Forest Tenure in Indonesia The socio-Iegal challenges of securing communities' rights

PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof. rnr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Prornoties te verdedigen op woensdag 15 decernber 2010 klokke 11.15 uur

door

Myrna Asnawati Safitri

geboren te Sarnarinda, Indonesie

in 1969

Promotiecommissie: Promotor:

prof. dr. J.M. OUo

Overige leden:

prof. dr. ir. P. Ho prof. dr. T. Rahmadi (Universitas Andalas, Indonesie) dr. A.W. Bedner dr. ir. J.A.C. Vel

To Indonesia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Finishing this book means more than just completing a PhD project: it also means a partial fulfilment of my moral obligation to share lessons of facilitating a community in having their rights on land and forest resources legally recognized by the state. The village of Langkawana in Lampung is the place which offered me this experience. The institution which enabled me to do this was the Program for Research and Development of Ecological Anthropology, University of Indonesia (Program Penelitian

dan Pengembangan Antropologi Ekologi-Universitas Indonesia, P3AE-UI), where I worked for almost a decade in research and community facilitation. The position of reseacher and program manager at this institute and the interaction with the Langkawana villagers have shaped my understanding about law and order, science, human beings and life. Thus, I would like to express my respect to all Langkawana villagers and my ex-colleagues at P3AE-UI: Iwan Tjitradjaja, Bediona Philipus, Keron A. Petrus, Prudensius Maring, Heriyanti O. Untoro, Slamet Riyanto, Joko Susilo, Dewi Yunita, Katijah, Nurmala and Boy. The INDlRA Project (Indonesian-Netherlands Studies on Decentralization of the Indonesian'Rechtstaat' and its impact on Agraria) of the Van Vollenhoven Institute of Leiden University and its Indonesian partner Andalas University provided me with the opportunity to carry out professional research, while rethinking my past involvement in NGO networks and movements of legal reform in Indonesia. This project introduced me to a type of collaboration built upon sharing, learning and support among colleagues. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Jan Michiel OUo, as my promotor and team leader of INDlRA. I would like to thank the other researchers of the INDlRA project: the late Djaka Soehendera, Tristam Moeliono, Sandra Moniaga, Kurnia Warman, Gustaaf Reerink, Laurens Bakker, Saldi Isra, Sulastryono. Various means of communication and collaboration, listening and sharing inspired me to develop my research topic as well as to maintain our personal relations. I would also like to thank those who were always willing to comment on my research design, articles and chapters: Adriaan Bedner, Jacqueline Vel, Daniel Fitzpatrick, Jamie Davidson, Marjanne Termorshuizen-Arts, Herman Slaats, and Karen Portier. Similarly, I am much indebted to Albert Dekker for his amazing assistance in searching and providing literature and to Hannah Mason for her assistance in language editing. To Takdir Rahmadi, Jan van Olden, Marianne Moria, Kari van Weeren, Kora Bentvelsen I am most grateful for their administrative support as well as for the personal relationship during the last seven years. I am thankful to Laure, Stijn, Herlambang, Rikardo, Anton, Ken, Maria - all PhD researchers at Van Vollenhoven Institute.

In Lampung, I am grateful to Edi Sutanto who assisted me in collecting data. Also, I would like to express my appreciation of all my informants in the villages of Gedong Gajah, Kebagusan and Mataram Raja, activists of NGOs, mainly from Watala, officials of the Provincial Forestry Service and the Regional Office of the National Land Agency, officials of the Central Lampung Forestry Service, members of Provincial and District Councils and Armein Yasser of the Law School of the University of Lampung. The Ford Foundation at Jakarta fully supported this PhD project and research. Steve Rhee and Ujwall Pradhan were very helpful and I am much indebted to them. At the initial phase of my research, a small research grant of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) also supported me, thanks to Lini Wollenberg and Moira Moeliono. Konin7dijk Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen (KNAW) also supported several of my visits to Leiden for courses and seminars as part of the INDIRA project. My colleagues at the Learning Centre HuMa (now called Episterna) took over part of my responsibilities while I was finalizing the thesis manuscript in Leiden in June 2010. I am grateful to Bernadinus Steni, Susilaningtias, Yance Arizona, Mumu Muhajir,

