performance Support Tool 9.1, select a particular category of interventions that are new or unfamiliar. Choose three. Describe them. List their strengths and limitations and how they are applicable in an organizational setting.
Complete the Intervention Selection Tool (Performance Support Tool 9.4) either individually or with your peers. Read each best practice statement and the qualifying descriptions. Then decide which description best characterizes or represents your organization. Discuss the results.
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Resources Watkins, R., & Leigh, D. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of improving performance in the workplace, Volume 2: Selecting and implementing performance interventions. San Francisco: Pfeiffer/ISPI. The handbook is an authoritative review of more than thirty interventions using best practice research, comparative analysis, and illustrative case studies.
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CHAPTER 10 LEARNING INTERVENTIONS Introduction: Learning interventions are largely information- and/or learning-based and are appropriate when a gap exists between the current knowledge, skill, or attitude of a worker or group of workers and the job specifications. Lesson Goal: The goal of this lesson is to introduce a variety of learning interventions, including knowledge management, organizational learning, education, and training. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Guide the planning of a new knowledge management system using Performance Support Tool 10.1. Knowledge Management Assessment Tool (KMAT). 2. Evaluate the effectiveness of an existing knowledge management system using Tool 10.1. Knowledge Management Assessment Tool (KMAT). 3. Describe other families of learning interventions, including learning and content management systems, education, and training interventions. Activities
When you complete an e-learning course, register for classes online, or leverage social media to learn about foreign politics, you’re learning “in the cloud.” What is a cloud-based learning environment? How can you leverage cloud-based software and use it for formal and informal learning?
Lead a discussion about which learning interventions are most commonly used in the students’ workplaces. Which interventions do the most to facilitate workplace learning?
Obtain a copy of the 2011 (or latest) edition of The Horizon Report (Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium). Read the key trends and focus on the adoption times: one year or less to four or five years. Discuss the relevance for teaching, learning, research, or creative inquiry. The report discusses mobiles, electronic books, augmented reality, game-based learning, gesture-based computing, and learning analytics. Further readings are suggested.
Obtain a copy of the ASTD Research Study Instructional Systems Design: Today and in the Future (ASTD Research Product #191003. Alexandria, VA: ASTD). The Executive Summary and the sections focusing on Tools and Approaches That Support Learning, Resources
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Required for Course Design, and the Role of Social Media are particularly useful for creative discussion.
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Chapter 11 Performance Support Interventions Introduction: Performance support interventions are designed to improve individual and group performance, guide business plans, and improve processes, products, and services. Interventions include performance support tools, job aids, electronic performance support systems (EPSS), documents and standards, and expert systems. Lesson Goal: The goal is to introduce and describe the variety of performance support interventions that are available to enhance or replace knowledge initiatives such as training. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Describe the purpose of a performance support tool (job aid) and identify when it is appropriate to use one. 2. Describe the function of an electronic performance support system. 3. Distinguish between documentation and standards and describe when it is appropriate to use each. 4. Describe expert systems and their role in an organization. Activities
Review Performance Support Tool 11.1. Consider developing a job aid for your own workplace. Alternatively, consider how this tool could be used to revise and update an existing job aid.
Electronic performance support systems exist all around us. Identify some examples in your own life. Be sure to include the embedded and online “help” functions in all Microsoft Office applications, computer programs such as TurboTax, and online product-specific troubleshooting support that is intended to reduce calls to help desks.
Resources Gal, E., & Van Schaik, P. (2010). EPSS applications in a corporate setting. In P. Barker & P. Van Schaik (Eds.), Electronic performance support: Using digital technology to enhance human ability. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, pp. 225–248. This book emphasizes the psychological aspects of Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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performance support and gives valuable advice about the development and use of electronic performance support systems. Gery, G.J. (1999). Electronic performance support system (EPSS). In D.J. Langdon, K.S. Whiteside, M.M. McKenna (Eds.), Intervention resource guide: 50 performance improvement tools, pp. 142-148. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. The chapter clearly defines, describes, and discusses applications of electronic performance support systems.
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CHAPTER 12 JOB ANALYSIS/WORK DESIGN INTERVENTIONS Introduction: Job analysis and work design are complementary intervention categories that maximize organizational efficiency and employee well-being. They are tied directly to the strategy and goals of the organization. The content of individual jobs, the organization of work units, and the coordination of work within and between divisions and departments are designed effectively only when work requirements are understood. Lesson Goal: The goal is to explore the elements of work design that will facilitate strategic planning, employee satisfaction, and organizational success. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Distinguish among terms such as job design, job enlargement, job enrichment, job reengineering, job realignment, and job restructuring. 2. Identify the human factors that affect workers in the workplace, including ergonomics, safety engineering, security management, and green workplaces. 3. Describe a variety of quality improvement methods, such as Total Quality Management, Six Sigma, and Lean Organizations. Activities
Complete Performance Support Tool 12.1. Job Analysis Survey for your own job. Did you gain any insight into your job as a result of completing this tool?
Discuss the human factors that affect the classroom environment with small groups. How are these similar to/different from the factors that you all face in your jobs?
Resources Goodstein, L.D., & Prien, E.P. (2009). Job analysis: Its critical role in human capital management. The 2009 Pfeiffer annual: Consulting (pp. 269–275). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Job analysis is discussed within a six-step human capital lifecycle framework. Van Tiem, D.M., Dessinger, J.C., & Moseley, J.L. (2006) Six sigma: Increasing human performance technology value and results. In J.A. Pershing (Ed.), Handbook of human Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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performance technology: Principles, practices, potential (3rd ed.) (pp. 692–716). San Francisco: Pfeiffer/ISPI. This chapter provides a thorough description of six sigma and how it relates to the Performance Improvement/HPT Model.
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CHAPTER 13 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS Introduction: Personal development is the responsibility of each individual, but can be facilitated by helping employees set goals, determine developmental guideposts, and measure longterm success. Lesson Goal: The goal is to identify and explain common personal development interventions, including feedback, coaching, mentoring, and communities of professional practice, as well as to describe emotional, social, and cultural intelligence. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Describe the elements of effective feedback. Assess their own coaching skills. Identify the four key roles that a mentor plays during the mentoring process. Distinguish among emotional, social, and cultural intelligence and describe the elements of each. 5. Describe the role of communities of professional practice in personal development. Activities
Fill out Performance Support Tool 13.1. Feedback Checklist, either from your own or your boss’s point of view. What insights did you gain about the effectiveness of the feedback that you give/receive?
In small groups, share your relative strengths and weaknesses regarding emotional, social, and cultural intelligence.
Share information about communities of professional practice with which you participate.
Listen to the following audio presentation on coaching: http://hmm10.com/coaching/download_inbrief.html
Search for websites that offer short versions of the Emotional Intelligence Test. One example can be found at http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/bl_eq_quiz.htm
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CHAPTER 14 HRD INTERVENTIONS Introduction: Human resources showcase the people part of organizations with responsibility for planning, acquiring, motivating, and retaining people assets. The activities are designed for all levels of the career ladder, from C-suite personnel through common laborers. HRD helps to direct current and future job demands so that efficient and effective uses of valuable resources are maintained over time. Lesson Goal: The goal is to introduce human resource development and management interventions with particular foci on talent management (core employee-oriented business functions), individual growth (organization’s need to encourage high-performance employees), and organizational growth (organization’s need for long-term success). Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Distinguish between human resource development and human resource management. 2. Discuss the elements of talent management, with its focus on core employee-oriented business functions. 3. Show how individual growth interventions and organizational growth interventions maximize performance in the new marketplace. Activities
Complete Performance Support Tool 14.2. Organizational Retention Assessment (ORA) and discuss results with your peers. Indicate the rationale for the importance of improving organizational retention efforts. Suggest three or four retention efforts used at your place of employment.
Complete Performance Support Tool 14.5. How Do Individual Managers Approach Leadership? Discuss your leader’s preferred approach and indicate his or her rationale. How does this knowledge affect your performance?
Read selected articles from the Harvard Business Review that address the interventions listed in Chapter 14. Discuss practical applications of the selected interventions.
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Resources The Ultimate Business Library. (2003). Movers and shakers: The 100 most influential figures in modern business. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books. Includes personal business stories from management thinkers and business giants.
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CHAPTER 15 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION INTERVENTIONS Introduction: An organization’s success depends on the effectiveness of its people working together, building community, supporting common goals, understanding critical issues, valuing individual differences, and so forth. These are dependent on effective communication patterns. Communication in organizational settings requires a mindset that is both open to and welcoming of new ideas and perspectives. Lesson Goal: The goal is to examine the impact of selected organizational communication interventions on employee behavior. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Discuss the essential elements of the communication process, including sender, receiver, channels, noise, and feedback. 2. Share experiences with informal communication networks frequently referred to as “grapevines,” 3. Be familiar with typical social media tools that use a Web 2.0 platform that enables anyone to create information online. Activities
The introduction of information systems as an organizational communication mechanism carries with it implementation considerations such as security, integration, consistency, policies, ease of use, training, and so forth. How are these addressed in your organization? Would you be inclined to include other implementation considerations?
Review the Dispute Resolution Do’s and Don’ts in Table 15.1. Which dispute resolution strategies work best for (1) you, (2) your interaction with peers, (3) your organizational issues and concerns? What are some positive benefits of disputes (conflicts)?
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Resources OrganizationalCommunication.com. This is a helpful resource for individuals interested in organizational communication. It provides useful ideas and materials and encourages sharing of personal experiences. Safko, L. (2010). The social media bible: Tactics, tools, and strategies for business success (2nd. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. The book is an aggregation of blogs, vlogs, podcasts, wikis, emails, and conversations. It pulls together information from a variety of resources currently available on social media.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 16 ORGANIZATION DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS Introduction: Organization design and development is the implementation of planned change for the purpose of organizational improvement. It is a values-based process that looks at present and future effectiveness in organizational functioning and individual development. It focuses on aligning all aspects of the organization, from structures to roles, with the organization’s business strategy. Lesson Goal: The goal is to present an overview of three categories of interventions aimed at improving the overall effectiveness of organizations and people who engage with and support them. Lesson Objectives: After reading this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. Discuss the broad scope of organization design and development. 2. Express an opinion for believing (or not believing) that workers should be empowered to think, overcome obstacles, and resolve problems in their workplace settings. 3. Define organizational pro-action and its relationship to helping employees succeed and helping them believe in their own futures. 4. Through experience or example, show how organizational values create the organization’s vision of the world. Activities
Complete Performance Support Tool 16.1. Evaluating Team Attitudes. Use the tool to acquire information on how team members feel about their teams and the job they are doing.
Compare and contrast the traditional Performance Improvement/HPT Model with the appreciative inquiry approach.
Resources Hicks, K., & Moseley, J.L. (2011, September). Developing and executing strategy: Using the balanced scorecard for alignment and accountability. Performance Improvement, 50(8), 41– Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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47. The article discusses the balanced scorecard and how performance practitioners are uniquely qualified to guide their organizations in achieving measurable and results-focused objectives. Schein, E.H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. The book addresses the dimensions of culture and how the interplay between culture and leadership is evolving in our global world.
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CHAPTER 17 FINANCIAL SYSTEMS INTERVENTIONS Introduction: Organizations face myriad business challenges in uncertain economic times. An efficient, effective, and viable financial system is one challenge that affects purchasing power, stakeholder and stockholder values, and has implications for an organization’s global pulse in a highly competitive environment now and in the future. Lesson Goal: The goal is to encourage the performance improvement practitioner to assume a proactive role in an organization’s financial planning in order to communicate with anyone concerned about money and its true cost. Lesson Objectives: After this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Generate a plan for implementing open book management interventions in the workplace. Discuss differences between profit and cost centers. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative forecasting techniques. Explain capital investment and spending. Identify strengths and limitations associated with mergers, acquisitions, and joint ventures.
Activities
Complete Performance Support Tool 17.1. Responsibility Center Analysis. Conduct an indepth analysis of your own organization to find its responsibility centers (cost or profit). Identify those that fit within each.
Financial forecasting predicts future trends and outcomes by dealing with the business side of the organization. Consider these items: profit, supply, demand, cultural changes, stronger competition and unstable economic conditions. Discuss the item’s significance and state your rationale for using the item in financial forecasting.
Resources Berman, K., & Knight, J. (2006). Financial intelligence: A manager’s guide to knowing what the numbers really mean. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Written for non-financial managers, the book presents a practical approach to the essentials of finance, the basics of financial measurement, and financial literacy.
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Chow, A. (2010). A needs assessment of the knowledge, skills, and use of finance competencies by human performance technology practitioners (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations database (ID 2089638061).
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CHAPTER 18 INTERVENTION DESIGN Introduction: Design is an art and a science. During the design activity of the select-design-develop phase, the performance improvement practitioner “transforms” intervention selection decisions into functional performance improvement solutions. The output of the design activity is a detailed design document in which the designer describes how the intervention(s) will look and feel and how it will happen in an effective and efficient manner. A successful design phase is a collaborative effort characterized by reflection, discussion, iteration, planning, and revision and culminates in approval. Lesson Goal: After completing this lesson the learner will be able to design an intervention(s) to accomplish the performance improvement goal. Lesson Objectives: After completing this lesson the learner will be able to: 1. Identify, clarify, and sequence the elements of the intervention(s). 2. Write performance objectives for each element using Langdon's work syntax: Inputs, Conditions, Process, Outputs, Consequences, Feedback. 3. Select delivery strategies/techniques for each element. 4. Identify evaluation criteria/metrics for each element. 5. Prepare, communicate, and revise the design document. 6. Manage and monitor/evaluate the design process and products. Activities
Learners should practice and master each of the tasks above using case studies or workrelated performance improvement projects, Performance Support Tools 18.1. Bidder Selection Matrix, 18.2. Design Document Template and 18.3. Stay Focused: A Guide to Successful Intervention Design, and the resources listed below. Approaching the tasks sequentially is suggested, although experienced designers may use concurrent design/development. In addition to the resources in this chapter and the Langdon resource below, alternative resources may be found in Chapters 23 and 24 and the instructional system design and project management literature.
