Task Report 9.5

Fisheries in Tungabhadra Basin, India Current Staus and Future Possiblities to Improve the Livelihoods of Marginal Communities

STRIVER Task Report No. 9.5

Strategy and methodology for improved IWRM - An integrated interdisciplinary assessment in four twinning river basins

Title

Fisheries in Tungabhadra Basin, India Current Staus and Future Possiblities to Improve the Livelihoods of Marginal Communities Author(s) Nagothu Udaya Sekhar, K.V. Raju, Manasi. S, Latha N, Lenin Babu K

Report No. STRIVER Task Report No. 9.5 Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable Institute for Social and Economic Change, Nagarbhavi, Bangalore, India No. of pages 46 1 Dissemination level PU Key words Fisheries, Livelihoods, IWRM, Tungabhadra, India

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PU PP RE CO

Public Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services) Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services) Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission Services)

STRIVER Task Report No. 9.5

Title of project:

Strategy and methodology for improved IWRM - An integrated interdisciplinary assessment in four twinning river basins (STRIVER) Instrument: SUSTDEV-2005-3.II.3.6: Twinning European/third countries river basins. Contract number: 037141 Start date of project: July 2006 Duration: 36 months Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Programme (2002-2006) Disclaimer The information provided and the opionions given in this publication are not necessarily those of the authors or the EC. The authors and publisher assume no liability for any loss resulting from the use of this report.

Contents 1. Introduction

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2. Status of Fisheries 2.1 Global Scenario 2.2 Fisheries in India 2.3 Inland Fisheries in Karnataka State 2.4 Inland Fisheries in Andhra Pradesh

8 8 9 9 11

3. Methodology 3.1 Study Area 3.2 Methods

12 12 13

4. Results 4.1.Fishing Sources 4.1.1. Reservior/Dam 4.1.2. River and Canals 4.1.3. Tanks 4.2. Types of Fish Species 4.3. Fishing Communities 4.3.1. Large-scaleFishermen 4.3.2. Small-scaleFishermen 4.3.3. Women and Fishing in TBSB 4.4. Traditional Practices 4.5. Formal Rights 4.5.1. Licensing 4.5.2. Open Auctioning 4.5.3. Fishing Rights through Open Tender 4.6. Fishing Methods 4.6.1. Nets Used 4.6.1.1.Alivi Nets 4.6.1.2.Gill Nets

14 14 14 16 16 18 19 19 20 21 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 24 25

5. Markets 5.1.Fish Traders 5.1.1 Catchers cum Traders 5.1.2. Individual Sellers 5.1.3. Buyers and Sellers - Middle Men

25 26 27 27 27

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6. Fishing and Livelihoods 29 6.1. Seasonal migration –within state, and outside state 29 6.2. Dependency level – full time, allied activities, other sources of income 29 7. Development of Fisheries 7.1.Department of Fisheries 7.2.Tungabhadra Board 7.2.1. Development Activities 7.2.2. Fish Seed Production and Rearing Centres 7.2.3. Fishermen Co-operative Societies

30 30 33 34 34 34

8. Major Challenges in Fisheries Development 8.1. Declining trend in Production 8.2. Lack of Integrate d Approach 8.3. Government Benefit Schemes and Small-scalefishermen 8.4. Skill Upgradation and Training 8.5. Linkages 8.6. Conflicts 8.7. Industrial pollution 8.8. Dynamite Operation 8.9. Deteriorating Tanks

36 36 37 37 37 38 38 39 39 39

9. Development of Fisheries as a livelihood option 9.1. Women and Fisheries 9.2 Building capacities and skill up gradation 9.2.1. Suitable Options 9.3. Establishing market linkages 9.4. Build 3 tier structures for fisherman cooperatives/vertical Corporations 9.5. Basin level fisherman cooperatives, to support all round development of their Livelihoods on a full cycle basis 9.6. Policy and Management Initiatives

40 40 41 41 42

10.Conclusion

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0.2 List of Tables and Figures Table 2.1: Inland fisheries in Karnataka Table 2.2: Average per ha production in various states (2003-04) Table 2.3: Inland Fish Production in Karnataka Table 4.1: Fishing sources – Reservoirs in TB Basin Table 4.2: Number of tanks in the TBSB available for fishing Table 4.3: Few Common Fish Species Table 4.4: Fishermen Families Table 4.6: Bidding Amount Table 5.1: Markets in the Basin Table 5.2: Price of Fish in Markets Table 5.3: Traders’ Roles at Different levels Table 5.4: Loans provided by Middlemen Table 6.1: Diversification Table 7.1: Fishing Co-operative Societies in TBSB Table 8.1: Fish production in TB Basin from 2000-01 to 2004-05 Table 8.3: Benefits received from Government Table 8.4: Conflicts Fig 1.0: Tungabhadra Basin Map showing locations of Fishing Communities Fig 5.1: Schematic representation of fish trade in TBSB Fig 7.1: Zonal Offices – Bellary and Shimoga Fig 7.2: Organizational chart of the Department of Fisheries Fig 7.3: Organizational chart of the TB Board Fig 7.4: Organisation Chart of Fisheries Wing, TB Board Box 1.0 Private Fishponds

0.3 Abbreviations TBSB FY GOK GOI GOAP GDP FCS INR ZP TBRP TB Reservoir BRP UTP MPEDA FFDA BFDA NCDC FNMP JSYS

Tungabhadra Sub Basin Financial Year Government of Karnataka Government of India Government of Andhra Pradesh Gross Domestic Product Fishing Cooperative Society Indian Rupees Zilla Panchayat Tungabhadra Reservoir Project Tungabhadra Reservoir Bhadra Reservoir Project Upper Tunga Project Marine Products Export Development Authority Fish Farmers Development Agency Brackishwater Fisheries Development Agency National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC), Fish Net Making Plant Jala Samvardhana Yojana Sangha

Gram Panchayat - Village Local Councils Bestaru’ or ‘Meenukaruru – local name for fishermen

