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FUNDAMENTALS OF MODERN MANUFACTURING Materials, Processes, and Systems Third Edition

Mikell P. Groover Professor of Industrial and Systems Engineering Lehigh University

The author gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of Professor Gregory L. Tonkay, Associate Professor of Industrial and Systems Engineering Lehigh University.

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

What Is Manufacturing? 2 Materials in Manufacturing 8 Manufacturing Processes 10 Production Systems 17 Organization of the Book 20

Part I Material Properties and Product Attributes 2 THE NATURE OF MATERIALS 23 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

Atomic Structure and the Elements 23 Bonding between Atoms and Molecules 26 Crystalline Structures 28 Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures 34 Engineering Materials 35

3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 38 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Stress-Strain Relationships 39 Hardness 51 Effect of Temperature on Properties 55 Fluid Properties 57 Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers 60

4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 67 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Volumetric and Melting Properties 68 Thermal Properties 70 Mass Diffusion 72 Electrical Properties 74 Electrochemical Processes 75

5 DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, A N D SURFACES 79 5.1 5.2 5.3

Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes 80 Surfaces 81 Effect of Manufacturing Processes 87

Part II Engineering Materials 6 METALS 90 6.1 6.2 6.3

Alloys and Phase Diagrams 91 Ferrous Metals 96 Nonferrous Metals 111

6.4 6.5

Superalloys 122 Guide to the Processing of Metals 123

7 CERAMICS 127 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

Structure and Properties of Ceramics 129 Traditional Ceramics 131 New Ceramics 133 Glass 136 Some Important Elements Related to Ceramics 139 Guide to Processing Ceramics 142

8 POLYMERS 144 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

Fundamentals of Polymer Science and Technology 147 Thermoplastic Polymers 156 Thermosetting Polymers 163 Elastomers 167 Guide to the Processing of Polymers 174

9 COMPOSITE MATERIALS 176 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5

Technology and Classification of Composite Materials 177 Metal Matrix Composites 185 Ceramic Matrix Composites 188 Polymer Matrix Composites 188 Guide to Processing Composite Materials 191

Part III Solidification Processes 10 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CASTING 194 10.1 10.2 10.3

Overview of Casting Technology 197 Heating and Pouring 199 Solidification and Cooling 203

11 METAL CASTING PROCESSES 214 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7

Sand Casting 215 Other Expendable-Mold Casting Processes 220 Permanent-Mold Casting Processes 226 Foundry Practice 234 Casting Quality 238 Metals for Casting 240 Product Design Considerations 242 IX

Contents

12 GLASSWORKING 247 12.1 Raw Materials Preparation and Melting 247 12.2 Shaping Processes in Glassworking 248 12.3 Heat Treatment and Finishing 254 12.4 Product Design Considerations 255 13 SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS 257 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4

Properties of Polymer Melts 259 Extrusion 261 Production of Sheet and Film 271 Fiber and Filament Production (Spinning) 273 13.5 Coating Processes 275 13.6 Injection Molding 275 13.7 Compression and Transfer Molding 286 13.8 Blow Molding and Rotational Molding 288 13.9 Thermoforming 293 13.10 Casting 297 13.11 Polymer Foam Processing and Forming 298 13.12 Product Design Considerations 300

17.2 17.3 17.4

Part V Metal Forming and Sheet Metalworking 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING 378 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5

14.3

Rubber Processing and Shaping 307 Manufacture of Tires and Other Rubber Products 313 Product Design Considerations 316

15 SHAPING PROCESSES FOR POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES 319 15.1 Starting Materials for PMCs 321 15.2 Open Mold Processes 324 15.3 Closed Mold Processes 327 15.4 Filament Winding 330 15.5 Pultrusion Processes 332 15.6 Other PMC Shaping Processes 333

Overview of Metal Forming 378 Material Behavior in Metal Forming 381 Temperature in Metal Forming 382 Strain Rate Sensitivity 384 Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming 386

19 BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN METALWORKING 390 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4

14 RUBBER-PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY 307 14.1 14.2

Processing of New Ceramics 370 Processing of Cermets 373 Product Design Considerations 375

19.5 19.6

Rolling 391 Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling 398 Forging 400 Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging 412 Extrusion 416 Wire and Bar Drawing 427

20 SHEET METALWORKING 440 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7

Cutting Operations 441 Bending Operations 448 Drawing 452 Other Sheet-Metal-Forming Operations 459 Dies and Presses for Sheet-Metal Processes 462 Sheet-Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses 469 Bending of Tube Stock 474

Part VI Material Removal Processes Part IV Particulate Processing of Metals and Ceramics 16 POWDER METALLURGY 337 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6

Characterization of Engineering Powders 340 Production of Metallic Powders 343 Conventional Pressing and Sintering 345 Alternative Pressing and Sintering Techniques 351 Materials and Products for PM 354 Design Considerations in Powder Metallurgy 355

17 PROCESSING OF CERAMICS AND CERMETS 362 17.1

Processing of Traditional Ceramics 363

21 THEORY OF METAL MACHINING 481 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5

Overview of Machining Technology 483 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining 486 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation 490 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining 495 Cutting Temperature 498