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Resources Fuller, J. (1997). Managing performance improvement projects: Preparing, planning, and implementing. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Greer, M. (1992). ID project management: Tools and techniques for instructional designers and developers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. www.michaelgreer.com/idpmbook.htm. Langdon, D. (1995). The new language of work (pp. 12–17). Amherst, MA: HRD Press. Rothwell, W.J., & Kazanas, H.C. (2008). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach (4th ed.). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. (See also the companion site at Wiley.com.)
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 19 MAKING THE BUSINESS CASE Introduction: Although it is important to have solid plans with a comprehensive rationale, it is essential to provide how the performance improvement effort will add value, the benefit, how the effort can be sustained, and how other departments will be involved. Senior leadership needs to support the effort. Lesson Goal: The goal is to document a proposed project that describes the rationale and justification of the effort in business terms and measures of success. Lesson Objectives: After completing this chapter, individuals should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Describe the purpose and rationale for creating a business case. Understand the competencies needed to write a business case. Recognize the importance of feasibility and sustainability of interventions. Apply the business case template.
Activities
Using your preferred web browser, search for examples of business cases and become familiar with styles. Identify two business cases that contain elements that are particularly useful examples of one aspect of a performance improvement business case. Write a brief rationale as to why the two examples are helpful. Based on Case Study 3.1. No Room for Error, an example of a business case, critique McElyea’s approach and outcomes. Did he consider relevant factors? Did he report appropriate business-oriented information? Was his application of a business case important to the outcomes of the effort?
Resources HIS CPIC. (2011). HIS Business Needs Statement & Business Case Templates—Business Case Templates. www.ihs.gov/cio/cpic/docs/Tab_E_IHS_IT_BusinessCaseTemplate.pdf and www.ihs.gov/cio/cpic/docs/Tab_D_IHS_ITBusinessCaseInstructions.pdf Needleman, J., Buerhaus, P.I., Stewart, M., Zelevinsky, K., & Soeren, M. (2006). Nursing staffing in hospitals: Is there a business case for quality? Health Affairs, 25(1), 204–211.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 20 INTERVENTION DEVELOPMENT Introduction: During the development activity of the select-design-develop phase, the performance improvement practitioner, using the design document as a guide, prepares a complete performance intervention package for implementation. The extent of development varies: new intervention elements must be completely developed; existing elements may require customization. Frequently, development involves support from graphic designers, computer experts, and others. The development activity ensures that everything is in place—scheduled, organized, supported, and validated—prior to implementation. Lesson Goal: After completing this lesson, the learner will be able to develop a complete performance intervention package that is aligned with the design document and the goal of the performance improvement project. Lesson Objectives: After completing this lesson, the learner will be able to: 1. Prepare for development. 2. Develop drafts of performance intervention package components. 3. Test or validate and revise the drafts. 4. Produce the complete performance intervention package. Activities
Practice and master each of the major development tasks (performance objectives). Use case studies or select a work-related project. Approach the tasks sequentially, although experienced designers may use concurrent design/development strategies. Use Performance Support Tool 20.1. Outputs Matrix for Step 1: Prepare for Development to guide your through the Prepare task.
Resources Fuller, J. (1997). Managing performance improvement projects: Preparing, planning, and implementing. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Greer, M. (1992). ID project management: Tools and techniques for instructional designers and developers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. www.michaelgreer.com/idpmbook.htm. Rothwell, W.J. (2000). The intervention selector designer and developer implementor: A self-guided job aid with assessments based on ASTD models for workplace learning and performance. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. Rothwell, W.J. (2008). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach (4th ed.). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. (See also the companion site at Wiley.com.)
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CHAPTER 21 INTERVENTION IMPLEMENTATION AND MAINTENANCE Introduction: Although performance improvement is results-driven, systemic in scope, systematic in process, value-added in quality, and partnership-based, the process is incomplete until the performance practitioner considers the implementation and maintenance of interventions. The chapter introduces implementation and maintenance and what happens during this phase of the Performance Improvement/HPT Model. Lesson Goal: The goal is to introduce implementation and maintenance, since these two activities are often intertwined. Lesson Objectives: After reading about change management in an earlier chapter and also in this chapter, the learner should be able to: 1. Discuss reasons why change permeates implementation and maintenance phases of the Performance Improvement/HPT Model. 2. State why he or she believes that intervention implementation is critical to performance improvement. 3. Identify criteria that should be part of intervention implementation and design. 4. Express an opinion about the maintenance of interventions over time. Activities
If you are charged with the implementation of interventions, what are your plans for (1) introducing the initiative, (2) consolidating and supporting the change effort, and (3) minimizing resistance?
Table 21.1 lists four stages of implementation: Planning, Doing, Stabilizing, and Institutionalizing. Review the table and reflect on the suggested activities for communication, action, auditing, and feedback. Which activities would you be inclined to focus on? What other activities would you add?
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Resources Lund, T. (2007). Change: Managing reactions. In E. Biech (Ed.), The 2007 Pfeiffer annual: Consulting, pp. 121–129. This experiential learning activity helps participants explore how they react to change and offers guidance on how to manage change. Zolno, S. (2009). Change readiness checklist. In E. Biech (Ed.), The 2009 Pfeiffer annual: Training, pp. 149–155. This checklist is used to gauge the readiness of employees for sustainable change in a complex organization.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 22 TECHNIQUES FOR IMPLEMENTATION AND MAINTENANCE Introduction: There a variety of methods or techniques used for intervention implementation and maintenance. The chapter explores these techniques under the umbrella of RSVP—Results, Systems View, Value, and Partnership. Lesson Goal: The goal is to introduce learners to eight specific methods for effective intervention implementation and maintenance. Lesson Objectives: After reading the chapter learners will be able to: 1. Discuss each of the methods highlighted. 2. Identify the phases of a successful consulting process. 3. Explain why employee development is critical for succession planning and aligning leadership practices with business objectives. 4. Express their opinions about how project management supports successful intervention and maintenance. Activities
Choose one of the case studies in Section Four of the book. Discuss it with your peers. What would you have suggested or done differently if you were in the author’s shoes?
Complete Performance Support Tool 22.2. Assessing Employee Development Success Standards. For each “No” answer, discuss what approach you would follow to make it a “Yes” answer.
Review the various websites on project management. Look for project management tools and resources and project management software. How can these resources be used to your advantage? Look into project management certification. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of earning this certification?
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Resources Hale, J.A. (1998). The performance consultant’s fieldbook: Tools and techniques for improving organizations and people. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. The book is a pragmatic guide for internal and external consultants, novice, or experts. It is filled with real-life examples and customized tools to transition to performance consulting.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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CHAPTER 23 OVERVIEW OF EVALUATION Introduction: After discussing the definition, scope (types), and purpose of evaluation, this chapter presents several models of evaluation. Performance improvement practitioners no longer have the sole option of adapting evaluation models from instructional systems design or program evaluation. “Traditional” models have been updated to fit the performance improvement process and new performance improvement–directed models are available. The practitioner is being called upon to integrate evaluation into every aspect of performance improvement. Lesson Goal: After completing this lesson, the learner will recognize the need to integrate evaluation into each phase of the performance improvement process. Lesson Objectives: After completing this lesson the learner will be able to: 1. Define evaluation in the context of performance improvement. 2. Identify the scope and purpose of evaluation in terms of performance improvement. 3. Recognize the wide range of evaluation models available to guide the performance improvement practitioner. 4. Identify why it is important to integrate evaluation into each phase of the performance improvement process. 5. Identify strategies for integrating evaluation into the performance improvement process. Activities
Look through Performance Support Tool 23.1. What the Performance Improvement/HPT Practitioner or Evaluator Can Do to Integrate Full-Scope Evaluation into the Performance Improvement Process.
Use the case study provided and apply the tool to your specific performance improvement opportunity.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Resources Dessinger, J.C., & Moseley, J.L. (2006). The full scoop on full-scope evaluation. In J.A. Pershing (Ed.), Handbook of human performance technology: Principals, practices, potential (3rd ed.) (pp. 312–333). San Francisco: Pfeiffer and Washington, DC: International Society for Performance Improvement. Moseley, J.M., & Dessinger, J.C. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of improving performance in the workplace: Volume 3: Measurement and evaluation. San Francisco: Pfeiffer and Washington, DC: International Society for Performance Improvement.
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CHAPTER 24 PLANNING AND CONDUCTING EVALUATION Introduction: This chapter offers specific guidelines for planning and conducting each of the four types of evaluation introduced in Chapter 23: formative, summative, confirmative, and meta. It also discusses the role of the performance improvement practitioner during the planning and implementation of each type of evaluation. Goal of the Lesson: After completing this lesson, the learner will be able to plan and conduct a full-scope evaluation of a performance improvement initiative. Lesson Objectives: After completing this lesson, the learner will be able to: 1. Define each type of evaluation. 2. Identify the purpose, scope, and timing of each type of evaluation. 3. Identify methods for planning each type of evaluation. 4. Identify methods for conducting each type of evaluation. 5. Plan a full-scope evaluation for a performance improvement initiative. 6. Conduct a full-scope evaluation for a performance improvement initiative. Activities
Study the descriptions of various methods of evaluation in the chapter tables and figures.
Study the case studies in Chapter 24 or cases from your instructor. Use them to plan and conduct each type of evaluation, using a new case study or a situation in your workplace for each type.
Complete Performance Support Tools 24.1. Planning the Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Evaluation of a Performance Improvement Intervention and 24.2. When to Conduct a Confirmative Evaluation.
See also Chapter 19, Making the Business Case.
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Resources Dessinger, J.C., & Moseley, J.L. (2004). Confirmative evaluation: Practical strategies for valuing continuous improvement. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Guerra-Lopez, I. (2007). Evaluating impact: Evaluation and continual improvement for performance improvement practitioners. Amherst, MA: HRD Press. O'Sullivan, R. (2004). Practicing evaluation: A collaborative approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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APPENDIX A: HPT MODELS: AN OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR MODELS IN THE FIELD
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HPT Models An Overview of the Major Models in the Field Frank S. Wilmoth Christine Prigmore Marty Bray
Source: Wimoth, F.S., Prigmore, C., Bray, M. (2010). HPT models: An overview of the major models in the field. In R. Watkins & D. Leigh (Eds.), Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace, Volume Two: Selecting and Implementing Performance Interventions. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Used with permission.
A
s the field of human performance technology (HPT) begins to gain more mainstream attention in the eyes of those charged with improving organizational efficiency, questions arise about how to put these concepts and theories into practice. Several recent articles (Chevalier, 2000; Langdon, 2000) have described how HPT can be used in an organization. This article aims to identify the major models in the field and examine the ideas and beliefs that have lead to their conception, development, and acceptance. For the purposes of this article, HPT is defined as a systematic approach to improving productivity and competence, through a process of analysis, intervention selection and design, development, implementation, and evaluation designed to influence human behavior and accomplishment (International Society for Performance Improvement, 2000). The article will focus on HPT as a process that bridges the gap between what is and what should be in human performance systems (Applied Performance Improvement Technology, 2000).
HPT MODELING Modeling has traditionally been an integral part of the instructional design process. Because many of the early practitioners of HPT came from the field of instructional technology, it is not surprising that HPT process modeling has Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and 5 Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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migrated and evolved from those principles. Gustafson and Branch (1997) state that ‘‘the role of models in instructional design is to provide us with conceptual and communication tools that we can use to visualize, direct, and manage processes’’ (p. 18). The key concept here is the ability of the individual, when looking at any complex activity, to conceptualize a myriad of causal relationships and chart them in some manner that can be communicated to others. A given model’s criterion must enable HPT analysts to accurately conceptualize a suspected performance problem in a given business environment. The ability to visualize and then communicate the process logic to others will be the true measurement of any HPT model’s effectiveness and suitability for use. Stolovitch and Keeps (1992) report that early HPT practitioners attempted to use linear instructional design models to describe performance technology processes. These linear models did not always accurately describe the environment or inter-relationships in sophisticated, multifaceted business processes. As a result, the early pioneers in the HPT field began to develop their own unique models. The diversity and complexity of the analyzed environments, coupled with different perspectives and backgrounds of the profession’s pioneers, have created a large number of models, many of which are still emerging and evolving.