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1. Introduction It is estimated that 12 million people are directly engaged in fishing and about 60 million are exclusively depending on it for a living in India. The National Water Policy, 2002 emphasizes on efficient planning and management of water resources in view of its importance for human and animal life, to maintain ecological balance and for economic and developmental activities. Though it stresses on bringing all water resources available within the category of utilizable resources, allocation for fisheries development has not been specified, although it supports livelihoods of majority of marginal fishermen. In the state of Karnataka, India, the state water policy 2002 has ranked fisheries as fourth in order of its importance during operation of any water resource projects. The assumption is that, given proper socioeconomic, environmental and institutional frameworks, fisheries can contribute significantly to the household income and provide a way out of poverty for a significant section of population in India, as options from agriculture become limited due to limited water supply and climate change variation. However, the lack of integrated policies or management approach in sectors such as water resources in a majority of developing countries including India, limits diverisifcation of livelihoods. The present study is a part of an international collaborative research project (STRIVER) funded by the European Union under FP7 research program. The aim of the study was to look at the livelihood patterns of marginal communities within the Tungabhadra sub basin (TBSB) one of the case basins in STRIVER, and a tributary of the larger river system namely Krishna located in the peninsular India. The study focused on fisheries as a source of livelihoods, current status and institutional support available, people dependant on it, development initiatives and suggestions for improvements. The study involved collection of data from households’ dependant on fisheries as source of livelihoods, contextual factors including market and institutional options that impact their livelihoods in the TBSB and the constraints for marginal communities to survive. The assumption is that water resources management in the basin and water allocation decisions directly impact the fisheries. The study addressed the following research questions to analyze fisheries as a means of livelihood in the TBSB and how it can support marginal communities and women. • What opportunities does fisheries provide for rural fisher folk and women in the TBSB in its current form and what are the future possibilities? • How do factors related to current water management and institutional conditions influence the livelihood options from fisheries? The overall objective is to examine whether water resources management in the TBSB recognizes fisheries as an option to improve the livelihoods, reduce poverty and if so, the desired changes and the role/future for the marginal communities and women in the fisheries sector in the basin. The following part of the report is divided into various sections. The report begins with an overview of the status of fisheries at the global, national and state levels followed by the methodology used in the study, the results based on the primary survey and focus group discussions covering the socio-economic aspects, fishing sources, fishing rights, fishing methods, and marketing. Finally, a brief analysis of fishermen livelihoods and their problems, development of fisheries taken by the state and central government agencies in TBSB. Towards the end, several options for improvement of livelihoods are discussed.

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2. Status of Fisheries 2.1 Global Scenario Fishing plays an important role in supporting livelihood worldwide and also forms an important source of diet for over one billion people. In Cambodia, about 60 percent of total human consumption of animal protein is obtained from the Tonle Sap fishery alone (MRC, 1997). Similarly in Africa, inland fisheries in Malawi provide about 70-75 percent of the total animal protein consumption of both urban and rural low-income families (FAO, 1996). With 40 per cent of fish catch being sold internationally, fish has become the most heavily traded commodity in international markets, with a net value of $18 billion a year, nearly 75 per cent of which goes to developing countries in Asia. Especially inland fisheries are of particular importance to the rural poor and has accounted for at least 15 percent of total global employment in capture fisheries and aquaculture producing 8 million tonnes of fish in 1998 (about 10 per cent of the total output of capture fisheries (inland and marine) of which more than 90 percent of inland fisheries output came from developing countries) (FAO, 2000) In the Southern lowlands of Laos, 80-90 percent of households involved in fishing contribute as much as 30 percent of rural household income (Lorenzen et al., 2000). In Northeast Nigeria, around 42 to 70 percent of rural households who depends on fishing contributes 2428 percent of their income (Neiland & Sarch, 1994). Similarly in the Brazilian Amazon, floodplain (Varzea) households obtain about 30 percent of their income from fishing (Almeida, Lorenzen & McGrath, 2002). These figures illustrate that fishing can be closely integrated in the livelihood strategies of rural households. During the past three decades, the number of fishers and aquaculturists has grown faster than the world's population, and faster than employment in traditional agriculture. The distribution pattern of the world's population indicates that 84 percent of fishers and aquaculturists in 1990 were in Asia, the majority of them in China. While the number of people employed in fishing and aquaculture has been growing steadily in most low- and middle-income countries, the numbers in most industrialized economies have been declining or have remained stationary. For instances, in Japan and Norway the fishermen population was halved between 1970 and 1990. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2000), freshwater fish, a major source of food and protein, is increasingly threatened worldwide by environmental degradation resultant of industrialization, urbanization, deforestation, mining, and agricultural activities. Fishery resources are being affected by destruction and fragmentation of aquatic habitats, aquatic pollution, due to the release of industrial and urban effluents and run-off of agro-chemicals, impoundment and channelization of water bodies, excessive water abstraction or diversion, soil erosion and manipulation of hydrological characteristics of rivers, lakes and flood plains. Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Baltic States are also experiencing increasing biodiversity loss and habitat degradation. Pressures on Asian watersheds are intensifying, which causes concern because they correspond to the most important areas of inland fish production globally.

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2.2 Fisheries in India Fisheries sector plays an important role in the Indian economy by contributing to the national income, employment and foreign exchange. It has a vast potential for fish resources both from inland and marine environment. India has about 1.6 million hectares of freshwater lakes, ponds, and swamps; and nearly 64,000 kilometers of rivers and streams. The economic liberalization policies initiated in 1991 opened up new opportunity for the growth of this sector. The Indian Fisheries sector production has increased from 0.6 million tones of fish five decades ago to nearly 6.0 million tones, out of which inland fisheries contributed 45.4 per cent of the total fish production. Inland production including farming is catching up with production from the marine sector and is expected to overtake marine fishing in the coming millennium. Special efforts have been made to promote extensive and intensive inland fish farming, modernize coastal fisheries, and encourage deep-sea fishing through joint ventures. The implementation of two programs i.e. establishing fish farmers' development agencies and the National Programme of Fish Seed Development has led to encouragingly increased production. Though the fisheries is a state subject the central government continues to support fisheries by providing more capital intensive infrastructure investments. Investments made by the central government during the five-year plans reveals that the central outlay on fisheries has increased from INR 5.31 crores during the first five-year plan (1950-55) to INR1232 crores during the eighth plan (1992-97). The Gross National Product from fisheries increased from INR 229 crores in 1950-55 to INR 53140 crores during the seventh plan (1992-97).

2.3 Inland Fisheries in Karnataka State TBSB is spread out in two provinces namely Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Karnataka has the third highest area of total inland water bodies and ranks 13th place in terms of fish production in the country. Karnataka is one of the richest among the Indian states having inland water areas of over 500,000 hectares comprising 73 reservoirs, 6015 major tanks out of which more than 3000 tanks are maintained by the Department of Fisheries and more than 20,000 minor tanks, nearly 6000 kms of river stretch and 3000 kms of irrigation channels (Table 2.1) besides innumerable wells and small water sheets having a production potential of 264, 000 metric tonnes of fish per year (Hameed, 2000). Table 2.1: Inland fisheries in Karnataka Sources Numbers Rivers Irrigation Canals Reservoirs 73 Tanks maintained by Department of 3291 Fisheries Tanks – (maintained by Gram Panchayats) 22624 Brackish water area available Brackish area suitable for fish ulture Brackish area developed for fish culture Source: Karnataka Fisheries Statistics- 2005-06

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Length/Water spread area 5813 kms 3000 kms 2027 lakh ha 1.72 lakh ha 1.21 lakh ha 8000 lakh ha 4200 lakh ha 1344 lakh ha