Andi Sandhi, Sri Sudarsih, Wiwin Widayanti, Alexander Juanda Putra and Nunu Rais dos Santos. To those who at that time were the board of Perkumpulan HuMa, Julia Kalmirah, Rival G. Ahmad and again, Rikardo Simarmata and Herlambang Perdana, I thank them for allowing me to leave the Learning Centre for a while to finalize the manuscript. I would also like to express my thanks to Asep Y. Firdaus and Susi Fauziah who assisted in managing the administration of the INDIRA Project in 20062009. I especially appreciate the sincerity of my husband, Hanief, and my children: Aisha Nadha Audina, Fardhian Danieal Firdaus, Bary Ali Irhamni. I apologise to them whose rights of husband and children could often not be realised during the process of writing this book. My father, Muhammad Fuad Arieph, and my mother, Rukmini, never cease to encourage in whatever I do. I am thankful to them. Similarly, my thanks also go out to my brother, Otto Syahruzah, my sister-in law, Numl Palupi, and my sister, Ade Miranti for taking care of my children, while I was in Leiden. Finally, I recognize a very important role of two other women in my life: Ipat and Umi, who greatly supported me in domestic work. I consider them as heroes, they who have provided me with the liberty to work in the public sphere.

vi

CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS, TABLES ABBREVIATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE GLOBAL AND NATIONAL DIMENSIONS

V XV XVII 1

1

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS........••••.•.........•..•••.••.••.•....••....•..•.••.•••••••.......•..••••..•......•..•.•.•.....•....•••••. 7 1.3 RESEARCH METHOD ••.•••.•••••.........•.••.•.••..•.•.•......•••••••.••.••..•.•.....•..•••.••..........•••.........••..••••..•.... 8

(a) Lampung as research site (b) Data gathering: Opportunities and limitations 1.4 SlRUCTURE OF THE BOOK 2. FOREST TENURE SECURITY: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.

8 11 16 19

2.1 INlRODUCTION

19

2.2 COMMUNITY, FOREST COMMUNITY AND DWELLERS

21

2.3 FOREST TENURE, PROPERTY RIGHTS, ACCESS

23

(a) Forest tenure systems and arrangement

23

(b) Property rights

24

(c) Access

26

to forest, rights and power

2.4 THE SECURITY OF COMMUNITY FOREST TENURE

28

(a) Normative tenure security

28

(b) Actual tenure security

30

(c)

Perceived tenure security

2.5 THE DYNAMICS OF COMMUNITY FOREST TENURE SECURITY

30

31

(a) Policy, legislation and projects

31

(b) State officials

32

(c)

Local institutions and authorities

32

(d) Social, political and economic forces and actors

33

(e) Physical and social conditions regarding forest utilization

33

2.6 CONCLUSION...•..•.•••...•..........•••.•.••..••.••••...•.......•.•.••••••...•.•....•...•.....•.•..•.........••.••.•••.•••.•.....•. 34 3. COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA: SOLVING TWO CENTURIES OF SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INJUSTICE?

3.1 INTRODUCTION

37

37

3.2 FOREST DESTRUCTION, POVERTY AND CONFLICT IN COLONIAL AND PRESENT INDONESIA ......... 38

3.3 FOREST AREAS: MALDISTRIBUTION AND INSECURITY

45

3.4 BREAKING THE LOGJAM THROUGH COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT: VARIOUS APPROACHES

47

3.5 A SHORT HISTORY OF LEGISLATION AND PROJECTS ON COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT..••.•••.•••..•.•.•............•.••..•.••.•.••..............•....•••.•.•.•.••.•.......•.•••••.••.........•••••••..•••• 50

(a) From colonial times until the end of the New-Order period (1800-1998)

50

(b) Post-New Order period (1998-present)

52

3.6 THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL FOREST LEGISLATION

55

3.7 CONCLUSION

61

4. FOREST TENURE AND MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA: THE NATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK

4.1 INTRODUCTION

67

67

4.2 LEGISLATION AND STATE INSTITUTIONS CONCERNING LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES .......... 69 4.3 STATE CONTROL ON LAND AND FOREST

73

(a) The legal basis of state's right of controlling land and forest

74

(b) Different interpretations and purposes of the state's right of control

76

4.4 THE STATE'S RIGHT OF CONTROL AND COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS ON LAND AND FOREST .. 80 4.5 STATE FOREST TENURE AND MANAGEMENT