HPT PIONEERS The works of Gilbert, Harless, Mager, and Rummler became the principles of the foundations for performance analysis and HPT modeling theory (Rosenberg, Coscarelli, & Hutchinson, 1992). Many have acknowledged Thomas Gilbert to be the ‘‘father of performance technology’’ (Dean, 1998). Gilbert felt that improving the performance of people must begin with identifying and resolving the environmental barriers, thus enabling the people (performers) to achieve maximum performance (Dean, 1997). Another performance technology pioneer who continued with Gilbert’s diagnostic approach was Joe Harless. Harless believed that understanding the cause of a problem should drive any solution (Ripley, 1997). This belief would eventually become the process of front-end analysis as reflected in his first performance technology process model (Figure 1.1). This model had a clear focus on the early determination of goals and performance during the analysis phase. Later, Harless revised his original model so that it included the four phases of analysis, design, development and testing, and implementation and evaluation, which became well known by its abbreviation, ADDIE (Figure 1.2). Harless proposed to the performance technology disciples that a partnership and business focus should exist in order to apply the most costeffective intervention. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Performance Technology Process I Design, Develop, Test SELECTION/ ASSIGNMENT Intervention(s)
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Design, Develop, Test ENVIRONMENT Intervention(s) IMPLEMENT AND EVALUATE Performance-Improvement Intervention(s)
Front-End Analysis
Goal
Design, Develop, Test MOTIVATION/ INCENTIVE Intervention(s)
Performance
Design, Develop, Test INFORMATION Intervention(s)
Classes of Intervention of Performance Improvement
Performance Technology Selection/ Assignment • Hire • Assign • Reassign
Environment • Redesign work • Better inputs • Better tools
Motivation/ Incentive • Give feedback • Recognition • Compensation
Information • Instruct • Job aids • Coach
Figure 1.1 Early HPT Model. Source: Ripley, 1997
West (1997a) reports that Robert Mager’s book, Preparing Instructional Objectives, written in 1984 and later revised in 1997, revolutionized instructional design and performance improvement and is considered to be the standard for the instructional design profession. Mager introduced the notion that instructional designers should move beyond determining what instructors should teach; rather, they should focus on understanding what learners should be able to do as a result of the instruction. His work began to move the HPT field toward human performance objectives. His model breaks down performance objectives into three components: performance, conditions, and criterion (Table 1.1). Mager felt that the performance element is what the learner should be able to do; the conditions element comprises the situations Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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8 HANDBOOK OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE Performance Technology Process II Analysis of organizational goals, relevant human performance, and selection of relevant interventions
Design of all intervention(s) called for by the analysis
Evaluation of effectiveness and cost of the intervention(s)
Development, Testing, and Implementation of intervention(s)
Categories of Intervention of Performance
Business Goals of the Organization Human Performance Selection/Assignment • Hiting • Assigning
Skills/Knowledge • Instruction • Job Aids
Environment • Redesign • Better Tools
Motivation/Incentive • Recognition • Compensation
Figure 1.2 Later HPT Model. Source: Ripley, 1997
under which performance will occur, and the criterion element is the standards or levels of acceptable performance. This model helped to shift analysis away from the instruction process itself and toward the results of instruction that lead to a change in learner performance. It also introduces the notion that human performance must have clear, measurable standards applied within definable conditions.
Table 1.1 Components of Performance Objectives Performance
What the learner is to be able to do
Conditions
Important conditions under which performance occurs
Criterion
Quality or level of performance considered acceptable
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In addition to his model for instructional objectives, Mager also developed a flow chart for analyzing performance problems (Mager & Pipe, 1984). In his model, Mager presents a series of steps that can help identify and correct performance problems. Mager cautions that the model should not be interpreted literally but should be used as a guideline for identifying and solving performance problems (Figure 1.3). Finally, there are the multiple contributions advanced by Geary Rummler. West (1997b) purports that Rummler likened organizations to ecosystems in which every component is interrelated and linked together. Rummler felt that analysis should account for the fact that organizational performance and individual performance are unique and require different solutions (Rosenberg, Coscarelli, & Hutchinson, 1992). He believed that organizational performance is as important as individual performance. In Rummler’s nine performance variables model (Figure 1.4), the organizational analysis has three levels: the organizational level, the process level, and the job/performer level. Rummler maintained that the three levels are interrelated across different functions within the organization (West, 1997b). The three performance levels must be simultaneously considered and addressed before the organizational performance problems can be solved. Rummler details nine performance variables under the categories of goals, design, and management. At the job/performance level, a linear logic begins with input to the performer, who then performs thus creating output, which results in consequences. A feedback loop communicates consequences back to the performer. Rummler has identified six factors that affect human performance: performance specification, task support, consequences, feedback, skills/ knowledge, and individual capacity. Rummler’s thorough consideration of these human performance factors establishes a solid foundation of logic for others to build on. The work of these early pioneers in making a distinction between a training gap and a performance gap laid the groundwork for future practitioners to construct and test new models. In addition, their establishment of the link between individual performance and organizational performance helped to cement the acceptance and credibility of HPT solutions.
CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS The diversity in content and structure of the various HPT models allows for a number of different classification schemes. One might be able to identify the general orientation or focus for a given set of models—for instance, those that focus on individual performance versus the performance of the organization. Another might be based on the process flow of the model, such as linear versus Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 1.3 Mager’s Performance Analysis Flow Chart. Source: Mager and Pipe, 1997
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Nine Performance Variables Performance Levels
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Performance Needs GOALS
DESIGN
MANAGEMENT
Organizational Organizational Organizational Organizational Levels Goals Design Management Process Level
Process Goals
Process Design
Process Management
Job/Performer Level
Job Goals
Job Design
Job Management
Factors Affecting Human Performance 2. Task Support • Can the performer easily recognize the input requiring action? • Can the task be done without interference from other tasks? • Are the job procedures and work flow logical? • Are adequate resources available for performance?
INPUT
PERFORMER
5. Skills/Knowledge • Do performers have the necessary skills/knowledge to perform? • Do performers know why desired performance is important? 6. Individual Capacity • Are performers physically, mentally, and emotionally able to perform?
1. Performance Specifications • Do performance specifications exist? • Do performers know the desired output and standards? • Do performers consider the standards attainable?
OUTPUT
CONSEQUENCES
FEEDBACK 4. Feedback • Do performers receive information about their performance? • Is the information they receive -Relevant, timely, accurate, specific, understandable?
3. Consequences • Are consequences aligned to support desired performance? • Are consequences meaningful from a performer’s point of view? • Are consequences timely?
Figure 1.4 Rummler’s Nine Performance Variables. Source: West, 1997b
nonlinear. This analysis will follow the lead of Rosenberg, Coscarelli, and Hutchinson (1992) and begin with the categories of diagnostic and process models. According to Rosenberg, Coscarelli, and Hutchinson (1992), the diagnostic model informs the performance analyst where HPT can be applied, and the process model instructs the performance analyst on how HPT can be applied. These groupings provide a clear categorization for most of the models studied; however, it became clear that another was necessary. A third category of holistic Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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12 HANDBOOK OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE models is appropriate. The integrated approach taken by models in this last category seems to warrant a separate group. With these general categories as a starting point, we can see how the various HPT models align.
DIAGNOSTIC MODELS Diagnostic models tell the performance analyst where HPT can be applied. Harless, with his attention focusing on early determination of goals and performance, seems to subscribe to this modeling direction. Rummler carried the diagnostic analysis to its fullest range, with separate organizational and individual performance domains that require separate solutions. Later diagnostic models followed in the footsteps of these pioneers. The HPT model developed by William Deterline (Whiteside, 1998) focuses on the individual human element of performance, which Deterline calls the performer (Figure 1.5). The performer is potentially influenced by multiple factors, both personal and organizational. These factors are often unconnected forces that are rarely working together to improve individual performance. The challenge for the performance analyst in this environment is to effectively identify and communicate these unconnected influences to the decision-makers within the organization. David Wile’s (1996) synthesized HPT model (Figure 1.6) is a representative example of recent diagnostic models. It employs an innovative approach by
Policies
Supervisor
Directions
Education
Culture
Work Stuff
SOPs
Performer
Actions
Ambience Support
Accomplishments
Feedback
Affective Factors Past Work Experience
People
Training
Selection
Affect
Mission
Incentives
Goals/Objectives
Societal Megatrends and Influences
Figure 1.5 A Performer-Centered HPT Model. Source: Whiteside, 1998
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65 External to performer
Internal to performer
Environmental (Intangibles)
1 Organizational Systems • clear goals • job design • clear policies • authority • appropriate workload • access to right people
2 Incentives
• compensation • feedback • positive reinforcement • interesting, meaningful work
Resources (Tangibles)
3 Cognitive Support
• job aids • documentation
4 Tools
• computers • software • VCRs • calculators • automobiles
5 Physical Environment • noise • light • temperature • physical layout
6 Skills/ Knowledge • training • on-the-job training • self-study
7 Inherent Ability • intelligence • emotional ability • physical attributes • education • artistic gifts • internal motivation
Figure 1.6 Wile’s Synthesized HPT Model. Source: Wile, 1996
presenting two separate domains and paths of analysis to use when examining human performance. Wile stays true to the diagnostic model’s early supporters by focusing on elements both external and internal to the performer. He further subdivides the external domain into the categories of intangibles and tangibles, noting that each requires specific interventions. The model is unique in that it offers concrete solutions to varying performance problems and discriminates between interventions that are training solutions and those that are not. The simplicity of the diagnostic flow in this model makes it easy for the analyst to take the first steps in solving a performance problem. The model presented in Table 1.2 moves beyond the individual performer models previously discussed. This model, advanced by Tosti and Jackson (1997), has many similarities to Rummler’s HPT model. Like Rummler, Tosti and Jackson examine a performance problem at multiple levels, including organization, people, and work. Their organizational scan model (Chapter Five) plots these levels against the criteria domains of conditions, process, and outcomes to show the performance influences in each of the nine areas of the matrix (Tosti & Jackson, 1997). There are three characteristics that make this model an effective tool: it is systematic and comprehensive; it is manageable in terms of the number of areas analyzed; and it is easily communicated to the client. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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14 HANDBOOK OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE Table 1.2 Tosti and Jackson’s Multiple Levels Conditions
Process
Outcomes
Organization
Strategy, Structure: mission strategy, external business drivers, functional grouping, budget/ decision authority
Systems: degree of centralization, consistency of operations, flexibility
Organizational Results: satisfaction of investors, satisfaction of societal stakeholders, measures of success, goal alignment with/ mission
People
Climate Practices: company/individual values, management/ leadership, team norms, ethics, integrity
Performer Requirements: skills, knowledge, job aids/ references, selection, conference
Motivation: feedback, satisfaction of employees, frequency, timing, rewards and recognition, expectations
Work
Environment, Resources: physical environment, tools, materials, information, support personnel/services, accessibility of resources, workload, demands
Methods: allocation of functions, process, procedures, workflow, duplications/gaps
Products, Services: satisfaction of customers, productivity levels, standards/criteria, quality of product delivery
Danny Langdon designed the last diagnostic model we will examine. Langdon’s Language of Work model (Figure 1.7) is designed to be accessible to novices who have an understanding of the knowledge and skills of their performers, yet are unable to express this knowledge systematically. The model describes performance as flowing from input, moving through processes and output to consequences. It employs a feedback loop that reminds the analyst that outside factors, called conditions here, affect the input and process. Whiteside (1998) claims that the simplicity of Langdon’s model allows it to be used to examine performance at four levels: the business unit, the core process, the workgroup, and the individual. As in the previous models, the emphasis is on diagnosing the location of the performance problems. For certain performance problems, the analyst may only require a model that helps to identify where the problems are located. In those cases, one of the Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Condition 67 Input
Process
Output
Consequences
Feedback
Figure 1.7 The Language of Work Model. Source: Whiteside, 1998
models described above may be sufficient and could stand alone to address the problem. In other cases, the analyst might desire to know how to apply an HPT solution to solve a performance problem. This process approach might be used in conjunction with, or in place of, one of the models described above.
PROCESS MODELS When we consider process models, we are considering those models that go beyond the diagnostic activities of determining where to look for performance problems and begin to show us how to examine the problem itself. Rosenberg, Coscarelli, and Hutchinson (1992) note that the origins of this type of systems analysis are in early models, such as Harless’s ADDIE model. They further report that these early process models tended to be linear in nature and included the process of identifying specific solutions to the performance problems. The application of systems analysis and linear logic is a consistent trait of process models. There are five general characteristics that help to identify process models. As stated above, most models in this group are linear or sequential. In addition, they often have phased or grouped activities, are driven by a gap analysis, are intervention oriented, and usually contain a feedback mechanism. All five characteristics will not be present in every process model, but all of the models will have some of these traits in common. The International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) model (ISPI, 2000) pictured in Figure 1.8 includes all these characteristics and is an appropriate example of a process model. The next descriptive characteristic is the use of phased or grouped activities. Most process models detail a number of related activities that achieve a unified goal that represent one step in the process. For instance, there are often a number of activities that fall under the headings ‘‘Performance Analysis’’ and ‘‘Intervention Selection.’’ This is the case in the ISPI and Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Performance Analysis Operational Analysis (Vision, Mission,) Values, Goals, and Strategies
Desired Workforce Performance
Gap
Cause Analysis Lack of Environmental Support • Data, Information, and Feedback • Environment, Support, Resources, and Tools • Consequences, Incentives, and Rewards Lack of Repertory of Behavior
Environmental Analysis • Organizational Environment (Stakeholders and Competition) • Work Environment (Resources, Tools, Human Resources, Policies) • Work (Work Flow, Procedures, Responsibilities, and Ergonomics) • Worker (Knowledge, Skill, Motivation, Expectations, and Capacity)
Actual State of Workforce Performance
• Skills and Knowledge • Individual Capacity • Motivation and Expectations
Intervention Selection and Design
Intervention Implementation and Change
Performance Support (Instructional and Non-Instructional)
Change Management
Job Analysis/Work Design Personal Development Human Resources Development Organizational Communications Organizational Design and Development Financial Systems
Process Consulting Employee Development Communication, Networking, and Alliance Building
Evaluation Formative • Performance Analysis • Cause Analysis • Selection/Design of Interventions Summative • Immediate reaction • Immediate Competence Confirmative • Continuing Competence (Job Transfer) • Continuing Effectiveness (Organizational Impact) • Return on Investment
Meta Evaluation / Validation • Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Processes • Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Products • Lessons Learned
Figure 1.8 Traditional HPT Process. Source: ISPI, 2000
the human performance model, which is displayed in Figure 1.9 (Atkinson & Chalmers, 1999). The steps in the process that the authors of these models choose to group together vary widely from model to model, but what many models have in common is the clear detailing of those groupings. While most process models are linear in nature, authors of each model often follow different paths to achieve their end result. A number of models begin with organizational mission analysis, then do a gap analysis between the desired and actual human performance states; this is followed by cause analysis, intervention selection, implementation of interventions, and finally some form of feedback or evaluation. Gap analysis, another important characteristic, is central to many process models. The performance gap is the difference between them in terms of performance (Robinson & Robinson, 1995). As seen in Figure 1.10, the ISPI and human performance model identify gap analysis as a step in their process (Human Performance Technologies, 2000). All these models represent the gap as the difference between the desired and actual states of performance. Rarely does a process model focus solely on human performance; instead, most seek to Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Performance Analysis Solution Selection Actual Work Performed
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Intervention Areas
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Strategies and Issues
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Gap Analysis
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Solution Integration
Interventions
• HR Programs • Management Systems • Quality Practices • Information Systems • Organizational Development • Feedback Systems • Environmental Engineering • Education and Training
Future Performance
Measurement
Monitor and Control for continuous quality improvement
Figure 1.9 Human Performance Model. Source: Atkinson and Chalmers, 1999
identify both organizational and individual performance gaps. Of the process models discussed so far, only the human performance model focuses solely on individual performance. Many process models focus on performance interventions as a crucial step in the HPT process. Silber (1992) asserts that HPT interventions have a wide and varied range, beginning at the individual performer level and extending to the more complex organizational level. Rarely do performance problems require a singular intervention. Therefore, most process models describe different forms and arrangement of interventions that may be considered when deciding how best to close the performance gap. The ISPI and human performance models show a direct cause-and-effect relationship between a performance problem and the intervention. The final characteristic that many process models have in common is the existence of a feedback loop, where the results of implementation are observed, evaluated, and reported. In most HPT models, the result of this evaluation can be the restarting of the process at one of the first steps in the model. In summary, process models advance HPT activities beyond the discovery of where to look for performance problems and into the activities of how to analyze performance problems. The models studied have many similar characteristics; they were linear, had phased or grouped activities, sought out performance gaps, considered multiple intervention possibilities, and evaluated results with an appropriate feedback loop. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Design of Interventions
Training Design
Job Aids
Personnel Selection
Training Development
Environment
Motivational Incentive
Feedback System
Implementation Evaluation
Figure 1.10 The Peak Performance System. Source: Human Performance Technologies, 2000
Many analysts seeking solutions to their human performance problems will find that a diagnostic model, a process model, or some combination thereof will meet their needs. At other times, either the situation, or the preference of the analyst, demands a different approach.