STRIVER Task Report No. 9.5

The production of fish from inland water bodies and aquaculture has increased from 55,848 metric tonnes in 1989-90 to 1,18,419 metric tonnes in 1998-99 (Government of Karnataka, 2000). The average fish production in the last 5 years is 278,000 tonnes with 58 per cent coming from the marine sector and inland sector contributing about 42 per cent. The Karnataka state contributes about 4.7 per cent of total fish production of the country and per capita fish availability in Karnataka is 5.3 Kg. The fisheries sector contributes 0.7% of the gross GDP and 3.18% of the net GDP to the state’s economy at current prices. However, there is also an indication of lowest production per unit area apart from declining trends in inland fish production. Other states excepting Karnataka either have boosted their production or at least maintained constant production levels. Estimated production potential of state inland water is 2.75 lakh metric tons, but production so far has not even reached half of its potential. If one were to take into consideration the average production values, (Table 2.2), Karnataka state has a record of 0.13 tons per ha while West Bengal has high of 1.8 tons/ha. One of the factor contributing is fingerlings, total state annual demand for fingerlings are 46 crore but production is only 23 crores. Table 2.2: Average per ha production in various states (2003-04) State in ha In tons Average in tons/ha West Bengal 545000 988000 1.812844 Andhra Pradesh 811000 680000 0.838471 Uttera pradesh 432000 267000 0.618056 Bihar 160000 266000 1.6625 Orissa 980000 190000 0.193878 Assam 135000 181000 1.340741 Maharastra 348000 125000 0.359195 Karnataka 528000 70000 0.132576 Source: Statistical bulletin of Fisheries, Department of Fisheries, 2004-05, Government of Karnataka, India. Karnataka has a considerable population depending on fisheries, whose livelihood improvement is part of the state’s social welfare objective. Fishermen (around 1,20,000 inland fishermen) in the state are largely categorized into two types: marine fisherman and inland fisherman and the study will cover only inland fisheries. Table 2.3: Inland Fish Production in Karnataka Year Fish production in lakh million tonnes 2001-02 1.21 2002-03 0.86 2003-04 0.70 2004-05 0.80 2005-06 1.21 Source: Karnataka Fisheries Statistics. 2005-06

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2.4 Inland Fisheries in Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh is one of the major centres of fish farming in the country, surpassing traditional states in fish production and ranks second in inland fisheries in the country. Andhra Pardesh with 8.93lakh fishermen population, contributes 2.30% to Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP), and the quantity of fish produced during 2005-06 was 8.91 lakh tonnes, valued at INR 6,287 crores. It earned export worth INR 2,500 crores (India's exports INR 7,245 crores in fisheries sector). Fishery sector alone provides employment to 14 lakh people. The state has prepared a master plan for a period of three years between 2006 and 2009 with an outlay of INR 400 crores for fisheries development. Among the major achievements of the Fisheries sector includes 7,334 mechanised and motorised boats benefited under Exemption of Sales Tax on HSD Oil. The coverage under Group Accident Insurance Scheme increased from 1.30 lakhs fishermen to 2.00 lakhs fishermen. Construction of 15 Fish Landing Centers was taken up at a cost of INR 12.15 crores. 61,000 houses sanctioned at a cost of INR 214 crores. The Fisheries Department constructed one wholesale fish market at Hyderabad, 26 Urban fish markets modernised, 5 Aqua Labs and 4 Feed Analysis Labs constructed and 871.60 lakhs major carp fry were produced in the government fish seed farms. The Department plans to improve productivity, income levels, infrastructure and employment generation with a total outlay of INR 400 crore. 10 lakhs metric tonnes per annum of fish production is expected and an employment generation for atleast 15 lakh people and foreign exchange earnings worth INR 3,000 crore. Establishment of hygienic fish markets and retail outlets are being planned in urban areas. New initiatives during 2006 include stocking of fish seed in reservoirs, 50% subsidy on fish seed supplied to the Fishermen Cooperative Societies, introduction of culture practices in natural tanks, stocking of fresh water prawn seed in natural tanks. The Department of Andhra Pradesh is planning to set up aqua shops as single window supplier of aquaculture inputs, fish seed rearing units in all districts would be established with private participation (http://www.ysr.in/userpressitem.aspx?id=35)

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3. Methodology 3.1 Study Area River Tungabhadra is the largest tributary of the river Krishna, contributing an annual discharge of 14,700 million m3 at its confluence point to the main river. The river is transboundary and flows about 531 kms from its origin in Karnataka state, before it joins river Krishna at Sanghameshwaram near Kurnool in the neighbouring state of Andhra Pradesh (Figure 1). The TBSB stretches over an area of 48,827 km2 in both the riparian states of Karnataka (38,790 km2) and Andhra Pradesh (9037 km2) and finally joins Krishna that flows into Bay of Bengal. Tungabhadra covers seven districts2 and twenty-eight taluks3 in Karnataka and four districts in Andhra Pradesh4, the sub-basin is mostly rainfed, dominated by red soils with an average annual rainfall of 1200 mm. The upper basin of Tungabhadra is characterized by undulating terrain with high rainfall while the lower portion of the basin is characterized by much lower rainfall, drought conditions and mainly plain terrain. Agriculture is the major occupation across the basin. Irrigation is provided through canal systems developed mostly in the seventies. The major crops grown are paddy, jowar, sugarcane, cotton and Ragi (finger millet). The river catchment includes a number of large and small-scale units supporting industrial activities and a wide range of commercial agricultural activities as irrigated agriculture has rapidly taken over areas under rainfed farming. Fishing is next major activity that supports more than 10,000 families. Brick making, potters etc are other livelihood options practiced along the basin. Reservoir water storage capacity of the Tungabhadra reservoir is reducing due to siltation from mining activities, dust, soil erosion etc. Conflicts within and across sectors are common apart from interstate disputes. Population pressure, and increased urbanisation have added on. With issues being complex at various levels, the impacts have been serious resulting in land use changes, pollution, and ground water contamination affecting quality of life and in specific livelihoods of vulnerable communities.

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Shimoga, Chikamagalore, Davanagere, Haveri, Bellay, Koppal and Raichur Chikamagalore, Tarikere, Koppa, Sringeri, N.R.Pura, Shimoga, Bhadravathi, Channagiri, Harihar, Honnali, Ranebennur, Hirekerur, Haveri, Hospet, Siruguppa, Bellary, Koppal, Gangavathi, Sindhnoor, Manvi and Raichur 4 Mehboobnagar, Kurnool, Anantpur and Cuddappah. 3

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Fig 1.0: Tungabhadra Basin Map showing locations of Fishing Communities Fishing communities and major markets of fish trade are spread over along the basin (see map). However, number of households within these communities varies from 4 to 100 families. Depending on the location, fish catch and season; these families migrate as labourers to different parts of the basin. During the course of the study, the team interacted with sixteen of these communities.

3.2 Methods Both primary and secondary data was collected for the study. Primary data was collected from key informants and direct and indirect dependents. Household survey of fishermen households (direct dependents), labourers hired by fishermen (direct dependents), middleman – traders (Regional, contractors, agents, local traders, petty traders - women selling fish (indirect dependents) were carried out. Secondary data included – data from State Fisheries Department, Karnataka State Fisheries Development Corporation and Fisheries co-operative societies within the TBSB.