87

(a) State and private forests

88

(b) Forest Areas

89

(c) The change of Forest Areas

98

(d) Forest functions

99

viii

(e) Forestry licensing 4.6 CONCLUSION

5. SOCIAL FOREST AND COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS IN NATIONAL LEGISLATION

102

104

111

5.1 INlRODUCTION•.••.•.•.•.•..••........•.•••••••.•............•.•••••.••••.••.•.•......•.•.•.•••.•......•..•••••••••...•..•......• 111 5.2 COMMUNITY RIGHTS IN FOREST AREAS: MODELS OF COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT

112

(a) Adat Forest

112

(b) Forest Area with Special Purpose

116

(c) Village Forest

117

(d) People's Plantation Forest

118

(e) Company-community partnership in forest management

119

if) Collaboration of conservation management

121

5.3 WAYS OF LEGALIZING COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS: LICENCE AND AGREEMENT, INCORPORATION AND INTEGRATION 5.4 SOCIAL FOREST LEGISLATION, FROM THE 1995 DECREE TO THE 2007 REGULATION

121 122

(a) The 1995 Ministerial Decree

123

b) The 1998 Ministerial Decree

124

(c) The 2001 Ministerial Decree

127

(d) The 2007 Ministerial Regulation

129

5.5 FOREST AREA: ANOTHER OBSTACLE TO SOCIAL FOREST.

132

5.6 CONCLUSION

132

6. MAN, LAND AND FOREST IN LAMPUNG

137

6.1lNlRODUCTION

137

6.2 THE SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPES

137

6.3 PRE-COLONIAL AND COLONIAL LAMPUNG

139

6.4 MARGA: THE FORMATION AND MANIPULATION OF TRADITIONAL SOCIO-POLillCAL ORGANIZATION 6.5 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION IN POST-COLONIAL LAMPUNG

142 146

ix

6.6 KOLONISATIE, TRANSMIGRATION AND LAMPUNG MULTICULTIJRAL SOCIETY

148

6.7 DEVELOPMENT, SAVES NEITHER FOREST NOR PEOPLE

151

6.8 CONCLUSION

153

7. COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT IN LAMPUNG: REGIONAL POLICIES AND LEGISLATION AND ITS SOCIO-LEGAL OBSTACLES 155

7.1 INTRODUCTION

155

7.2 CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN FORESTRY POLICIES AND LEGISLATION AT REGIONAL LEVELS ... 156

(a) Dutch colonial period (1856-1942): Forest for plantation and kolonisatie

156

(b) Japanese period (1942-1945): Wild forest occupation

158

(c) Early years of independence (1945-1950): Political disorder and the state failure in forest protection

158

(d) The Old Order (1950-1966): Politics, peasant movements and access to state forests .......... 159 (e) The New Order U966-mid 1998): State domination offorest and people

162

if) Post-Suharto until decentralization period (mid 1998-2000)

169

(g) What continues, what changed?

174

7.3 COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT IN LAMPUNG: POLICIES AND LEGISLATION IN 2000-2005

(a) Provincial Regulation 7/2000

177

178

(b) Way Kanan District Regulation 29/2002 and East Lampung District Regulation 16/2002.. 180 (c) West Lampung District Regulation 18/2004

181

(d) Central Lampung District Regulation 4/2004

183

7.4 SOCIAL FOREST POLICY STAGNATING, OLD LEGAL CULTURE RETURNING?

185

7.5 THE SOCIAL OBSTACLES

186

7.6 CONCLUSION

187

8. COMMUNITY FOREST TENURE IN LANGKAWANA

191

8.1 INTRODUCTION

191

8.2 LANGKAW ANA: ITS HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL LANDSCAPE

192

8.3 TANAH KAWASAN AND TANAH MARGA: LAND TENURE IN FOREST AND NON-FOREST AREA .... 196 8.4 COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS AND ACCESS TO LAND AND RESOURCES

200

x

(a) The emergence of land ownership

200

(b) Temporary land rights: Share-cropping, leasing, pledging, and free cultivation