HOLISTIC MODELS Holistic models are categorized as such because of their nonlinear form and unique modeling characteristics. These models are often represented by overlapping domains that exist separately, but that form an ideal performance zone when combined. As pictured in Figure 1.11, the HPT model uses three interlocking circles to represent people, processes, and organization (Advancia Consulting, 2000). These circles form the domains that symbolize the core activities of the model. Acting as outside influences on the core processes are the external activities of instructional technology, business process analysis, training systems, solution delivery, and modeling and simulations. These activities work together to develop integrated solutions for the domains of people, processes, and organization. As seen in Figure 1.12, the three-dimensional HPT model (Stock, 1996) resembles Rummler’s models in general diagnostic design. It shows three Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Human Performance Technologies
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Developing integrated solutions for ... Training Systems
People
Instructional Technology
Processes
Organization Business Process Analysis
Modeling and Simulation
Solution Delivery
Figure 1.11 A Holistic Model. Source: Advancia Consulting, 2000
EXECUTIVE
Direction
Organizational Systems
Human Resource Systems
MANAGERIAL
Guidance
Resources
Incentives
PERFORMER
Skills and Knowledge
Capabilities
Motives and Needs
19
AL
N IO
OT
EM
RATIONAL
Figure 1.12 A Three-Dimensional HPT Model. Source: Stock, 1996
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20 HANDBOOK OF IMPROVING PERFORMANCE IN THE WORKPLACE dimensions of influence over performance, emotion, rationale, and executive, managerial, or performer. The latter two intersect to form nine performance factors within an organization. According to Stock, this model attempts to target the individuals who have the most influence over the organization. Stock’s model is unique in its addition of a third dimension that considers the emotional intelligence of the individual when assessing the factors influencing human performance. Stock contends that human emotions have a much greater role in human performance than previously considered in the HPT field. He argues for a new approach and the increased use of emotional intelligence analysis in future HPT modeling. Stock admits that he has had varied success when trying to add intelligence analysis to actual performance problems, but encourages further study and experimentation. In that regard, Stock’s HPT model is making a significant contribution to the human performance technology field. These holistic models are generally explained with less detail than the diagnostic and process models discussed earlier. Thus, HPT practitioners with greater experience feel more comfortable using them than beginners. However, that should not discourage novices from evaluating them when deciding which model best fits their needs.
A SINGLE MODEL? There is no single HPT model that can be universally applied to all business environments and problems. This struggle to identify and define the root causes of performance problems, while attempting to place some logical framework around the reasons for these performance gaps, has defined and advanced the field of HPT. The traditional path in the early years of the HPT movement was to follow the ADDIE model in the instructional design process. This model’s linear focus addressed performance problems that required a training solution but ignored non-training causes of poor performance. The application of training-focused solutions for non-training problems caused clients to lose both money and confidence in those who were hired to solve their performance problems. This dissatisfaction, coupled with Skinner’s work in behavioral sciences and operant conditioning, opened the door for the early HPT pioneers. Former instructional design practitioners, including Harless, Mager, and Rummler, began to apply varied sciences and disciplines to the newly emerging field of HPT. Early work in the field sought to explain performance problems by placing heavy emphasis on the importance of the individual and his or her work environment and by focusing on the analysis portion of the HPT process. Today we see the continued expansion and evolution of the HPT modeling process. The models presented Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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here, while different in their reasoning and approaches, all appear to be having some measure of success. In addition to summarizing and categorizing the major HPT models in the field, this examination has identified three keys to success for analysts undertaking the HPT process: front-end analysis, measurement, and experience. Harless first promoted the important concept of front-end analysis. His belief that the understanding of the cause of a problem should drive the solution has remained prominent in our field. Included within the front-end analysis process is an analysis of the gap between the desired and actual states of performance. Harless contributed another idea that remains crucial to HPT success, the notion of a partnership between the client and the performance analyst. Ideally, this partnership begins during the front-end analysis phase and continues throughout the life of the project. Surprisingly, this important ingredient is missing from many of the models discussed here. Mager championed the next important concept, that of measurability. He introduced the idea that performance objectives must be applied under definable conditions and criteria. Analysts must have the ability to measure performance gaps and, eventually, performance gains to judge the effectiveness of given interventions. In addition, the existence of measurable performance objectives strengthens the communication between the performance analyst and the business client. Business clients want tangible methods to both quantify and justify their investments. Most of the models examined here followed Mager’s lead when creating their structure, and therefore support performance objective-based measurement options. Finally, HPT models demand experience and a wide range of talents from the performance analyst. The range and depth of knowledge required to use any of the models is extensive. There are few individuals who have the background to do a complete and thorough analysis entirely on their own. Because of this, teams of experts usually undertake the HPT process. Most of this expertise is needed only for limited periods and limited purposes. Selection of an HPT model should include a determination of the qualifications needed to perform the complete analysis.
CONCLUSION In conclusion, the HPT models examined here appear to be both functional and logical efforts to analyze and communicate performance problems to clients. Selecting the best HPT model can be a daunting task. The challenge for all concerned parties is to select the best model that can be applied or adapted to address and resolve the client’s problem. If there is no single HPT model capable of this task, then the performance technology analyst must have a range of HPT models from which to choose to find the best fit for the problem at hand. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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References Advancia Consulting. (2000). Human performance technologies [Online] Available: http://www.advancia.com/solut3.htm. Applied Performance Improvement Technology. (2000). A PIT stop definition [Online]. Available: http://www.apitstop.com/general/whatis.htm. Atkinson, V., & Chalmers, N. (1999). Performance consulting: Get your credit from your clients. Performance Improvement, 38(4), 14–19. Chevalier, R. (2000). HPT: The power to change. Performance Improvement, 39(1), 23–25. Dean, P. J. (1997). Thomas F. Gilbert, Ph.D.: Engineering performance improvement with or without training. In P. J. Dean & D.E. Ripley (Eds.), Performance improvement pathfinders: Models for organizational learning systems (Vol. 1) Silver Spring, MD: International Society for Performance Improvement. Dean, P. J. (1998). Allow me to introduce Thomas Gilbert. Performance Improvement, 37(6), 13–44. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (Eds.). (1997). Survey of instructional models (3rd ed.) Syracuse, NY: Clearinghouse on Information and Technology. Human Performance Technologies. (2000). The peak performance system: An accomplishment-based approach to human performance [Online]. Available: http://www .hptonline.com/HPT_Chart.html. International Society for Performance Improvement. (2000). What is HPT? [Online]. Available: http://www.ispi.org. Langdon, D. (2000). Taking the h out of HPT. Performance Improvement, 39(1), 5–8. Mager, R. F. (1997). Preparing instructional objectives: A critical tool in the development of effective instruction. Atlanta, GA: Center for Effective Performance. Mager, R. F., & Pipe, P. (1984). Analyzing performance problems: Or you really oughta wanna (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company Ripley, D. E. (1997). Joe Harless, Ed.D.: An ounce of analysis. In P. J. Dean & D. E. Ripley (Eds.), Performance improvement pathfinders: Models for organizational learning systems (Vol. 1) Silver Spring, MD: International Society for Performance Improvement. Robinson, D. G., & Robinson, J. C. (1995). Performance consulting. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Rosenberg, M. J., Coscarelli, W. C., & Hutchinson, C. S. (1992). The origins of the field. In H. Stolovitch & E. Keeps (Eds.), Handbook of human performance technology: A comprehensive guide for analyzing and solving performance problems in organizations (pp. 14–31). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Silber, K. H. (1992). Intervening at different levels in organizations. H. Stolovitch & E. Keeps (Eds.), Handbook of human performance technology: A comprehensive guide for analyzing and solving performance problems in organizations (pp. 50–65) San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
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HPT MODELS Stock, B. (1996). Getting to the heart of performance. Performance Improvement, 35(8), 6–8. Stolovitch, H., & Keeps, E. (Eds.). (1992). What is performance technology? Handbook of human performance technology: A comprehensive guide for analyzing and solving performance problems in organizations (pp. 3–13). San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Tosti, D., & Jackson, S. D. (1997). The organizational scan. Performance Improvement, 36(10), 22–26. West, J., (1997a). Robert Mager, Ph.D.: Learner-centered instruction. In P. J. Dean & D. E. Ripley (Eds.), Performance improvement pathfinders: Models for organizational learning systems (Vol. 1) Silver Spring, MD: International Society for Performance Improvement, 84–91. West, J. (1997b). Geary Rummler, Ph.D.: Managing performance in the white spaces. In P. J. Dean & D. E. Ripley (Eds.), Performance improvement pathfinders: Models for organizational learning systems (Vol. 1) Silver Spring, MD: International Society for Performance Improvement. Whiteside, K. S. (1998). Models, mayhem, and mystery. Performance Improvement, 37(2), 47–53. Wile, D. (1996). Why doers do. Performance Improvement, 35(2), 30–35.
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As Chapter One illustrates, abundant models, frameworks, and taxonomies can be used to improve performance. However, the chapter does not present an exhaustive list of those available for improving individual and organizational performance. One especially valuable model that was not included is Roger Kaufman’s Organizational Elements Model (OEM), shown in Figure 1.13. Kaufman, a pioneer in the discipline of performance improvement, stands with Bob Mager, Joe Harless, and Tom Gilbert among the progenitors of HPT. From a pragmatic perspective, the OEM is a useful diagnostic model that can both be applied in a needs assessment (see Chapter Thirty-Two) as well as used as an informative classification model when you align accomplishments with performance interventions. We believe the OEM to be an indispensible model for this handbook and for the improvement of performance. The model expands on traditional perspectives of performance results, adding a system perspective that aligns results beyond the boundaries of the organization. While many models consider all results to be equivalent, the OEM identifies three distinct types of interrelated accomplishments. The first are outcomes, with the primary beneficiary being society as a whole. The second are outputs, with the primary beneficiary being the organization itself. Last are products, with the primary beneficiary being the individuals and teams within an organization.
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RESEARCH THEMES IN HPT: A CONTENT REVIEW OF THE ISPI JOURNALS Linda M. Huglin, PhD
To best understand where a field is going, it is important first to know where it has been. This article provides an overview of where the field of human performance technology (HPT) came from, what themes and trends have occurred in the ISPI literature since the field’s beginning in 1962 through the present, and what gaps are apparent in the HPT research.
ON JANUARY 29, 1962, the Programmed Learning Society was formed by Lt. Col. Gabriel Ofiesh at Randolph Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. The purpose of the society, according to the Programmed Learning Society Newsletter, was “to promote the understanding of programmed instruction and to dispel many of the misconceptions of programmed learning” (Ofiesh & Tierney, 1962, p. 1). Within a month’s time, the society changed its name to the National Society of Programmed Instruction (NSPI), and the newsletter was renamed the NSPI Newsletter. In a merger with AID (Auto-Instructional Devices) for Education and Training Magazine, the newsletter became the NSPI Journal. Today, nearly 48 years later, the NSPI is known as the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) and the NSPI Journal has become this journal, Performance Improvement. In 1972, a second, more scholarly, journal was added to the NSPI collection: Improving Human Performance Quarterly. This journal ceased publication in 1979; however, in 1988 it was resurrected as Performance Improvement Quarterly, and is still in publication today. Between these two journals, to date nearly 6,000 articles have been published on a variety of topics. A review of these articles has revealed distinct themes of research for each decade that also align themselves to the trends of the times.