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The study was conducted in Tungabhadra sub basin from January 2008 to April 2008. The data was gathered primarily through household survey of 106 fisher folk (spread out in 16 villages) selected through stratified random sampling based on two criteria namely water sources used for fishing and their socio-economic status and also 30 labourers hired by the large-scale fishermen. Information was also collected through interviews and focus group discussions with 30 traders who were indirectly dependent on fishing for their livelihoods. Due to time and resource constraints, a larger sample survey was not possible in this study. The survey was more extensive in nature to get a broader idea of fisheries across the sub basin. The sampling ensured representation of informants from different fishing sources across the basin - Reservoirs – Major and Minor, Tanks – Major and Minor, Private Ponds, River Stretch leased out by the Department and Canals. Women and men together contribute to the household economy through fishing; hence to understand livelihoods, both men and women were interviewed. Information related to variables such as income from fishing, incomes from other sources, type of fishing, nature of work, problems etc., were collected. First a pilot study was conducted and questionnaire was revised. Based on the pilot survey it was considered important to have separate questionnaires across different categories – smallscale fishermen, large-scale fishermen, traders and labourers. Focus group discussions were held with all the communities to understand the dynamics. Source and location played a prominent role in understanding the situation and constraints. Discussions were also held with supportive staff like managers, fish sorters etc. Focus group discussions aimed at understanding the operational mechanisms and potentials and constraints involved in fishing. Discussions were also held with officials, Fishermen Co-operative society members/presidents to get further insights on constraints and issues.

4.0 Results The following sections focus on the observations, discussions and survey results based on the fieldwork carried out in the basin across various districts. The section on socio-economic aspects covers the various fishing sources and categories of fishermen dependent on these sources and communities. Institutional aspects will capture on the formal and informal arrangements in the fisheries sector followed by key issues highlighting the problems/constraints in the fisheries sector. The final section provides options that would aid in reforming the sector.

4.1.

Fishing Sources

Fishing is one of the major activities supporting livelihoods in the Tungabhadra basin. Fishermen in the basin mainly procure fish from five different sources – (a) Reservoirs (b) River (c) Irrigation canals (d) Village Ponds or Tanks and (e) Private Ponds. 4.1.1. Reservior/Dam Reservoirs were one of the major sources of fishing supporting 40 % of fishing community. Reservoirs covered a large area with total water spread area of 57217 ha, out of which 98 per cent is covered by major reservoirs5. All reservoirs were owned and managed by the Irrigation Department except Tungabhadra Reservoir, which was managed by the Tungabhadra Board. 5

Major reservoirs comprises water spread area of more than 500 ha and Minor reservoirs of less than 500 ha

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The Irrigation department does not have fishing on their priority list, however Tungabhadra Board has a separate wing to promote fishing. An overview of the major and minor reservoirs where fishing is practiced across the basin is provided in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Fishing sources – Reservoirs in TB Basin Name Location District Water Spread Area in ha Major Reservoirs HB Halli Malve Bellary 1209 Tungabhadra Hospet Bellary 37814 Bhadra N R Pura Chickmagalur 11250 Reservoir project Shanthisagara Channagiri Davanagere 2977 Devarabelikere Devarabelikere Davanagere 647.50 Tunga Gajanur Shimoga 825 Varahi Karnapura Shimoga 556 Anjanapura Anjanapura Shimoga 750 Minor Reservoirs Jambadahalla Tarikere Chickmagalur 384 Sannapura Koppal 40 Mallapura Koppal 40 Shivapura Shivapura Koppal 125 Rajolibunda Rajolibunda Raichur 200 Ambaliguda Ambligoda Shimoga 400 Source: Annual Report, Fisheries Department – 2004-05 Fishery activity in the reservoirs was prominent and particularly intense in the TB reservoir due to its large water spread area. The TB reservoir was dominated mostly by large-scale fishermen, whereas in other reservoirs there were only small-scalefishermen who fish individually or as team of two.

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4.1.2. River and Canals The other major source for fishing was the river network and its tributaries. Number of fishermen dependant across the river network varied largely. The Department of Fisheries is responsible for leasing out river stretches in Bhadra and Tungabhadra (locally called pattas through tenders as specified by the byelaws. The areas leased out were demarcated and the fishermen were required to fish within the boundaries allocated to them. River-based fishing societies formed across the basin bid for the fishing locations. Fishermen preferred certain locations based on water flow levels that determined the fish yield. Fish obtained in river source was uncertain and natural constraints of flooding, frequent tearing of nets due to underground weeds etc. Canal fishing was insignificant in terms of commercial value or supporting livelihoods in the basin. However, there were certain stretches where the Fisheries Department leases out the canals for fishing. For instance, small fishermen living in Saibaba nagar, Sindanur taluk, Raichur district, leased a small stretch of canal for 2 weeks but still significant in terms of supporting their livelihoods. 4.1.3. Tanks Tanks are another major source of fishing. Based on the area, tanks are categorized into two types – Minor (having an area of less 10 ha) and (having an area between 10 to 25 ha). Major tanks are maintained by Zilla Panchayath (tanks with area between 10 to 25 ha) and Fisheries Department (tanks having an area of more than 25 ha). Gram Panchayats (village councils) own and operate the minor tanks that are less than 10 hectares in size. Panchayats auction the tanks to the fishing community and in turn the community depends on the contractor (locally called Sahukar) who invests the money on behalf of the community. Fishermen were given the fishing rights after paying license fee to the fishing cooperative socities. The Fishing Cooperative Society or the contractor was responsible for releasing appropriate quantity of fingerlings. In majority of the cases the contractor was responsible for providing funds to the fishermen in exchange for fish. Usually the small-scale fishermen residing in the same villages are involved in fishing while a few of them migrated as labourers. Fishermen complained of less yield due to lack of proper release of fingerlings by the departments in most of the tanks. However, there were some exceptions where the societies managed the tanks well.

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Table 4.2: Number of tanks in the TBSB available for fishing District Number of Major tanks Number of Minor tanks (less than 10ha) ZP Department Gram Panchayat (between (more than 10 to 25 ha) 25ha) Bellary 314 2490 93 Chikmagalur 739 609 4221 Davanagere 1269 5835 653 Haveri 1666 2185 2708 Koppala 115 862 69 Raichur 441 1375 795 Shimoga 763 976 876 Total 5307 14332 9415 Percentage Distribution of the total water spread area 6 17 11 Source: Department of Minor Irrigation, Karnataka State, 2006

BOX 1.0: Private Fish Ponds Salinity is a major problem in Raichur, Bellary and Koppal districts in the TB Basin. In Raichur alone, saline lands spread over an area of 26,000 hectares (CADA report, 2005). Fisheries Department have seen establishment of private fishponds as an alternative to make use of the unproductive saline land and also to ensure an alternative source of income to the fishing communities. Apart from providing trainings, subsidy of INR.30,000 is given per acre of fish pond. The farmer is able to produce about 5 tonnes of fish per acre. Pond fishing is remarkably doing well in two locations RH Camp 1 and 2, Sindhanur, Raichur district. These camps were established when the Government aided about 300 refugee families from Bangladesh (the then East Bengal) by providing them 5 acres of land. Hence, these fishing communities practiced agriculture as their primary occupation. Located at the tail end of distributory 54 of TBSB, they were deprived of regular canal water and agricultural returns were uncertain hence part of the land was used for aquaculture within their lands. These ponds are canal fed and serve as storage tanks and source during critical irrigation. Initiated by a single farmer in 1986, pond fishing has currently taken up by 150 farmers and proved more remunerative than agriculture. Construction of the pond costs an average sum of INR. 125,000. Usually they harvest fish once in two years and obtain about 3 quintals of fish. Approximately, annually, they invest around INR 5500 and get returns up to INR. 90,000. Local fishermen are hired which is an important income source for the economically vulnerable. Although it has been a good alternative, it is still confined to the families who own lands while the landless still remain vulnerable.