202

(c) The power-based access to land and resources

204

8.5 THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS

204

8.6 FOREST TENURE SECURITY: COMMUNITY NORMS AND PEOPLE'S PERCEPTIONS

208

8.7 No LEGAL RECOGNITION OF COMMUNITY FOREST TENURE IN LANGKAWANA: SOME SURVNAL STRATEGIES OF ACHIEVING ACTUAL TENURE SECURITY

210

8.8 FORECASTING A CONFLICT: ANOTHER STRATEGY OF VILLAGERS

215

8.9 CONCLUSION

216

9. SOCIAL FOREST IN LANGKAWANA: FROM LICENSE TO SUPERVISION

219

9.1 INTRODUCTION•••••.•...•.•.••••.••..........•••••..........•••••••.•........••.••••.•...•...•••.•........•••.......••...••..•..• 219 9.2 THE DAWN OF HOPE: FOREST USER GROUPS AND THEIR RULES

220

9.3 SOCIAL FOREST LICENSE AND AGREEMENT •.....•.......•.••..•..••.•.•.••.••••.....•••..•.........••.........•..••.. 222

9.4 THE GRANTING OF THE SOCIAL FOREST LICENSE: AN ART OF NEGOTIATING THE LAW?

225

9.5 INCORPORATING COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS INTO SOCIAL FOREST LICENSE

227

9.6 BETTER SECURITY AND BETTER LIVELIHOOD IN THE FOREST AREA

229

9.7 LICENSE NO LONGER VALID: DID PEOPLE'S PERCEPTION OF FOREST TENURE SECURITY CHANGE?233 9.8 CONCLUSION

10. RETHINKING FOREST TENURE SECURITY

237

239

10.1 INTRODUCTION

239

10.2 LOGGING IN LANGKAWANA

240

10.3 LESSONS FOR CONSERVATION, DECENTRALIZATION AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ......... 243

(a) People's responses, interests, and the failure to listen to them

244

(b) Unresponsive local bureaucracy

247

(c) Disempowered local institutions

253

(d) Dilemmas of community facilitation

255

10.4 CONCLUSION

258

xi

11. LAND CONFLICTS AS A CHALLENGE TO SOCIAL FOREST POLICy 11.1 INTRODUCTION

261 261

11.2 THE CONFLICT CASE OF TANGKIT BUKU JADI: CHANGING STRATEGIES OF FOREST VILLAGERS262

(a) A briefhistory offorest, people and conflicts

262

(b) Law, identity and land claims

266

(c) The release of Forest Area and its impact on communal conflicts

266

(d) Dreaming of Social Forest license

268

(e) What can be expected from Social Forest license?

270

11.3 THE CONFLICT CASES OF WAY KEJAYAAN: A POLICY FAILURE OF POLmCO-ADMINISTRATIVE FOREST

271

(a) Forest and people in Way Kejayaan

271

(b) The politico-administrative processes of the designation ofWay Kejayaan Forest Area

273

(c) Conflicts between the Lampungese and private plantations

277

(d) Conflicts among migrants and different perspectives on Social Forest

280

(e) The 2004 Central Lampung District Regulation on Social Forest: Who benefits from the law?

283

11.4 CONCLUSION

284

12. CONCLUSION: REFORMING FOREST TENURE LAW IN INDONESIA; WHICH WAY FORWARD? 287 12.1 INTRODUCTION

287

12.2 THE LIMITED LEGAL SECURITY OF COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS AND STATE RIGHTS ON FOREST AREAS ••..•.••..........•.••.•••..............•••...........••••..•.•.•.••.•.......•..••.•...•.•••..•.....•..•.•••......•..•..•....... 288

(a) Robustness

289

(b) Duration

290

(c) Legal protection

290

12.3 SECURING COMMUNITY PROPERTY RIGHTS THROUGH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LAW

292

(a) Legal tenure security in community-based forestry licensing

293

(b) Legal tenure security in agreements on community-based forest management

295

(c) Does contrasting public and private law and rights matter?