22 MACHINING OPERATIONS A N D MACHINE TOOLS 505 22.1 22.2 22.3

Turning and Related Operations 508 Drilling and Related Operations 518 Milling 522

Contents

22.4 22.5 22.6

Machining Centers and Turning Centers 529 Other Machining Operations 531 High-Speed Machining 536

29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6

23 CUTTING-TOOL TECHNOLOGY 542 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4

Tool Life 543 Tool Materials 549 Tool Geometry 558 Cutting Fluids 566

24 ECONOMIC A N D PRODUCT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINING 574 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4

Machinability 574 Tolerances and Surface Finish 577 Selection of Cutting Conditions 581 Product Design Considerations in Machining 587

25 GRINDING A N D OTHER ABRASIVE PROCESSES 594 25.1 25.2

Grinding 595 Related Abrasive Processes 612

26 NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING A N D THERMAL CUTTING PROCESSES 618 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5

Mechanical Energy Processes 619 Electrochemical Machining Processes 623 Thermal Energy Processes 627 Chemical Machining 635 Application Considerations 641

Part VII Property Enhancing and Surface Processing Operations 27 HEAT TREATMENT OF METALS 647 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5

Annealing 648 Martensite Formation in Steel 648 Precipitation Hardening 652 Surface Hardening 654 Heat Treatment Methods and Facilities 655

28 CLEANING A N D SURFACE TREATMENTS 660 28.1 28.2 28.3

Chemical Cleaning 660 Mechanical Cleaning and Surface Preparation 663 Diffusion and Ion Implantation 665

29 COATING A N D DEPOSITION PROCESSES 669 29.1 29.2

Plating and Related Processes 670 Conversion Coatings 674

29.7

XI

Physical Vapor Deposition 675 Chemical Vapor Deposition 678 Organic Coatings 681 Porcelain Enameling and Other Ceramic Coatings 683 Thermal and Mechanical Coating Processes 684

Part VIM Joining and Assembly Processes 30 FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING 689 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4

Overview of Welding Technology 691 The Weld Joint 693 Physics of Welding 696 Features of a Fusion-Welded Joint 699

31 WELDING PROCESSES 705 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 31.6 31.7 31.8

Arc Welding 706 Resistance Welding 716 Oxyfuel Gas Welding 723 Other Fusion-Welding Processes 726 Solid-State Welding 729 Weld Quality 734 Weldability 739 Design Considerations in Welding 739

32 BRAZING, SOLDERING, A N D ADHESIVE BONDING 745 32.1 32.2 32.3

Brazing 746 Soldering 751 Adhesive Bonding 755

33 MECHANICAL ASSEMBLY 763 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6

Threaded Fasteners 764 Rivets and Eyelets 770 Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits 772 Other Mechanical Fastening Methods 775 Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners 776 Design for Assembly 778

Part IX Special Processing and Assembly Technologies 34 RAPID PROTOTYPING 784 34.1 34.2 34.3

Fundamentals of Rapid Prototyping 785 Rapid Prototyping Technologies 786 Application Issues in Rapid Prototyping 794

35 PROCESSING OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 798 35.1

Overview of IC Processing 799

XII

Contents

35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 35.7

Silicon Processing 803 Lithography 807 Layer Processes Used in IC Fabrication 811 Integrating the Fabrication Steps 818 IC Packaging 820 Yields in IC Processing 825

36 ELECTRONICS ASSEMBLY A N D PACKAGING 830 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5

Electronics Packaging 830 Printed Circuit Boards 832 Printed Circuit Board Assembly 841 Surface-Mount Technology 845 Electrical Connector Technology 850

37 MICROFABRICATION TECHNOLOGIES 855 37.1 37.2

41.2

Manual Assembly Lines 926

41.3

Automated Production Lines 930

Part XI Manufacturing Support Systems 42 MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING 937 42.1 Process Planning 938 42.2 Problem Solving and Continuous Improvement 946 42.3 Concurrent Engineering and Design for Manufacturability 946 43 PRODUCTION PLANNING A N D CONTROL 953 43.1

Microsystem Products 855 Microfabrication Processes 861

43.2 43.3

38 NANOFABRICATION TECHNOLOGIES 870

43.4 43.5

38.1 38.2 38.3

Introduction to Nanotechnology 872 Nanofabrication Processes 877 The National Nanotechnology Initiative 884

Part X Manufacturing Systems 39 NUMERICAL CONTROL A N D INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS 887 39.1 39.2

Numerical Control 888 Industrial Robotics 900

40 GROUP TECHNOLOGY A N D FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS 910 40.1 40.2

Group Technology 910 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 915

41 PRODUCTION LINES 922 41.1

Fundamentals of Production Lines 922

Aggregate Planning and the Master Production Schedule 955 Inventory Control 956 Material and Capacity Requirements Planning 960 Just-In-Time and Lean Production 964 Shop Floor Control 967

44 QUALITY CONTROL 972 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5

What Is Quality? 972 Process Capability 973 Statistical Tolerancing 974 Taguchi Methods 977 Statistical Process Control 980

45 MEASUREMENT A N D INSPECTION 989 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5

Metrology 990 Inspection Principles 993 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages 995 Measurement of Surfaces 1002 Advanced Measurement and Inspection Technologies 1004

INDEX 1015