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4.2.

Types of Fish Species

Fish varieties and their availability varied at different locations. The common varieties available in TBSB are given in Table 4.3. However, few varieties were preferred for local consumption and others for markets outside. The local species of high demand are Avalu, Suragi and costs INR. 80 per kg (INR 50 during rainy season) compared to other local varieties like Chamari, Chachiyu and Girlu that range between INR 20-40. Small fishes are mainly dried and then sold, whereas the big fish are sold fresh. Small fish is mainly used for poultry, but can be consumed as well. The species Damma has medicinal values and is exported. Table 4.3: Few Common Fish Species Common names Scientific name Bale meenu Wallago attu Girlu Mystus seengala Chelu menu Heteropneustes fossilis Ane meenu Clarius batrachus Bilihalati Silonia childrenii Common carp Cyprinus carpio var communis Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella Silver carp Hypophthalmichtys molitrix Katla Catla catla Rohu Labeo rohita Kemmenu Labeo fimbriatus Mrigaal Cirrhina mrigal Jilebi Tilapia mossambica Bilihargi Puntius pulhellus Kolcha Puntius kolus Mahseer Tor khudree Saslu Rasbora species Chappali meenu Notopterus notopterus Murrels Channa gachua, Channa marulius, Channa striatus, Channa punctatus Nettikannukorva Glossogobius giuris Bitiha Chela chela Haragi Barbua pulchellus Pakke Esomus daniconius Halati Pseudotropocus lakree Gambusia Gambusia affinis

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Price per kg 20-30 30-40 40 40 20-30 30-35 30-35 30-35 30 30 30 30 40 30-35 20-25 40 30 25 30-40 30-35 30-35 40-50 40 30-35 40

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Socio-economic characteristics 4.3.

Fishing Communities

Fishing communities are located throughout the basin and are either restricted to a few households spread out in a village or living in a locality together in groups, or ‘camps’ and range between 4 to 200 households. They usually depend on one main source and during lean periods migrate as labour to other places. It can be seen from the table 4.4 that the fishing population is concentrated more in the Tungabhadra river stretch compared to Tunga and Bhadra stretch. Total fishermen population was 133987 out of which 34028 were full time fishermen (see annex 1- district wise details). Table 4.4: Fishermen Families Rivers Fishermen families Tunga 3000 Bhadra 2000 Tungabhadra 5000 Total 10000 Sources: Compiled from Fisheries department In Shimoga district, fishing neighborhoods are concentrated in Bhadra reservoir project and Tanks while the rest depend on combination of sources. Difference in economic status across small fishermen was evident. Few households were totally dependant on fishing and others had supplementary income from other sources. Fishermen preferred that their children developed skills other than fishing but with poor access to schooling and supportive infrastructure like transportation, children at a very young age were trained to fish. In TB Reservoir, children from Andhra Pradesh worked as labourers with the Alivinet users for a sum of INR. 5000 – on a half yearly contract. However, there were some exceptions in Nellisara and Gorichattanahalli where the fishermen children were not engaged in fishing activities, but attended school. Fishermen operate either as larger groups (15 to 20 men), or smaller groups (2 to 4) or individually for fishing. Large-scale fishermen usually operated by hiring labour and are confined only to Tungabhadra Dam. Smaller groups are spread across all water sources. Nearly two-thirds (66 per cent) of the fishermen were engaged in fishing activity throughout the year. They shift fishing activity across sources based on availability of fish. 34 percent of the fishermen were partially involved in fishing activity between 6 to 10 months. During the rest of the period, they were engaged in agriculture, as construction workers, labourers etc. 4.3.1. Large-scaleFishermen Large-scale fishermen are those who fish in larger groups by hiring 15 to 20 labourers. The Labourers were usually hired from the neighbouring province of Andhra Pradesh. They were confined only to TB reservoir representing about 30 per cent of the total fishermen population in the entire TBSB. In the basin, about 400 such larger groups are active. They were using Alivi nets of various sizes ranging from 1 inch to 12 inches to harvest the fishes. However,

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during the discussion it was revealed that fishermen illegally operating using Alivi nets were prevalent in Bhadra Reservior area also. Fishing is carried out for six months in a year usually from the month of January till the water is available. The larger groups are headed by a fisherman who would invest approximately around INR 3 lakhs (see annex 2). Each labourer is paid between INR 1800 to 2500 per month along with allowance for food, medical expenses, etc. Wages are paid in two installments and travel costs are taken care of. The group spends the whole night (up to 10 hours) in casting the nets and fishing till early hours as they get better catch comparatively. Fish catch ranges between 10 to 100 kgs, which is highly dependent on the weather conditions, fingerlings released and season. The reservoir is divided and allocated to each group. The licence fee varies according to the location. The Fisheries Society that gets the bid organizes and allocates the boundaries. After getting the permit, the group sets up a temporary camp on reservoir banks. Most of these groups have been operating for the last 50 years and hence their place of fishing is more or less fixed. It is a normal practice for most these groups to take advance payments from middlemen or marketing agents to whom the fish is also sold. 4.3.2. Small-scaleFishermen Small-scalefishermen were those who work in a team of two to three persons. Usually, the team members belong to the same family or sometimes they work with neighbors. However in TB reservoir, it was observed that they were migrants from the other places. The smaller groups made payments to the society6, which varied between INR 200 (riverine, tank) to INR. 4000 (reservoir) based on the net type and location of fishing. They were using gill nets of various sizes. Survey indicated that upto 53 per cent of fishermen invested about INR 2000 on boats and nets, annually. Only a few fishermen (14 per cent) invested up to 8000 and more on boats. Small-scalefishermen were economically poor as the income level is low due to minimum quantity of fish catch compared to large-scale fishermen. The quantity of fish catch per day during the lean season was as low as ½ kg at times, however, majority up to 55 per cent of the fishermen caught between 3-5 kgs of fish and 32 per cent caught up to 2 kgs. However, 76 per cent of the fishermen were able to harvest 10-20 kgs during peak season. A small group (11 %) were able to catch up to 50 kgs per day. Average income level varied between INR 2000 to INR 6000 per month. This group forms the majority of fishermen (60 %) in the basin and also the most vulnerable. In addition, the catchers who fish individually were also prevalent in the basin. They comprise a smaller percentage of about 17 percent. On an average, they catch 2-3 kgs of fish per day. They are more vulnerable to floods and dry periods.