THE 1960s: PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION What is programmed instruction? As indicated above, ISPI was founded on the concept of programmed instruction and learning. Programmed Huglin, L.M. (2010). Research themes in HPT: A content review of the ISPI journals. Performance Improvement Journal, 49(4), 9 -16. Used with permission.
instruction, also referred to as the Auto-Instructional Approach, was made popular by B. F. Skinner, who joined the Cambridge Massachusetts chapter of NSPI in 1963 (“Chapter programs,” 1963) and began presenting at NSPI conferences in 1965 (“Convention program preview,” 1965). In the second issue of the newsletter, Dr. David Klaus (Pelle, 1962) of the American Institute of Research presented seven steps of programmed instruction (p. 2): 1. The material to be learned is presented in small steps. 2. These steps are carefully sequenced, each built on what has been previously learned. 3. The student responds actively using his own words. 4. The correctness of his response is immediately confirmed. 5. Each student learns at his own pace, as fast as his abilities permit. 6. Each student is carefully guided so that he is prevented from practicing errors. 7. The program has been subjected to extensive trial, revision, and correction as an integral part of the writing process. The instruction was presented by means of either a programmed text or a mechanical teaching machine. In either case, a student would be presented with a small piece of instruction that required a response. After the response was recorded in the machine, the student received immediate feedback as to the accuracy of the response. If it was incorrect, further instruction was provided until a correct response was recorded; the
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correct response was then reinforced, and the student moved on.
The Promise of Programmed Instruction Programmed instruction was thought to be the breakthrough in learning that would bring about lasting change. In the 1962 article “What Can We Learn from the Teaching Machines?” author Spencer Klaw states the following: A close look at the theory (or theories) of Programmed Instruction and at the results it is yielding in actual use leaves no doubt that it works, and little doubt that it will bring about significant, and on the whole, beneficial changes in a wide variety of educational practices . . . [it will] almost certainly have a sharp and lasting impact on the way textbooks are being written, the costs of industrial training, the organization of school courses and curricula, [and] the training of teachers. (Review of current literature, 1962, p. 7)
Also in 1962, then-president John F. Kennedy called for public school reform, which was linked to his War on Poverty. NSPI founder Lt. Col. Gabriel Ofiesh, along with NSPI members Charles Adams and Paul Roberson, was appointed to the Consultant Task Force on War on Poverty with the U.S. Office of Education in Washington, DC. Programmed Instruction was thought to be a tool in the fight against illiteracy, which would help to reduce poverty in the United States as well (News of members, 1964).
Teachers on the Defensive Not everyone agreed that programmed instruction was a good idea. An article entitled “Learn with BOOK” parodied the Teaching Machine craze: A new aid to rapid—almost magical—learning has made its appearance. Built-in Orderly Organized Knowledge (BOOK) has many advantages over the old-style learning and teaching aids. All motive power is supplied by the brain of the user; therefore, no mechanical parts can go wrong. (Learn with BOOK, 1962, p. 2)
And in 1963, Sandorf cited the following, originally published in the newspaper Arizona Republic of Phoenix: In the good old fashioned school days, Days of the golden rule, Teacher said, “Good Morning, class,” And so she started school. Alas! How different things are now, The school day can’t begin Till someone finds the outlet And plugs the teacher in.
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The teacher is indispensable in the classroom, even without a lecture, they affirm. Who will lead the discussion, moderate the differences, point to new avenues, give wise counsel? (Sandorf, 1963, p. 10)
In addition, in 1959, Gilbert had voiced a strong opinion against programmed instruction: “If you don’t have a gadget called a teaching machine, don’t get one. . . . The so-called teaching machine is a disease, not a challenge to self-control.” (Gilbert, cited by Markle, 1970, p. 4)
Systems Approach to Instruction By the mid-1960s, support for programmed instruction began to give way instead to the new topic of the systems approach to instruction. As stated by Nassau in December of 1964: There appears to be (a) a continuing reluctance by a number of publishers to make a serious effort in P.I. . . . and (b) a willingness by some practitioners in the field to wave an abrupt goodbye to their partly-won girlfriend, Programmed Instruction, in their rush to romance that new girl in town, Miss Systems. (p. 3)
Those who still embraced programmed instruction blamed the public school system for this lack of enthusiasm: Another serious problem impeding the classroom use of programmed instruction is that programmed instruction is based on a rational, scientific framework that is completely foreign to the philosophy of many teachers. (Coulson, 1965, p. 13)
When mainstream education rejected programmed instruction, its proponents turned to the use of programmed instruction to students with special needs. Several articles on this topic were written in the late 1960s (see, for example, Abraham, 1966; Taylor & Sands, 1966; Wendland, Pedersen, Forney, & Coss, 1967). In addition, industry was using programmed instruction for training purposes, including Sears, Macy’s, JCPenney, and Continental Airlines (Glaser, 1967; PI: A conglomerate at Continental,” 1967). As the decade came to a close, the 1960s were dubbed “A Decade toward Effective Learning”; this was the theme for the 1969 NSPI Convention.
THE 1970s: AN NSPI IDENTITY CRISIS With the move away from programmed instruction, NSPI found itself in the midst of an identity crisis. Early in the 1970s, NSPI was still the National Society of Programmed Instruction. The move toward systems theory and computer-assisted instruction and away from programmed instruction put NSPI in somewhat of a quandary. If not programmed instruction, then what? As
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George Geis, the NSPI president from 1971–1972, stated, “Who are we? What do we appear to be? And finally— what are the next steps in getting where we want to go?” (Geis, 1971, p. 12). In 1972, the NSPI became the National Society for Performance and Instruction; the emphasis was shifted from programmed instruction to performance technology. As stated by Roger Kaufman, “When our marvelous PI technology failed to reduce some problems, which usually were not instructional problems at all, our interests turned to performance problem solving as a more viable process” (Kaufman, 1975, p. 3).
Simulations and Games In the mid-1970s, simulations and games became a popular topic, including the publication of articles such as “Using Games to Improve Human Performance: Some General Approaches and Specific Examples” (Thiagarajan, 1975); “Examining the Research Evidence on Simulation/ Gaming” (Twelker, 1975); “Simulations and Games: A Motivational Perspective” (Spitzer, 1975); “Formative Evaluation of Instructional Games” (Stolovitch, 1975); and “Trends in Simulation Gaming” (Horn, 1975).
Computers in the Classroom As the 1970s came to a close, a new instructional tool began to emerge: the microcomputer. As stated by Tennyson (1977), “One should not . . . lose sight of the rather exciting potential uses of computers in the classroom . . . Just as calculators have dropped in price from the rich person’s toy to the average person’s tool, so will the microcomputer” (p. 5). This view was echoed by Davis (1977): “In the galaxy of instructional technologies, the computer is the reigning superstar—the one technology which, more than any other, is tightly bound up with the learning process” (p. 7). In 1978, a new column was created in the NSPI Journal: CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) Update. The intent of the column was “. . . to provide information about how computers are being used to train, teach, and inform as well as general information about computers” (Bagley & Carrier, 1978, p. 22). Radio Shack’s TRS-80 microcomputer was the cutting-edge system of choice at the time. In addition, microprocessors were beginning to find their way into other electronic devices, including home appliances such as the newly available microwave oven.
Paradigm Shifts As the 1970s drew to a close, a paradigm shift in education was taking place. Behaviorism, on which the field of instructional technology was built, was being replaced by cognitivist theory: “Learning theory which has typically viewed the learner as a ‘black box’ is giving way to what
has been termed by some as the ‘cognitive movement in instruction’” (Ward, 1979, p. 31). As a result, the behaviorist-oriented journal Improving Human Performance Quarterly ceased publication.
THE 1980s: NEW INNOVATIONS The 1980s were a very active time in the development of the human performance technology (HPT) field. For the first time, the NSPI conference included a performance technology track “which [would] concentrate on efforts to improve performance through primarily noninstructional means” (Russell, 1980, p. 28). And although programmed instruction was a thing of the past, individualized instruction was still very popular as a training technique, particularly in light of the continued development of the microcomputer.
Training Centers In 1980, the NSPI Journal published a special issue on instructional environments and training centers. As stated by Holt and Stevenson, “We observe that only recently has the instruction delivery system for individualized instruction begun to obtain anything approaching the attention which the training development process has been receiving for many years” (Holt & Stevenson, 1980, p. 3). The business world was taking note as well; United Airlines, for example, adopted this method for training its pilots: “The initial training course for these new employees would be individualized, criterion referenced, and computer managed” (Cain, 1980, p. 9). The setup of choice was the study carrel; numerous individual cubicles were set up for individual study. The specifications of the study carrel were carefully researched and tightly designed, taking into consideration the human factors of the learning environment such as lighting, color, furniture, and acoustics (Goff, 1980). Each station was set up with a slide/tape player, videocassettes, and written manuals; each trainee learned via self-paced instruction. The study carrel was popular in not only the business setting but also public schools and libraries.
Technology and Media Over time, it became apparent that the physical setup of the learning area and the media used within it were not necessarily the most important part of learning. As stated by Claude Lineberry, NSPI president from 1981–1982, “What it boils down to is that bad instruction is bad instruction . . . whether it’s on paper, film, video, or a computer display. . . . The computer is not the answer. It is the question” (Lineberry, 1982, p. 1). Along these same lines, Berman wrote, “Glib platform skills and dazzling multimedia technology are powerful tools in training.
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Over used they can overshadow any program message” (Berman, 1980, p. 16).
Evidence-Based Practice In 1983, the NSPI Research Committee was created and published guidelines to support research. As stated by Stolovitch, “The field needs new and more research, as well as ways of recognizing quality work and disseminating it. NSPI is officially embarking on a research support venture” (Stolovitch, 1983, p. 34). A special issue of Performance + Instruction (formerly entitled the NSPI Journal) was published on the topic of NSPI and Research (issue 22[10]). In it, Richard Swanson, the editor at the time, wrote about this issue, “If our future is not directly linked to sound research and theory, what is it linked to . . . if our future is not directly linked to sound research and theory, how do we differ from our professional competitors?” (Swanson, 1983, p. 2). Coscarelli echoed this sentiment: “What first attracted me to NSPI was its blend of researchers and practitioners who valued the empirical and the pragmatic. What I see developing is an organization that now values the pragmatic above all else” (Coscarelli, 1985, p. 21). In response to these concerns, another attempt was made to create a research-based journal for NSPI; this resulted in the creation of Performance Improvement Quarterly, which began publication in 1988. The first article in the first issue was Swanson’s “Research and Development and Other Life and Death Matters” (Swanson, 1988).
Job Aids and Performance Support Although the first articles about job aids appeared in Improving Human Performance Quarterly in the late 1970s (Harmon & King, 1979; Lineberry, 1977), over 30 articles on this topic were published in the 1980s; these include “Job Aids: Panacea or Placebo” (Yarusso, 1984), “Countdown of the Top Ten Hits for Job Aid Construction” (Stum, 1987), and “The Job Aid as Zen Art” (Zagorski, 1989). In addition, in 1987, a contest was held for creation of the best job aid; Sue Zagorski was selected as the winner (Zagorski, 1987).
THE 1990s: THE ELECTRONICS AGE As the decade of the 90s began, it became clear that the boundaries of NSPI had grown beyond the United States. In 1995, NSPI was renamed ISPI (International Society for Performance Improvement) to acknowledge the international nature of the group.
Computer Technology In the first 5 years of the 1990s, an explosion occurred in computer technology. The World Wide Web was intro-
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duced, the first Web browsers were released, America Online was launched, and Yahoo and Internet Explorer were established.
Media Selection Media selection was a prominent theme during the 1990s. In the early part of the decade, the focus was on overheads and video (Boser, 1991; Bunch, 1990; Rinderer, 1990). With the introduction of Apple Computer’s HyperCard program, hypertext and hypermedia were receiving a great deal of attention in the instructional arena. One of the earliest articles on this subject was “HyperCard for the Design, Development, and Delivery of Instruction,” published in 1989 (Eckols & Rossett). Later in the 1990s, CDROMs and the Internet were the hot topics in the training world (Cavagnol, 1996; Esque, 1998a, 1998b; Pallesen et al., 1999; Pollock & Masters, 1997).
Diversity Another research theme in the 1990s was diversity. NSPI published a policy on diversity (“NSPI policy statement: Why an NSPI policy on diversity?” 1993) and launched a “What it’s like to . . .” series on diversity in the journal. Topics included what it’s like to be handicapped in the workplace (O’Reilley, 1993) and to be hearing-impaired in the workplace (Hites, 1994). After the Rodney King trial riots in Los Angeles in 1992, the series continued with articles such as what it’s like to be an African-American woman in the workplace (Holmes, 1994), be Hispanic in the workplace (Rojas, 1994), and be an Asian woman in the American workplace (Liu, 1995). Other topics in the series included what it’s like to be gay in the workforce (Powers, 1993), be a working mother (Canning, 1994), be female in the workforce (Brenneman, 1994), and be older in the workforce (Moseley & Dessinger, 1994).
Ethics The topic of ethics also was a prominent theme during this decade, possibly because of, in part, the number of high profile scandals that occurred (including O.J. Simpson’s chase and arrest, the Nancy Kerrigan/Tonya Harding ice skating scandal, and the Monica Lewinski scandal). In addition, the 1990s saw the first World Trade Center bombing, the Oklahoma City federal building bombing, the Olympic Games bombing, and the Columbine High School shootings. Numerous articles were published on the topic of ethics, including a two-part series called “A Selected Review of the Underpinnings of Ethics for Human Performance Technology Professionals” (Dean, 1993; Dean & Banks, 1993). Related articles included “The Personal Ethics Process: An Approach to Improving
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Individual Ethical Performance” (Hatcher, 1993), “Customizing Codes of Ethics to Set Professional Standards” (Dean, 1994), and “Standards on Ethics and Integrity” (Burns et al., 1999).
an Electronic Performance Support System for Teachers: An Examination of Usage, Performance, and Attitudes” (Moore & Orey, 2001).
RESEARCH GAPS THE 2000s: GLOBALIZATION AND ELECTRONIC TOOLS As we complete the first decade of the 21st century, several themes emerge from the ISPI literature, in particular, globalization, e-learning, and job aids and electronic performance support systems (EPSSs).