296

xii

12.4 SOCIAL FOREST IN POST-1998 INDONESIA: THE SOCIO-LEGAL FACTORS OF ITS DEVELOPMENT297 12.5 DECENTRALIZATION AS ENABLING AND CONSTRAINING FACTOR

300

12.6 REDEFINING FOREST TENURE SECURITY OF COMMUNITIES: LESSONS FROM LANGKAWANA

304

12.7 BEYOND LEGAliZATION OF COMMUNITY FOREST TENURE

306

12.8 THE END OF SOCIAL FOREST LICENSE, THE RISE OF POLffiCAL SECURITY IN LANGKAWANA

308

12.9 THE LIMIT OF SOCIAL FOREST LEGISLATION: LESSONS FROM CONFLICT-RIDDEN AREAS

309

12.10 CONCLUSION: SEEKING FOR A FUNDAMENTAL LEGAL REFORM OF FOREST TENURE

310

EPILOGUE

313

REFERENCES

321

SUMMARy

343

SAMENVATTING (SUMMARY IN DUTCH)

347

GLOSSARY

351

APPENDIX 1. LIST OF LEGISLATION

361

APPENDIX 2. LIST OF COURT DECISIONS

369

CURRICULUM VITAE

371

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS, TABLES

FIGURE 2-1 TENURE SECURITY AND DYNAMICS: DOMAINS, FACTORS, ACTORS

35

FIGURE 3-1 INDONESIAN FOREST AREAS AND FORESTED LAND 1950-2008

42

FIGURE 3-2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL FOREST LEGISLATION

61

FIGURE 4-1 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FOREST AREAS IN INDONESIA

95

MAP 1-1 LAMPUNG PROVINCE

17

MAP 6-1 MARGA TERRITORIES IN LAMPUNG,

1930

145

MAP 7-1 LAMPUNG PROVINCE BY DISTRICTS/TOWNS, 2008

185

MAP 9-1 SOCIAL FOREST AREA IN LANGKAWANA, 1999

223

MAP 9-2 LAND PARCELS IN THE AREA OF FUG 1

229

TABLE 3-1 FOREST-COVERED AREAS AND ITS PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL LAND AREA OF JAVA AND MADURA 1840

-1940

40

TABLE 3-2 MAJOR COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT MODELS IN INDONESIA...... 63 TABLE 4-1 LICENSES OF FOREST UTILIZATION IN INDONESIA ACCORDING TO GR 6/2007.. 107 TABLE 5-1 SOCIAL FOREST LEGISLATION IN INDONESIA

134

TABLE 7-1 LAND USE IN LAMPUNG

172

TABLE 7-2 PROFILES OF DISTRICTS/TOWN AS CASE STUDIES

189

TABLE 8-1 LAND TENURE OF LANGKAWANA'S VILLAGERS IN THE FOREST AREA, TABLE 8-2 LAND TENURE IN NON-FOREST AREA IN LANGKAWANA,

2004 ... 197

2003

198

TABLE 9-1 MAJOR VEGETATION TYPES AND NUMBERS IN LANGKAWANAAGRO-FOREST GARDENS 1998 -2004 TABLE 9-2 VILLAGE ECONOMIC INDICATORS IN LANGKAWANA 1998 -2005

232 233

ABBREVIATIONS

AEP

Area for Exceptional Purpose (Kawasan dengan Tujuan Istimewa, see KdT!)

BAL

Basic Agrarian Law see UUPA

BPS

Badan Pusat Statistik (Central Agency of Statistics)

BPUPKI

Badan Penyelidik Usaha-usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (The Committee for the Preparation of Indonesian Independence)

BRN

Biro Rekonstruksi Nasional (National Reconstruction Bureau), a government unit of providing sources of livelihood for ex-para military during Soekarno's administration

BT!

Barisan Tani Indonesia (Indonesian Peasants' Front), a wing organization of Indonesian Communist Party, see PKI

CF

Community Facilitator

CIFOR

Center for International Forestry Research

COP

Conference of the Parties

CSO

Civil Society Organization

CTL

Comite Tani Lampung (Committee of Lampung Farmers)

CTN

Corps Tjadangan Nasional (National Reserve Corps), a unit of military services during Soekarno's administration

DfID

United Kingdom Department for International Development

DNPI

Dewan Nasional Perubahan Iklim (The National Council on Climate Change)

DPD

Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (Regional Representative Council)

DPR

Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (People's Representative Council)

DPRD

Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah (provincial and district/town councils)

DTL

Dewan Tani Lampung (Lampung Peasant Organization)

FAO

Food and Agricultural Organization

FMK

Forum Musyawarah Kelompok (Group Advisory Forum of Forest User Gorups)