6

Payments have to be made to the soci73ety that would have got the bid

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4.3.3. Women and Fishing in TBSB The role of the women largely depended on the socio-economic conditions of the households. Overall, the conditions and quality of life for women were poor across different fishing groups. This included long working hours, poor wages as compared to men and in addition the burden of household maintenance. However, majority of the women expressed interest to learn new skills and attend trainings to improve their status in the fishing sector. There were no special programs targeting women in the fishing sector. For instance, women in Hale Ayodhya, village confined themselves mainly to weaving of the nets. However, women in this village did not go out to sell fish unlike in some villages where they were responsible for selling fish. Women were involved mostly in processing and marketing of fish. In Thambrahalli, about 40 women worked as labourers sorting fish for the large contractors. On an average they sorted 30 kgs of fish per day and were paid about INR 45 rupees per day. Women also worked as agricultural labourers to contribute to the household income. Unlike women in Vietnam and Phillipines where role of women in fishing is much more advanced, fishing is still not seen as an important source of livelihood except in marketing in TBSB. Fish processing is one of the various options that can improve the livelihoods of women and also contribute to the household economy in the Tungabhadra basin.

4.4. Traditional Practices Fishing has been the traditional occupation and fishermen had informal rights to fish in various water bodies. Fishing was mostly a family occupation, and based on the needs, fishermen sought help from other households. Fishermen, over the time, developed various religious practices for invoking the gods for better harvest. The major fish harvested were native species that were well acclimatized to both wet and dry conditions. During the dry periods, the fish population would get reduced to a miminum level and often restricted to puddles or parts of the river or catchment with some water and thus provided the seedlings for the next season. The fish was sold locally in the villages or nearby towns since it was perishable and live fish fetched a better price. The fishermen did not have any facilities for storage. However, certain species were sun dried and sold or used as food round the year. Traditionally, the fishing groups developed certain rules that included a self-imposed ban on fishing during the breeding periods i.e., from June to August. This included a ban on catching small fish, collective efforts to feed fish and community sanctions on people who violated the agreed norms. For providing the rights to catch fish in the village or municipal water bodies, the fishing community pays some portion of its catch to managers of water bodies and sells the rest. Locally known as ‘Bestaru’ or ‘Meenukaruru’ fishermen continue with the rights that were provided to them to this day with further support by the government.

4.5. Formal Rights Fishing rights were given through open tenders in reserviors and rivers, whereas in case of tanks it was given through open auctioning. Fisheries Development Committee of the Department of Fisheries decides minimum reserve price to obtain fishing rights.

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4.5.1. Licensing The legal fishing rights across sources were granted by the Department of Fisheries through licensing process. Members had to register with the Department of Fisheries by paying the prescribed fee annually, which permits them to fish throughout the year. License fees varied based on location, duration of contract, types of nets used, and number of boats used for fishing (Table 4.5). Table 4.5: Details of License Fee Across the Water Bodies Water body Fee (Rs) TBRP 4000 With net size more than 3 inchs BRP 1150 Gill net of various sizes Upper stretch of Tunga 400 Gill net of various sizes Tunga Anicut and 300 Gill net of various sizes downstream of Tunga river Devarabilikere 4000 Per boat River 300 Per boat Source: Based on Field Survey Licensing system was preferred as the fee was minimal in TB basin where initially, leasing of the reservoir, was given to the small-scale fishermen by obtaining license from the TB Board. However, this practice was changed recently, in 2001. The Board calls for a tender notification and the societies (7 societies) bid and the highest bidder benefits. However, in certain areas, fee varied and fishermen found it difficult to pay the license amount forcing them to depend on middlemen. For instance in Devarabilikere Reservoir, located in Davanagere district (see fig 1), the annual amount to be paid to the society was INR 4000 that the fishermen could not afford whereas in the riverine fishing the annual fee was INR 300 that was affordable to the fishermen. 4.5.2. Open Auctioning Open auctioning was another common practice to allot fishing rights across water bodies in TBSB, except in the Tungabhadra reservoir where the fishing rights were given out through a bidding process. In case of village tanks, the village local councils (Gramapanchayat) were empowered to allot fishing rights through open auctioning that is not confined to the fishing communities within the village. Such a practice is usually to the disadvantage of the small fishermen in the village. During the survey a number of fishermen complained that it was common for outsiders and middlemen to be involved in the bidding process. Since the latter have the capacity and the finances, they often tend to get the fishing rights. The normal practice was that these middlemen in turn employed the local fishermen as labourers to do the fishing. In the process the local fishermen not only lose the rights to fish in the local water bodies but also were forced to work as labourers at low wages. Although there was a regulation in the Department of Fisheries of the State that the local fishermen should be given priority, the local councils and government agencies do not follow it. The reasons being that the middlemen or outsiders tend to have the finances to carry out fishing. The government

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should support the local fishermen through loans or subsidies in order to help them get the fishing rights in these water bodies. It was observed in some villages that the fishing activity in the ponds an important source of income to the small-scale fishermen. In these cases, welfare of the small-scale fishermen should be priority of the government rather than profits. 4.5.3. Fishing Rights through Open Tender Alloting fishing rights through open tenders is practiced only in the Tungabhadra Reservoir, which came into effect since 2000. The Tungabhadra Board is an autonomous body that is responsible for inviting tenders. One of the main reasons for inviting tenders in the TB reservoir was to cut down on illegal users, who were difficult to monitor. The license fee collected prior to tendering system was around INR 200,000 per annum. Information on call for tender is intimated to Fisheries Co-operative Societies (FCS). The highest bidder gets the tender and they in turn sub lease the fishing rights to other fishermen. In reality, it is the private contractors (middlemen) who enter the process and bid using the support of FCS. Presence of middlemen has led to more competition and an increase in the tender amount each year (Table 4.6). Table 4.6: Bidding Amount Year Amount in INR 2000 300,000 2002 310,000 2003 330.0000 2004 350.0000 2005 360.0000 2006 380.0000 2007 450 .0000 Source: Based on Survey Middlemen play an important role in the TBRP fisheries, and influence the fishing activities from the net to the market stage. It was observed that the middlemen provide advance loans to fishermen who in turn are expected to sell their fish to the middlemen. The prices were decided by the middlemen and often lower than the market price. It was often the case that middlemen from the neighbouring districts Vijayawada and Kolkata paid advances to individuals and promoted them to compete for the tender. These individuals in turn subcontract the licenses to middle level fishermen who have the capacity to provide large catches. Although the system benefits the Board, it has led to disadvantages to the fishing community, particularly the small fishermen. During the discussion, it was revealed that all categories, small/large-scale fishermen and small-scale traders, were against the tendering system. Irrespective of the harvest, the fishing groups have to pay the department, which may not be in the interest of the fishing groups. As perceived by this entire group, tender system made it profitable for the department and few middlemen. For instance, the society, which got the bidding for TBRP for 2007-08, was represented by one of the societies but backed by Mr.