Globalization By far, the largest category during the current decade is globalization, with over 50 articles published on the topic. Performance Improvement Quarterly has published two special issues on globalization: Global Distance Learning (1999) and Global Organizational Change (2000). Performance Improvement journal has also published a special issue on this topic: Impact of Trends upon HPT from a Global Perspective (2005). Numerous individual articles on this topic have been published as well (see, for example, Carleton & Stevens, 2004; Hanson & Saban, 2001; Kayes, Kayes, & Yamazaki, 2005; Murray, 2003; Sanchez, 2000; Uday-Riley, 2006).
E-Learning Several articles have been published on the topic of e-learning during this decade. For example, articles published in Performance Improvement Quarterly include “The Adoption of E-Learning Across Professional Groups” (Gallaher & Wentling, 2004); “Assessing Readiness for E-Learning” (Watkins, Leigh, & Triner, 2004); and “An Investigation of the Profiles of Satisfying and Dissatisfying Factors in E-Learning” (Chyung & Vachon, 2005). Articles in Performance Improvement journal include “How to Keep E-Learners from E-Scaping” (Moshinskie, 2001); “Assessing Organizational Readiness for E-Learning: 70 Questions to Ask” (Haney, 2002); and “Evaluating Distance Delivery and E-Learning: Is Kirkpatrick’s Model Relevant?” (Galloway, 2005).
Job Aids and EPSS The topic of job aids and electronic performance support systems emerged as a theme as well. Examples of articles include “Distributed Cognition: A Foundation for Performance Support” (Greenberg & Dickelman, 2000); “Performance Support Engineering: Building Performance-Centered Web-Based Systems, Information Systems, and Knowledge Management Systems in the 21st Century” (Raybould, 2000); and “The Implementation of
Although many research themes have emerged from this content analysis of the ISPI journals, research gaps are apparent as well. Two related studies address this issue: “Research Priorities in Performance Technology: A Delphi Study” (Huglin, Johnsen, & Marker, 2007), and “Current Status, Future Trends, and Issues in Human Performance Technology” (Pershing, Lee, & Cheng, 2008). Research gaps revealed by the Delphi study are as follows: 1. What are the operational definitions of the key research variables in the HPT field? 2. How do we measure value added to the field? 3. How do we identify best practices that will optimize combinations of interventions? 4. How does the value added by HPT compare to that added by other fields? 5. How do experts and novices in the field differ in their mental models and practices? In addition, Pershing, Lee, and Cheng’s (2008) article identifies three research gaps: 1. The use of evaluation to “bridge the gap between practice, research, and theory in HPT” (p. 13). 2. The replication of research “in organizational settings from complementary disciplines such as social psychology, management, and organizational behavior” (Bichelmeyer, cited on p. 13). 3. Integrative research to link “the scattered research dealing with individual principles” (p. 13).
CONCLUSION Numerous research themes have emerged in the ISPI literature in the nearly 48 years since the group was formed. Not surprisingly, many of these themes are tied to the political and social climate of the times, as well as advances in technology. As ISPI approaches its 50th anniversary, it is interesting to ponder the research themes of years to come.
References Abraham, W. (1966). Programmed learning and the exceptional child. NSPI Journal, 5(2), 5–7. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4180050204.]
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Bagley, C., & Carrier, C. (1978). CAI update. NSPI Journal, 17(5), 22–25. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180170518.] Berman, B.H. (1980). Training for invisibility. NSPI Journal, 19(3), 16–18, 21. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180190311.] Boser, R.A. (1991). Learning technology and change: The case for interactive video. Performance + Instruction, 30(7), 24–25. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4170300708.] Brenneman, J. (1994). What it’s like to be female in the work force. Performance + Instruction, 33(2), 17–21. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4160330206.]
Dean, P.J. (1994). Customizing codes of ethics to set professional standards. Performance + Instruction, 33(2), 36–45. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4160330211.] Dean, P.J., & Banks, M.M. (1993). A selected review of the underpinnings of ethics for human performance technology professionals—Part two: Professional resources. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 33–49. Eckols, S.L., & Rossett, A. (1989). HyperCard for the design, development, and delivery of instruction. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 2(4), 2–20.
Bunch, J. (1990). Professional advice on videotaping instruction. Performance + Instruction, 29(1), 16–20. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4160290105.]
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Burns, J.Z., Dean, P.J., Hatcher, T., Otte, F.L., Preskill, H., & Russ-Eft, D. (1999). Standards on ethics and integrity. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 12(3), 5–30.
Esque, T.J. (1998b). The Web: Of medium importance to training? Performance Improvement, 37(3), 45–47. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4140370315.]
Cain, D.J. (1980). New hire pilot training at United Airlines. NSPI Journal, 19(2), 9–10. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180190208.]
Gallaher, J., & Wentling, T.L. (2004). The adoption of e-learning across professional groups. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 17(3), 66–85.
Canning, M.-L. (1994). What it’s like to be a working mother. Performance + Instruction, 33(1), 27–29. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4160330111.] Carleton, J.R., & Stevens, A. (2004). When worlds collide: The need for cultural assessment and integration. Performance Improvement, 43(6), 38–43. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4140430612.] Cavagnol, R.M. (1996). Painting cars with CD-ROMs. Performance + Instruction, 35(3), 24–28. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4170350309.] Chapter programs. (1963). NSPI Journal, 2(10), 10. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4210021006.] Chyung, S.Y., & Vachon, M. (2005). An investigation of the profiles of satisfying and dissatisfying factors in e-learning. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 18(2), 97–113. Convention program preview. (1965). NSPI Journal, 4(3), 16. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180040315.]
Galloway, D.L. (2005). Evaluating distance delivery and e-learning: Is Kirkpatrick’s model relevant? Performance Improvement, 44(4), 21–27. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4140440407.] Geis, G.L. (1971). The president reports. NSPI Journal, 10(5), 1–12. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180100502.] Glaser, R. (1967). PI, the workhorse of retail training. NSPI Journal, 6(1), 10. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180060107.] Global distance learning. (1999). Performance Improvement Quarterly, 12(2). Global organizational change. (2000). Performance Improvement Quarterly, 13(2). Goff, M.R. (1980). Carrels for self-paced instruction. NSPI Journal, 19(2), 16–19. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180190211.]
Coscarelli, W. (1985). Cracker barrel. Performance + Instruction, 24(1), 21–22. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4150240110.]
Greenberg, J.D., & Dickelman, G.J. (2000). Distributed cognition: A foundation for performance support. Performance Improvement, 39(6), 18–24. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4140390608.]
Coulson, J.E. (1965). Five major obstacles to the growth of PI in education. NSPI Journal, 4(6), 12–14. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180040608.]
Haney, D. (2002). Assessing organizational readiness for e-learning: 70 questions to ask. Performance Improvement, 41(4), 10–15. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4140410404.]
Davis, R.W. (1977). Computer instruction: Basic hardware alternatives. NSPI Journal, 16(9), 7–10. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180160908.]
Hanson, D., & Saban, K.A. (2001). The structure of work, patterns of communication, and organizational learning: A threenation comparison. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 14(2), 77–85.
Dean, P.J. (1993). A selected review of the underpinnings of ethics for human performance technology professionals—Part one: Key ethical theories and research. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 3–32.
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Harmon, P., & King, D. (1979). Operant learning, cognitive development, and job aids. Improving Human Performance Quarterly, 8(1), 1–28.
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Hatcher, T.G. (1993). The personal ethics process: An approach to improving individual ethical performance. Performance + Instruction, 32(4), 21–28. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.41700320407.] Hites, J. (1994). On being hearing impaired in the workplace. Performance + Instruction, 33(5), 10–12. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4160330505.] Holmes, C. (1994). What it’s like to be an African-American woman in the workplace. Performance + Instruction, 33(3), 37–38. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4160330313.]
Moshinskie, J. (2001). How to keep e-learners from e-scaping. Performance Improvement, 40(6), 30–37. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4140400607.] Murray, M. (2003). Guest editorial. Working worldwide: Differences in work, workers, and workplaces demand HPT cultural due diligence. Performance Improvement, 42(8), 8. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4930420804.] Nassau, R.H. (1964). A publisher notes the state of the art. NSPI Journal, 3(10), 3. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180031003.] News of members. (1964). NSPI Journal, 3(6), 6–7.
Holt, H.O., & Stevenson, F.L. (1980). A model delivery system for individualized instruction. NSPI Journal, 19(2), 3–6. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180190205.] Horn, R.E. (1975). Trends in simulation gaming. Improving Human Performance Quarterly, 4(4), 167–174. Huglin, L., Johnsen, L., & Marker, A. (2007). Research priorities in performance technology: A Delphi study. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 20(1), 79–96. Impact of trends upon HPT from a global perspective [Special issue]. (2005). Performance Improvement, 44(6).
NSPI policy statement: Why an NSPI policy on diversity? (1993). Performance + Instruction, 32(2), 1. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4170320203.] Ofiesh, G.D., & Tierney, M.A. (1962). National convention set. Programmed Learning Society Newsletter, 1(1), 1–4. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180010101.] O’Reilley, D.S. (1993). Diversity: On being handicapped in the workplace. Performance + Instruction, 32(9), 31–32. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4170320911.]
Kaufman, R. (1975). President’s page: From consolidation to growth. NSPI Newsletter, 14(3/4), 1–3.
Pallesen, P.J., Haley, P., Jones, E.S., Moore, B., Widlake, D.E., & Medsker, K.L. (1999). Electronic delivery systems: A selection model. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 12(4), 7–32.
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Raybould, B. (2000). Performance support engineering: Building performance-centered web-based systems, information systems, and knowledge management systems in the 21st century. Performance Improvement, 39(6), 32–39. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4140390610.] Review of current literature. (1962). NSPI Journal, 1(5), 7–8. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180010511.]
Performance Improvement
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Rinderer, M.J. (1990). A guide to good overheads. Performance + Instruction, 29(3), 26–31. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4160290307.] Rojas, A.M. (1994). What it’s like to be Hispanic in the workplace. Performance + Instruction, 33(4), 25–26. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4160330409.] Russell, J. (1980). Wide variety of presentations and activities to highlight NSPI conference in Dallas. NSPI Journal, 19(1), 28–29. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180190110.]
Taylor, M.L., & Sands, E. (1966). Application of programmed instruction to the language training of severely impaired aphasic patients. NSPI Journal, 5(5), 10–11. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4180050506.] Tennyson, C.L. (1977). Computers in industry. NSPI Journal, 16(9), 5. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180160906.] Thiagarajan, S. (1975). Using games to improve human performance: Some general approaches and specific examples. Improving Human Performance Quarterly, 4(3), 84–95.
Sanchez, C. (2000). Performance improvement in international environments: Designing individual performance interventions to fit national cultures. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 13(2), 56–70.
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Spitzer, D. (1975). Simulations and games: A motivational perspective. Improving Human Performance Quarterly, 4(3), 105–114. Stolovitch, H. (1975). Formative evaluation of instructional games. Improving Human Performance Quarterly, 4(3), 126–141. Stolovitch, H. (1983). President’s message: National security for performance and instruction. Performance + Instruction, 22(6), 34–35. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4150220616.] Stum, S. (1987). Countdown of the top ten hits for job aid construction. Performance + Instruction, 26(4), 22. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4160260405.] Swanson, R.A. (1983). The agony and ecstasy of research. Performance + Instruction, 22(10), 1–2. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.41500221002.] Swanson, R.A. (1988). Research and development and other life and death matters. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 1(1), 69–82.
Ward, M.J. (1979). Attribution theory and research: Implications for achievement motivation and instructional design. NSPI Journal, 18(10), 31–33. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4180181014.] Watkins, R., Leigh, D., & Triner, D. (2004). Assessing readiness for e-learning. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 17(4), 66–79. Wendland, L.V., Pedersen, E., Forney, R.L., & Coss, J.G. (1967). The use of automated instruction with severely physically handicapped students. NSPI Journal, 6(10), 4–9. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4180061003.] Yarusso, L. (1984). Job aids: Panacea or placebo? Performance + Instruction, 23(8), 1–2. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4150230802.] Zagorski, S. (1987). How I created the award-winning job aid. Performance + Instruction, 26(4), 29–32. [DOI:10.1002/ pfi.4160260410.] Zagorski, S. (1989). The job aid as Zen art. Performance + Instruction, 28(10), 15–20. [DOI:10.1002/pfi.4170281006.]
LINDA M. HUGLIN, PhD, is an assistant professor for the Instructional and Performance Technology Department at Boise State University and holds a PhD from the University of Idaho. She teaches graduate courses in adult learning principles and workplace motivation. Her research interests include the universal design of instruction, the status of research in human performance technology, and adult cognitive development. She may be reached at
[email protected].