FUG

Forest User Grup

FWI

Forest Watch Indonesia

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GHG

Green House Gases

GKPPH

Gabungan Kelompok Pengelola dan Pelestari Hutan (The Association of Forest User Groups)

GOLKAR

Golongan Kanja (Functional Group), a rulling party during Suharto's administration

GR

Government Regulation

HGB

Hak Guna Bangunan (right to construct and possses building)

HGU

Hak Guna Usaha (right to commercial land utilization)

HKTI

Himpunan Kerukunan Tani Indonesia (The Association of Indonesian Farmer Organizations)

HPH

Hak Pengusahaan Hutan (Forest concesssion)

HPK

Hutan Produksi yang dapat Dikonversi (Convertible Production Forest)

HPT

Hutan Produksi Tetap (Permanent Production Forest)

HTR

Hutan Tanaman Rakyat (People's Plantation Forest)

IPHHBK

Izin Pemungutan Hasil Hutan Bukan Kayu (License for harvesting of non-timber forest products)

IPHHK

Izin Pemungutan Hasil Hutan Kayu (License for harvesting of timber products)

IUPHHBK

Izin Usaha Pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Bukan Kayu (License for commercial utilization of non-timber products from natural and planted forests)

IUPHHK

Izin Usaha Pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Kayu (License for commercial utilization of timber products from natural and planted forests)

IUPHHK Restorasi Ekosistem

Izin Usaha Pemanfaatan Hasil Hutan Kayu restorasi elwsistem (License for commercial utilization of timber products for the purpose of ecosystem restoration in natural forests)

IUPJL

Izin Usaha Pemanfaatan Jasa Lingkungan (License for commercial utilization of environmental services)

xviii

IUPK

Izin Usaha Pemanfaatan Kawasan Hutan (License for commercial utilization of Forest Area)

Kamvil

Kantor Wilayah (Regional Office of central government agencies)

KanwilBPN

Kantor Wilayah Badan Pertanahan Nasional (Regional Office of National Land Agency)

KdTI

Kawasan dengan Tujuan Istimewa (Area with Exceptional Purpose, see AEP)

KHDTK

Kawasan Hutan dengan Tujuan Khusus (Forest Area with Special Purpose)

KTP

Kartu Tanda Penduduk (Citizen identification card)

MPR

Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (People's Consultative Assembly)

NE!

Netherlands East-Indie

NGO

Non-Governmental Organization

NTFPs

Non-Timber Forest Products

P3AE-UI

Program Penelitian dan Pengembangan Antropologi Ekologi-Universitas Indonesia (Program for Research and Development of Ecological Anthropology at the University of Indonesia)

PAD

Pendapatan Asli Daerah (local revenue)

Perda

Peraturan Daerah (Regional Regulation)

PERPU

Peraturan Pemerintah Pengganti Undang-undang (Government Regulation in lieu of Law)

PHBM

Pengelolaan Hutan Bersama Masyarakat (Perhutani-forest communities' join forestmanagemen~

PKI

Partai Komunis Indonesia (Indonesian Communist Party)

PMDH

Pembinaan Masyarakat Desa Hutan (Forest Villagers Development in logging concession areas)

PPF

People's Plantation Forest (see HTR)

PPKI

Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (the Committee on the Preparation of Indonesian Independence)

PRONA

Proyek Nasional Agraria (National Agrarian Project, national systematic land registration project)

xix

REDD

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries

REDD+

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradationand enhancing carbon stocks from the forest in Developing Countries

RePPProT

Regional Physical Planning Project for Transmigration

RRI

Rights and Resources Initiatives

RT

Rukun Tetangga (Neighborhood Association)

RW

Rukun Warga (Ward)

TAPMPR

Ketetapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (Decree of People's Consultative Assembly)

TAP MPRS

Ketetapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara (Decree of Provisional People's Consultative Assembly)

TGHK

Tata Guna Hutan Kesepakatan (Forest Land Use Agreement)

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UPTD

Unit Pelaksana Teknis Daerah (Regional technical operations unit)

UUDS 1950

Undang-undang Dasar Sementara 1950 (The 1950 Provisional Constitution)

UUPA

Undang-undang Pokok Agraria (Basic Agrarian Law, see BAL)

vac

Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (East India Company)

WRI

World Resources Institute

xx