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STRIVER Task Report No. 9.5

Rajaram. Mr. Rajaram pools the bidding amount from different sources. a) Payment of first installment -Rs 15 lakhs from Calcutta based vendor with a pre-condition to supply fish variety ‘Pabda’ to him only. b) Payment of second installment - Advance collected for license fee from Andhra fishers (charging about 40,000 from each one of them) c) Third installment collection from individual fishermen. Large-scale fishermen were insecure to protest or give up on fishing irrespective of the amount to be paid due to the fear of elimination from bidding in consecutive years. Apart from this, fishermen have no other skills to bank upon. Tender system has led to creation of more societies, dependency on middlemen, debt traps and conflicts. In case of large tanks the Fisheries Department calls for tenders and the contractor pays for the fishermen on the condition that the fish is sold back to him. However, the fish collected by the contractor is based on the demand for specific varieties, while the rest are sold by the fishermen locally. Fishermen form the society where each one contributes and jointly participate in the auction.

4.6. Fishing Methods 4.6.1. Nets Used Two main types of nets were used across the basin – Alivi nets and Gill nets. Other types of nets used include, Coracle, the saucer-shaped country craft made of split bamboo and covered with hide is commonly used fishing craft. A normal unit had a diameter of 1.5 to 2 m. Also, improvised rafts, made of empty cans, barrels and logs were also used, usually fabricated by fishermen themselves. Alivi net is confined to the Tungabhadra Reservoir, however, it was opined that Alivi nets were also used in Bhadra reservoir, but not accounted for. 4.6.1.1. Alivi Nets Prior to Alivi net usage, fishermen were using konti balai, Rangoon nets and other gill nets of various dimensions. As the nets were made of cotton and not durable, the fish catch was too less to help them sustain. Due to this, the migrant fishermen from Andhra Pradesh brought Alivi nets that proved lucrative and increased the usage of Alivi nets. Alivi net usage in TB reservoir has been controversial as Alivinet removes fish indiscriminately in large numbers. However, Alivi net also keeps the populations of predatory and weed fishes in check and can aid in managing fish stock with adequate precaution. It is important that fishermen have to be educated about the need to conserve for better fish production. Although banned several times, this could not be enforced. Currently, licensed Alivi net users operate contributing to 88 to 92 per cent of the total fish catch from the reservoir.

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4.6.1.2. Gill Nets Gill nets were used throughout the year; catch all kinds of fish depending on the mesh size. All the small fishermen usually owned nets from 3 inches to 10 inches. Size of fish captured depended on the net size. The nets were used based on the period, source and location in which the fishermen operated. The fishermen changed the nets based on the availability and types of fish, which was seasonal. Surface gill nets, bottom set gill nets, small shore drag net, cast nets and hook and line were the commonly used fishing tackles. The fishermen invested on nets in terms of its weight (kgs), which was purely based on their capacity to invest.

5. Markets Every town across the basin had at least a single selling outlet where the local traders sold fish. Markets were not well managed and did not have proper storage facilities. A list of local markets, the number of traders and approximate amount of fish traded in each market is listed in Table 5.1. Table 5.1: Markets in the Basin Towns Markets Traders

Bhadravathi

2

40*

Davanagere

3

20

Shops

10 + 6 6+ 6+ 8 10 5

Fish sales in Tons Week Week days ends 10 5 6-7

1.5

Hospet 1 10 10 4 Koppal 1 5 3-4 1.5 Source: Based on Survey * Note: Bhadravathi has major and medium traders unlike other towns The town of Bhadravathi, over the years has emerged as central point for fish trading in the TBSB with 5 major and 5 medium traders operating. However, in Davanagere and Bhadravathi markets, mainly sale of marine fishes that are purchased from Goa, Karwar and Ankola towns are sold. Usually, in these markets, in addition to local fishes produced in TBSB, the traders procure fish from neighbouring provinces like Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Maharastra and also from private owned tanks. This shows that there is potential for further development of fisheries in TBSB. In few markets (Hospet, Shimoga, Bhadravathi, Davanagere and Haveri) it was observed that ‘Fish Merchants Traders Societies’ were established to discuss problems related to marketing. These societies met twice in a year and held meetings with focus on establishing networks to improve sales. In Hospet, it was interesting to see how a particular type of fish locally called as ‘Pabda’ or ‘Jella’ that did not have local market was procured from different fishermen and exported to

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another province in India, namely, West Bengal. The fishermen fetched a price of INR 30 per kg that was viewed positively given the low market demand for the particular fish variety in the local market. The fish was procured from different sources by local people hired by the middlemen, brought to a storage point, where it was packed and transported further by road and rail to the final market destinations namely Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh and Calcutta in West Bengal. Local people who were hired were paid a sum of Rs 2000 per month from January to July in addition to the accommodation and food. During remaining period, they were engaged in agricultural activities. Fish Price: Fish price varied across the regions, seasons and source of fish catch. Some species was priced up to INR 180 per kg since they had high demand in the local market (see Table 5.2) Table 5.2: Price of Fish in Markets Districts Fishermen Small Large fish fish Bhadravathi 20 30 Davanagere 25 35 Hospet 10-15 40 Sindhanur 15 – 20 25-28 Koppal 15-30 45-60 Source: Based on Survey

In rupees Traders Small Large Fish Fish 25 35-40 30 40-45 20 45 25-30 35-40 20-35 50-80

About 62 per cent of the fishermen sold fish to the contractors from whom they would have availed the loan. And a third (32 per cent) of the fishermen sold fish locally either in their village or towns nearby.

5.1.

Fish Traders

Traders were engaged at different levels in the fish marketing chain. Based on their roles, they can be grouped into (1) Catchers cum traders (2) Individual sellers and (3) Buyers and traders (see table). 90% of traders were involved full time (Table 5.3).

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Table 5.3: Traders’ Roles at Different levels Traders type Type Roles Catchers cum Small- Catch and sell fish in the nearby villages and towns Traders scalefishermen - Men were engaged in catching fish and the women in the household sell fish in nearby villages and towns Sellers Women - Buy fishes from market and sell in nearby villages/towns - Also buy fishes from fishermen and sell in nearby villages/towns - Have own shops (confined to TB Dam) Men - Buy fishes either from market or fishermen and sold locally in villages/towns etc based on their location - Regional only (Buy in Lorry loads from other districts and distribute across towns to retail traders) - Local and Regional (sell in villages and towns) Buyers and - Play an important role in fish trading Traders – - Lend loans as advance to the fishermen and in turn Middlemen procure fish from them and sell it Source: Based on Survey 5.1.1 Catchers cum Traders These were small fishermen who played where men were engaged in catching fish and women engaged in selling. It was mostly as household activity and common amongst small fishers to engage the members of the households in different activities. The fish catch varied from 1-2 kgs during lean season and 8-10 kgs during peak season and sold locally or nearby village/town whichever was closer. 5.1.2 Individual Sellers Mostly women were engaged in selling small quantities of fish at the local markets. Bulk sales were managed by men both at villages/ towns or both. Sales varied between 50 kgs to 1 quintal depending upon source, location, fish catch and networking capacity.