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APPENDIX C: PERSHING’S RESEARCH ON CPT Doctoral students from Indiana University completed a study of the application and usage of the Performance Technology standards by professionals who have earned the Certified Performance Technologist designation. The research results were published in the International Society for Performance Improvement’s PerformanceXpress in a series of articles in 2008. These are printed below for your information.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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ISPI’s 2008 Practice and Job Analysis: Part 1 James A. Pershing, Simone Symonette, Serdar Abaci, Christopher Brunclik, and David Craft The data are in. Jim Pershing, CPT, Ph.D., and his students from Indiana University gave an overview of the findings at the CPT clinic held at our annual conference in New York City. Christopher David Brunclik and Douglas Craft, both with the U.S. Coast Guard, helped develop the survey. Serdar Abaci and Simone Symonette had the onerous task of putting the survey into Survey Monkey. The online survey was sent to CPTs and non-CPTs in the U.S. and internationally. Table 1 shows how many received the survey and Table 2 shows the response rate. Totals CPTs USA
726
Non-CPTs USA
2,856
International CPTs
60
International non-CPTs
428
Total
4,070
Table 1. Population Size Population Total = N
Sample Total = N
Response Rate
Certified
765
254
32.3%
Non-Certified
3,284
305
9.0%
Pershing, J.A., Symonette, S., Abaci, S., Brunclik, C., & Craft, D. (2008, May). ISPI’s 2008 Practice and Job Analysis: Part 1. PerformanceXpress. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Table 2. Response Rate
This month’s PerformanceXpress will focus on the questions related to who we are and where we work. Table 3 compares CPTs with non-CPTs in terms of gender and education. Gender
CPT
Non-CPT
Male (n = 278)
56.5%
43.5%
Female (n = 277)
53.1%
46.9%
Education
n=303
n=254
High school
2.3%
8%
Two-year associate
4.6%
4.3%
Bachelor’s
15.5%
20.1%
Master’s
56.1%
58.7%
Doctorate
21.5%
16.1%
Table 3. Gender and Education
Salary U.S. members were asked about their salary. The median salary of the CPTs who completed the survey ranges between $101 and $120K, and the median salary of non-CPTs ranges between $81 and $100K. Experience in the Field Overall, CPTs have a little more experience than non-CPTs, as shown in Table 4. Years in Performance Improvement
CPT (n=304)
Non-CPT (n=254)
Less than 5
2.3%
11.4%
Between 5 and 10
10.9%
24.4%
Between 11 and 15
22.6%
21.7%
Between 16 and 20
20.7%
14.6%
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Between 21 and 25
16.1%
10.2%
More than 25
28.0%
17.7%
Table 4. Time in the Field
Training When asked where they had learned about human performance technology, 91.1 percent of the CPTs and 79.5 percent of the non-CPTs said from professional society conferences and workshops. Over 61 percent of both groups mentioned graduate course work. Also 52.8 percent of the CPTs and 46.5 percent of non-CPTs mentioned workshops sponsored by consulting firms. Where We Work Table 5 compares the employment situation of CPTs with non-CPTs. Current Employment Situation
CPT (n=304)
Non-CPT (n=254)
Academic (full-time professor or teacher)
2.0%
3.5%
Consultant within a consulting firm
8.2%
8.7%
Independent consultant
15.5%
8.3%
Owner or principal of a consulting firm
16.8%
8.3%
Employee of a non-consulting firm
20.1%
26.4%
Manager with a non-consulting firm
12.8%
16.5%
Director of learning and performance function
12.2%
16.9%
Between positions
0.3%
1.6%
Retired
2.0%
0.8%
Others
10.2%
9.1%
Table 5. Employment Situation
Next month’s issue will describe how frequently we apply the standards, and how important we think they are. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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ISPI’s 2008 Practice and Job Analysis Survey: Part 2 James A. Pershing, Simone Symonette, Serdar Abaci, and Christopher Brunclik Last month this column featured the work done by Jim Pershing, CPT, Ph.D., and his students from Indiana University. This month we continue with a report by Jim Pershing, Simone Symonette, Serdar Abaci, and Christopher Brunclik. This is the second of a report that provides results from the 2008 International Society for Performance Improvement Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. This survey was designed to validate ISPI’s ten Standards of Performance Technology and the criteria for earning the Certified Performance Technologist designation as well as to help ISPI provide better services. The total number of CPTs and non-CPT ISPI members worldwide who completed the survey was 563. The first report (see the May 2008 issue of PerformanceXpress) provided descriptive data about the respondents’ demographics. In this second report, we provide findings about how frequently the respondents apply the front-end standards (ISPI CPT Standards 1 through 4) and their perceptions of the standards’ importance. To determine how often the behaviors associated with the standards were demonstrated on the job, participants were asked to indicate how frequently they utilized each standard on a five-item Likert-type scale (5 = Always, 4 = Often, 3 = Half the Time, 2 = Seldom, and 1 = Never).
Pershing, J.A., Symonette, S., Abaci, S., & Brunclik, C. (2008, June). ISPI’s 2008 practice and job task analysis survey: Part 2. PerformanceXpress.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Respondents’ perceptions of the importance of the performance standards in their work were measured by asking questions directly related to each standard and its criteria. Respondents indicated their view of the standards’ importance using a five-item Likert-type scale (5 = Very Important, 4 = Important, 3 = Moderately Important, 2 = Of Little Importance, and 1 = Unimportant). The following four figures provide the mean and standard deviation for each question asked on the Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. Each figure shows the average response (mean value) to the frequency scale and reflects the average response (mean value) to the importance scale by the respondents. As you review the data for each substandard, note two factors. First, for each mean score, it is important to look at the accompanying standard deviation (SD) value. The larger the value of the standard deviation, the more variation among the respondents for the substandard. Second, for every substandard except one (Standard 3, substandard 12), the mean score for importance is larger in value than the mean score for frequency of application. This can be interpreted as the substandard being important in the practice of performance improvement but not always practiced in application. Given the relative high mean values for both frequency and importance for all of these substandards, one can infer that this group of respondents applies and values the front-end standards for the CPT designation. Note: This report does not provide data captured from the open-ended questions.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 1. Standard 1: Focus on Outcomes
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 2. Standard 2: Take a Systems View
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 3. Standard 3: Add Value
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 4. Standard 4: Work in Partnership with Clients and Other Specialists
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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ISPI’s 2008 Practice and Job Analysis Survey: Part 3 James A. Pershing, Simone Symonette, Serdar Abaci, and Christopher Brunclik In the May and June issues of PerformanceXpress, this column featured the work done by James A. Pershing, CPT, Ph.D., and his students, Serdar Abaci, Simone Symonette, and Christopher Brunclik, from Indiana University. We continue with Part 3 of a report that provides results from the 2008 International Society for Performance Improvement Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. This survey was designed to validate ISPI’s ten Standards of Performance Technology and the criteria for earning the Certified Performance Technologist designation as well as to help ISPI provide better services. The total number of CPTs and non-CPT ISPI members worldwide who completed the survey was 563. The first report (see the May 2008 issue of PerformanceXpress) provided descriptive data about the respondents’ demographics. The second report (see the June 2008 issue of PerformanceXpress) provided findings about how frequently the respondents apply the front-end standards (ISPI CPT Standards 1 through 4) and their perceptions of the standards’ importance. In this third report, we provide findings about how frequently the respondents apply the standards that cover the systematic process of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (ISPI CPT Standards 5 through 10) and their perceptions of the standards’ importance. To ascertain how often the behaviors associated with the standards were demonstrated on the job, participants were asked to indicate how frequently they utilized each standard on a five-item Likert-type scale (5 = Always, 4 = Often, 3 = Half the Time, 2 = Seldom, and 1 = Never). Pershing, J.A., Abaci, S., Symonette, S., & Brunclik, C. (2008, July). ISPI’s 2008 practice and job task analysis survey: Part 3. PerformanceXpress.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Respondents’ perceptions of the importance of the performance standards in their work were measured by asking questions directly related to each standard and its criteria. Respondents indicated their view of the standards’ importance using a five-item Likert-type scale (5 = Very Important, 4 = Important, 3 = Moderately Important, 2 = Of Little Importance, and 1 = Unimportant). The following six figures provide the mean and standard deviation for each question asked on the Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. Each figure shows the average response (mean value) to the frequency scale and reflects the average response (mean value) to the importance scale by the respondents. As with front-end standards, as you review the data for each substandard, note two factors. First, for each mean score, it is important to look at the accompanying standard deviation (SD) value. The larger the value of the standard deviation, the more variation among the respondents for the substandard. Second, for every substandard, the mean score for importance is larger in value than the mean score for frequency of application. This can be interpreted as the substandard being important in the practice of performance improvement but not always practiced in application. Unlike the front-end standards, with relative high mean values for both frequency and importance, the systematic process standards are not as clear. As one traverses standards 5 through 10, it is apparent there are lower means and larger disparities between frequency and importance, as well as higher SDs. One can infer that this group of respondents varies in the application and values of the standards related to the systematic process for the CPT designation. It is evident these standards will be the focus of further analysis, which will be reported in future ISPI publications. Note: This report does not provide data captured from the open-ended questions.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 1. Standard 5: Be Systematic—Needs or Opportunity Analysis
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 2. Standard 6: Be Systematic—Cause Analysis
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 3. Standard 7: Be Systematic—Design
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 4. Standard 8: Be Systematic—Development
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 5. Standard 9: Be Systematic—Implementation
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 6. Standard 10: Be Systematic—Evaluation
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ISPI’s 2008 Practice and Job Analysis Survey: Part 4 James A. Pershing, Simone Symonette, Serdar Abaci, and Christopher Brunclik This is the fourth of a five-part report that provides results from the 2008 International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. The survey was designed to validate the ISPI Certification Standards and the criteria for earning the Certified Performance Technologist (CPT) designation as well as to help ISPI provide better services to you. This article featured the work done by James A. Pershing, CPT, Ph.D., and his students, Serdar Abaci, Simone Symonette, and Christopher Brunclik, from Indiana University. The total number of CPTs and non-CPT ISPI members worldwide who completed the survey was 563. The first report (see the May 2008 issue of PerformanceXpress) provided descriptive data about the respondents’ demographics. The second report (see the June 2008 issue of PerformanceXpress) provided findings about how frequently the respondents apply the front-end standards (ISPI’s CPT Standards 1 through 4) and their perceptions of the standards’ importance. In the third report (see the July 2008 issue of PerformanceXpress), we provided findings about how frequently the respondents apply the analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation (Systematic Process) standards (ISPI’s CPT Standards 5 through 10) and their perceptions of the standards’ importance. In this issue, we show side-by-side comparisons between the responses of CPTs and non-CPTs of frequency and importance for all of the standards. To ascertain how often the behaviors associated with the standards were demonstrated on the job, participants were asked to indicate how frequently they utilized each standard on a five-item Likert-type scale (5 = Always, 4 = Often, 3 = Half the Time, 2 = Seldom, and 1 = Never). Pershing, J.A., Abaci, S., Symonette, S., & Brunclik, C. (2008, August). ISPI’s 2008 practice and job task analysis survey: Part 4. PerformanceXpress. Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Respondents’ perceptions of the importance of the performance standards in their work were measured by asking questions directly related to each standard and its criteria. Respondents indicated their view of the standards’ importance using a five-item Likert-type scale (5 = Very Important, 4 = Important, 3 = Moderately Important, 2 = Of Little Importance, and 1 = Unimportant). The following ten figures provide the mean and standard deviation (SD) for each item on the Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. Each figure shows the average response (mean value) to the frequency scale and reflects the average response (mean value) to the importance scale by the respondents on separate graphs. As with the previous reports, as you review the data for each substandard, note two factors. First, for each mean score, it is important to look at the accompanying SD value. The larger the value of the SD, the more variation among the respondents for the substandard. Second, for every substandard, the mean score for importance is larger in value than the mean score for the frequency of application. This can be interpreted as the substandard being important in the practice of performance improvement, but not always practiced in application. In this comparison there is a small disparity between CPTs and non-CPTs. In most cases you will see there is a larger, although slight, mean for the CPTs and more likely under frequency rather than importance. In addition, in most cases, the SD is smaller for the CPTs and one could infer that CPTs are in more of a consensus regarding the standards. However, with such small differences between CPTs and non-CPTs, the questions of both statistical and practical significance arise and will be the one of the items of further analysis to be discussed in future ISPI publications. Note: This report does not provide data captured from the open-ended questions.
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Figure 1. Standard 1: Focus on Outcomes
Figure 2. Standard 2: Take a Systems View
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 3. Standard 3: Add Value
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 4. Standard 4: Work in Partnership with Clients and Other Specialists
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 5. Standard 5: Be Systematic—Needs or Opportunity Analysis
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 6. Standard 6: Be Systematic—Cause Analysis
Figure 7. Standard 7: Be Systematic—Design Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 8. Standard 8: Be Systematic—Development
Figure 9. Standard 9: Be Systematic—Implementation Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Figure 10. Standard 10: Be Systematic—Evaluation
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ISPI’s 2008 Practice and Job Analysis Survey: Part 5 James A. Pershing, Simone Symonette, Serdar Abaci, and Christopher Brunclik This is the fifth of a six-part report that provides results from the 2008 International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. The survey was designed to validate the ISPI Certification Standards and the criteria for earning the Certified Performance Technologist (CPT) designation, as well as to help ISPI provide better services. The total number of CPTs and non-CPT ISPI members worldwide who completed the survey was 563. This report is an analysis of the open-ended responses received for Standards 1 through 4. The final report will be an analysis of the open-ended responses received for Standards 5 through 10. The open-ended questions were analyzed utilizing the “card-sorting” method. Responses for each of the standards were placed on an index card and reviewed by a two- to four-person team. While sorting through the cards, the team noticed trends, and categories were developed. The cards were then placed into categories for each standard. High impact (parsimonious summary of a category) and noticeable quotes were highlighted for further review. Following you will find each of the standards. Under each standard we have placed the most frequently realized categories, along with a frequency count. We then add a sampling of the quotes offered from respondents. Finally, we provide future plans and tentative recommendations for the CPT Standards.
Pershing, J.A., Symonette, S., Abaci, S., & Brunclik, C. (2008, September). ISPI’s 2008 practice and job task analysis survey: Part 5. PerformanceXpress.
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Categories
Card Count
Barriers: resistance and push-back; internal focus on processes
33
Positive Feedback: key to whole process; prerequisite to everything that follows
25
Not Applicable: set by the client; mandated by external agencies/forces
17
Organizational Structure and Culture: difficult to do in activity-oriented cultures; internal and external roles are different
15
Standard 1—Focus on Outcomes Sample comments from respondents (n = 11) “Focus on outcomes, especially ‘accomplishments’ is one of the most important CPT standards.” “If we can secure agreement on the end state—and the measures that define such—the execution of the intervention is faster, cheaper, and much easier.” “Need to be sure the focus is on behavior AND results. If focus is only on results, it can be achieved via inappropriate behavior, if only behavior it can produce different results. Need to focus on BOTH. This is key.” “I do not spend a great deal of time attempting to educate my clients about accomplishments versus activities. Rather, I/we focus on business goals and aligning our work/solutions to those goals.” Categories
Card Count
Barriers: difficult in “quick-fix” environments; cannot mandate to the clients
20
Support: necessary in getting from symptoms to causes; critical factor for success but is a great challenge; critical in identifying barriers and restraints
16
Organizational Structure and Culture: dependent on organizational level; difficult when the organization is departmentalized
13
Not Applicable: already established by the client or others in the organization; built in for technical systems
11
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End-Run: done by project team; not discussed with the client
7
Wording Issues and Jargon: confusion between systems and systems approaches, as well as systematic and systemic; difficulty with the term “leverage point”
7
Standard 2—Take a Systems View Sample comments from respondents (n = 80) “All of these questions point to the quest of finding the OD/HPT ‘sweet spot’ where organizational culture, mission, vision, policies, procedures, and individual contributors integrate—that’s what makes us tick!” “I don’t spend a great deal of time attempting to educate my clients about our processes. Rather, I use questions that force clients to consider other factors and perspectives (e.g., constraints, resources, employee perceptions of solutions) that I believe may impact the success of the effort.” “My answers pertain to my current job, which doesn’t allow me to fully follow performance improvement standards. We’re not allowed to perform an analysis with our clients. We have to depend on what managers (clients and ours) and our trainers can find out about our client end-users. Very disappointing.” “By taking a systems view, we often find the presenting problems (what led the client to us) are just symptoms of deeper underlying issues. We find client policies that sabotage the results they want to achieve and contribute to their problems.” “It is all too common, however, when attempting to satisfy the systems view standard, that the client becomes impatient, to the point of delaying or cancelling the project altogether, rather than admit—or even consider—that there is no ‘quick fix.’ It is a source of great frustration and I can either take the job, knowing that the desired action will not produce meaningful performance improvement, or walk away from the project.” Categories
Organizational Structure and Culture: organization is more focused on strategic alignment; value added is built in
Card Count
17
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Reflection: situation specific; difficult when the organization is process oriented
17
Support: sharing cost, benefits, and risks are ethically required
12
Barriers: do not take the time or resources to identify costs; difficult to identify correct metrics; time constraints
10
Not Applicable: not done at respondent’s level; client’s responsibility
10
Standard 3—Add Value Sample comments from respondents (n = 85) “Integrity as well as knowledge and experience are critical in OD/HPT initiatives. People trust in you, your credibility, and the respect you earn— based on being honest with the client and yourself regarding what things will cost in time, money, cultural impact, legal compliance, etc.” “There’s some politics involved with this standard. You have to create a balance between offering solutions from a consultative point of view or sometimes you just give in and do what the client wants. I suppose it’s choosing your battles, especially from an internal consultant’s perspective. Maybe the standard should bring that out more, the differences of work style, etc., whether you are an external or internal consultant.” “My shop attempts to use ROI as often as possible, but the degree to which evidence is brought to bear to evaluate worth/value seems to depend on the project.” Categories
Card Count
Support: it is a must working globally and in diverse environments; partnerships are necessary for cross-functional and cultural teams in PT
20
Reflection: depends on the size of the project; critical for interdisciplinary teams
15
Organizational Structure and Culture: different for internal and external consulting; easier when there is a pre-existing collaboration climate
7
Barriers: difficult to get stakeholders and sponsors to participate
6
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Standard 4—Work in Partnership with Clients and Other Specialists Sample comments from respondents (n = 63) “Collaboration with our partners is a must! They are our internal customers, and we need to develop a two-way relationship to have good communication. Without collaboration, you may head down a road that is not going to have the desired performance outcome.” “I believe more needs to be said and done about calling out our work with clients and not lumping them into the ‘stakeholder group.’ I think too many times we let our clients off the hook and do not put them to work. We allow them to offer up SMEs and other partners to collaborate with, but they don’t invest in the game, other than approving our contracts and bills.” “Again I do this to the extent possible. Note that the last time I raised questions as to why negative participant evaluations were being trashed rather than being used to address how to better respond to the needs of a whole department was the last time I was called to work for this VERY large client!”
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ISPI’s 2008 Practice and Job Analysis Survey: Part 6 James A. Pershing, Simone Symonette, Serdar Abaci, and Christopher Brunclik This is the last piece of a six-part report that provides results from the 2008 International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) Practice and Job Task Analysis Survey. The survey was designed to validate the ISPI Certification Standards and the criteria for earning the Certified Performance Technologist (CPT) designation as well as to help ISPI provide better services. The total number of CPTs and non-CPT ISPI members worldwide who completed the survey was 563. This final report is an analysis of the open-ended responses received for Standards 5 through 10. The open-ended questions were analyzed utilizing the “card-sorting” method. Responses for each of the standards were placed on an index card and reviewed by a two- to four-person team. While sorting through the cards, trends were noticed and categories were developed. The cards were then placed into categories for each Standard. High impact (parsimonious summary of a category) and noticeable quotes were highlighted for further review. Following you will find each of the standards. Under each standard we have placed the most frequently realized categories along with a frequency count. We then add a sampling of the quotes offered from respondents. Finally, we provide future plans and tentative recommendations for the CPT Standards.
Pershing, J.A., Symonette, S., Abaci, S., & Brunclik, C. (2008, October). ISPI’s 2008 practice and job task analysis survey: Part 6. PerformanceXpress.
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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Standard 5: Be Systematic—Needs or Opportunity Analysis Categories
Card Count
Reflection: believe it is the responsibility of the client; dependent on the nature of the data (qualitative vs. quantitative); analysis is done on business data not the performance deficiency
29
Barriers: done beforehand; time constraints; clients not interested
25
Job Position: clients sub-contract or done by other units
12
Support: everything done is driven by data
12
Sample comments from respondents (n = 7) “In my opinion, a survey should not be conducted if no action will result. Surveys are time-consuming and should lead to action based on the data collected. This should be identified prior to conducting a survey.” “We find, at times, after the analysis is complete, that we do not wish to go further or building a business case does not make sense. So we abandon the effort.” “The operation units are impatient and unwilling to wait for detailed analysis in most cases. In order to remain responsive to our primary customer, we often expedite or forfeit analysis to respond to the clamor for change.” Standard 6: Be Systematic—Cause Analysis Categories
Card Count
Reflection: front end, needs, cause, and gap analyses are a blended activity
15
Support: prerequisite to intervention selection; selling point to clients; this is what differentiates performance improvement from other consulting activities
12
Barriers: resources (time, people, and funding); difficult in a process-oriented environment
11
Hypothesis Issues: research jargon clients do not identify with; does not align well with quality improvement initiatives and new opportunities
9
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Job Position: clients sub-contract or done by other units
7
Sample comments from respondents (n = 81) “We do root cause analysis of performance events, injuries, etc. We do not develop hypotheses for these because the evidence should drive the investigation with no interference from preconceived ideas.” “I think this one suffers most—most people come to you with an idea in their minds and won’t take the time to analyze further. Maybe more about the process of turning someone around to analysis techniques and their importance would be good.” “These steps are considered luxuries in reactive organizations, so I don’t have organizational commitment to do them.” “Workplaces often have little time or interest in theory—they want results, not complicated statistics that can be easily skewed. There are always a number of confounding factors to consider if you think systemically in a dynamic organization/society.” “Again, this process assumes the use of formal research applied to performance issues. We tend not to perform formal studies around performance issues. Business indicators/measures, which include human performance measures (e.g., job satisfaction), drive our solutions.” Standard 7: Be Systematic—Design Categories
Card Count
Barriers: criteria are determined by upper management; clients will not pay for design evaluation; if the client will not pay for a full design, it is done informally
15
Reflection: the breadth of the project drives the number of steps as well as the time spent on each step; important to do with the client not for the client
13
Organizational Structure and Culture: design approaches and philosophy vary greatly between organizational types and cultures
10
Job Position: clients responsibility; if involved, limited role
9
Jargon: do not differentiate between design, development, and implementation
8
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Sample comments from respondents (n = 72) “These things are done; they are not accepted 100 percent of the time. Thus, the implementation and reinforcement may be proposed, but not necessarily adopted. Senior leadership has the final call, and sometimes they aren’t willing to exert the energy to support and sustain.” “Sometimes management makes a decision overruling our evaluation design recommendations.” “I can’t waste the time for formal reports.” “It’s the rare client who sees the value in formative evaluation. Can’t convince them it contributes to the bottom line. Nearly everything in this standard is done for my benefit, my staff’s, and for the quality of the outcome of the intervention itself; not because clients value any of this.” “Sustainability/reinforcement is areas we’re not very good at . . . only just experimenting with some sustainability models and practices.” Standard 8: Be Systematic—Development Categories
Card Count
Barriers: the nature of the project determines the number of steps; time and culture make it difficult to conduct pilot test and formative evaluation
15
Job Position: when it comes to the development they have to hand it off to another unit or sub-contractor
11
Organizational Structure and Culture: development approaches and philosophy vary greatly between organizational types and cultures
7
Reflection: the elements of this standard are biased toward education and training interventions and are not as applicable for non-training interventions
6
Sample comments from respondents (n = 65) “At times, the design specs may change during the development phase due to organizational or other changes. We design to specs, which are subject to change, via formative evaluation.” “Once you get to this point, the consulting part gets more challenging as clients often already have their rollout communications in play. The speed of Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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business is a reality, and unfortunately here is where we sometimes have to pay the sacrifice.” “Doing any sort of formative and summative evaluation has never been important to any management teams I have worked for in thirty years. They pay it lip services, but scream bloody hell when they see how much it costs.” “Again, if you are working with a client team on a major systems project, much of this is a client’s decision to make. You can help . . . but you cannot shove it down the client’s throat . . . especially if you are looking for followon work from that client.” “The truth is that we often do not have the luxury of doing a pilot test or usability tests due to time constraints, budget constraints, or the client’s tolerance for such efforts.” “In most projects, clients are not willing to pay the expense of intervention testing, formal evaluation, or building integrated solution sets—despite their understanding that these are important.” Standard 9: Be Systematic—Implementation Categories
Card Count
Reflection: change management has to be built into the entire process, it is not a separate function; if the performance improvement initiative is perceived to be valid, there is less resistance to change; there is a false dichotomy between design, development, and implementation, they are integrated activities
14
Org Structure and Culture: implementation approaches and philosophy vary greatly between organizational types and cultures; easier to promote in an adaptive organizational culture
12
Job Position: when it comes to the implementation they have to hand it off to another unit or sub-contractor
11
Minimal Involvement: less demand on external consultants, more on internal consultants
11
Barriers: do not follow through with implementation; time, resource, and funding constraints
7
Sample comments from respondents (n = 78) “These are things that we seldom do, but are very important; our clients don’t want to pay us as consultants to do this part of the project. Either they do it themselves or it just doesn’t get done.” Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
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“We use participatory design and appreciative inquiry approaches in our solution development and implementation, which reinforces adoption, motivation, and intrinsic reward. Therefore, no other effort is needed to develop a contingency plan to address resistance. There is no resistance. So reward is designed into the process of getting there.” “When I say seldom done, it is because these are done by the client. If they aren’t, they are less likely to be implemented. We are resources at this juncture, to a process that MUST be owned, understood, and implemented by the client.” “Good change management is when the project is designed to minimize negative reactions in the first place. Sometimes (too often) we are asked to do ’damage control,’ and in those cases we do need a ’traditional’ change management plan and to check on the effectiveness. When good change management is built in, you can tell from the performance whether the CM was effective without soliciting feedback.” “Again . . . the performance technologist is not king but, rather, should be a trusted advisor who can give ’wise advice’ when asked.” Standard 10: Be Systematic—Evaluation Categories
Card Count
Barriers: clients will not pay for evaluation services, they use their own judgments; clients do not do anything with the results of evaluation
14
Job Position: industry specific; delegated to another operational unit or third party
11
Organizational Structure and Culture: process culture more difficult to sell than in an outcome culture
13
Reflection: difficult to separate as its own process, it needs to be tied into the front end analysis; only interested in simple or rudimentary evaluation approaches, does not normally reflect the true value of the intervention
8
Support: systematic evaluation is integral to the performance improvement process; ties back to the goal of adding value
9
Sample comments from respondents (n = 89) “My clients still struggle with evaluation. . . . We still use simple measures that don’t always get at the true impact.”
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“In an organization as tactically oriented as mine, these are niceties, not needs, and we don’t often have time for them.” “The need for complete and accurate information and reporting is actually a law within the nuclear industry, so it is not actually vocalized as much as it is a given.” “This is the weakest element of our process. Much of what we are doing is responding to a ’gut feeling’ rather than quantifiable shortcomings to existing programs. As such, it is difficult to provide measurable results—but the outcry for change will cease (at least temporarily).” “I find that very few business partners care much about the details we put in the evaluation reports beyond ROI.” “It is generally my clients who collect data and measure effectiveness.” “Although clients put lip service to evaluation and measurement, they will usually not put investment into building and implementing these processes beyond basic indicators that are not isolated to determine the impact of the intervention. Very frustrating and, of course, limits the level of feedback greatly on successes.” Future Plans/Tentative Recommendations Our future plans are to conduct further analysis of the data by conducting:
In-depth cross-tab analysis
Factor analysis of the substandards
Aggregating quantitative and qualitative data
Fundamentals of Performance Improvement: Optimizing Results Through People, Process, and Organizations, Third Edition. Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pfeiffer, an Imprint of Wiley. www.pfeiffer.com