5.1.3 Buyers and Sellers - Middle Men Middlemen play an important role in marketing of fish at different levels often determining the price of fish. As discussed earlier, since they lend loans as advance to the fishermen the latter in turn are compelled to sell the fish to them. Survey indicated that 62 per cent of the traders procured fish directly from the fishermen indicating dependency on traders due to lack of opportunities in accessing other ways of credit. This clearly shows that fishermen have poor access to credit systems and often become bonded to the middlemen. Such arrangements make the small-scalefishermen more vulnerable leading to more dependency on middlemen,

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outstanding loans owing to low fish price. However, fishermen trust the middlemen more than the government agencies as government schemes were not suitable to meet their emergency requirements. The loan amounts provided by middlemen varied (Table 5.4). A majority of the beneficiaries were small fishermen who could not have access to other credit facilities. In most cases, fishermen borrowed money to purchase nets, boats, and social reasons. The rate of interest and mode of repayment also varied. About 42 per cent did not avail any loan from traders and sold fish directly to the consumers. Table 5.4: Loans provided by Middlemen Amount Per cent of loans Type of fishermen Up to 10000 44 Small 10000-25000 8 Small >25000 6 Small and Large-scale 45 lakhs Large-scale (TB Dam only) Not taken loan 42 Total 100 Source: Based on Survey About 50 percent of the fishermen repaid loans to the traders in terms of fish (see Table 5.6). There was a mixed opinion towards the presence of middlemen and in some villages; the fishermen felt it was more convenient, quick and easy to get help from the middlemen. Fig 5.1: Schematic representation of fish trade in TBSB Fishermen At INR 25 per kg Fisherrmen sells directly to the FCS if they have not taken advance laon from middleman

Wholesale dealers/Midddle men At INR 30 per kg

Fishing Cooperative Society (FCS)

Contractor

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6. Fishing and Livelihoods Movement of fishermen between various places within the basin and outside was a common phenomenon. Annual migrations were a common pattern in the fisheries activities in TBSB. Often this caused hardships to families and their social life, as it involved living in temporary settlements or camps where facilities were poor. In most cases only the male members moved out for a certain period and returned after the fishing season. Migration to other places was more a constraint than advantage to the fishermen.

6.1.

Seasonal migration –within state, and outside state

Migratory fishermen from Andhra Pradesh and other parts of the country were also seen in the peak season for six months. They come in small groups of 10-15 fishermen and stayed right on the bank of the river in temporary huts. There were two types of migratory fishermen (1) fishermen who migrated on their own (2) fishermen brought by the contractors. The first category fishermen paid a lease fee as fixed by the department and the fish were sold at the local market, whereas the second category fishermen were paid certain amount by the contractor and the fish they caught were given to the contractor.

6.2.

Dependency level – full time, allied activities, other sources of income

It was observed that dependency level on fisheries was decreasing compared to earlier days. Most of the fishermen felt that fishing was less renumerative and hard work. Fishermen opined that tender system has increased their investment costs and their dependency on middlemen causing hardships. As income derived from fisheries was meagre and uncertain, diversification to other occupations was common (see table). All the fishermen quoted either of the following reasons for diversification– low fish catch, lean season, off-season, where they had to resort to alternative income sources to lead their livelihoods. For instance, more than one hundred families in Bhadra reservoir practiced both agriculture and fishing. In Maridibba, most of the families migrated during lean season, as women and elderly women could not travel they would collect firewood and sell them to some shops. These women spent six to eight hours to get a meagre sum of INR 20. In addition to reduced income, the fishermen were affected with social stigma that has influenced them to move away from fishing. A majority (90 per cent) of fishermen work in other sectors to supplement their income during lean period (see table 6.1). Ten per cent had completely shifted to government jobs as observed in two communities namely –Gorichakkana halli and Nellisara ( fig 1.1 ) where the youth were educated and awareness levels on other options yielding better remunerative returns were high. However, there were very few programs to promote the skills of the fishermen and their families.

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Table 6.1: Diversification Details

Number of families 10 35 5

Agriculture Agricultural labour Baby sitting, garage, and construction labour. Petty shop Working as fishing labour 10 Nothing 40 Total 100 Source: Based on Field Survey, February 2008

7. Development of Fisheries Fisheries is a state subject under the Indian constitution, hence the primary responsibility of fisheries administration and management of developmental programmes rests with the state governments. However, Government of India provides financial assistance to the states for different schemes out of the plan funds that are provided through state fisheries department, fisheries cooperatives and development corporations. Apart from these, the Government of India has been promoting export development through various Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA) and Brackishwater Fisheries Development Agency (BFDA). The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC), which was assisting mainly agricultural cooperative sector until 1975, later started providing assistance to other allied sectors such as fisheries. The NCDC provided assistance under its Integrated Fisheries Development Projects wherein all activities from production to final marketing were integrated with forward and backward linkages. The main components of such projects were fishing inputs, infrastructure facilities, marketing support, project management, extension, training, computerization etc. Under these projects special emphasis was laid on training of employees, education of members and creation of infrastructure for production, storage, processing and marketing of fish. During the study it was observed that efforts to develop fisheries were not integrated with activities of other sectors, for example water or irrigation. As a result, decisions made by the Water Resources Department did not take into consideration the needs of the fisheries sector while releasing water for irrigation purposes. This is a major drawback for fisheries in the TBSB as irrigation and drinking water gets the priority. The government should take note of the fact that fisheries is a non-consumptive use and efforts to promote fisheries in TBSB can only increase the productivity of water without affecting other sectors.

7.1.

Department of Fisheries

The Department of Fisheries of the Government of Karnataka, under the Secretary for Animal Husbandry and Fisheries was established in 1958 with an objective to promote both marine and inland fish production and proper utilization of resources. The policies and developmental schemes of the government are implemented through the Department of Fisheries, apart from

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maintaining a data bank of resources, production and investment. A Secretary heads the Department of Fisheries at the state level, has zonal offices, followed by district level directors. The Tungabhadra Basin has two zonal offices, one each in Shimoga – covering Tunga and Bhadra rivers and another at Bellary for Tungabhadra River. The organizational chart of a zonal office is shown in Fig 7.1. Fig 7.1: Zonal Offices – Bellary and Shimoga Fisheries Departments in the TB Basin

Bellary Zonal office

Bellary Division office

Shimoga Zonal Office

Raichur Division office

Production unit – 1 Bund breeding BRP

Shimoga divistion office

Production unit – 2 Gajanur fish production farm (Fisheries Department) UTP

Fig 7.2: Organizational chart of the Department of Fisheries Director

Senior Deputy Director

Senior Assistant Director of Fisheries – District level

Sub-Divisional offices Assistant Director of Fisheries Taluk Level

Senior Supervisor

Junior Supervisor

31

Chickmagalore Division office

Production unit - 3 Chickmagalore (ZP)

STRIVER Task Report No. 9.5

The Karnataka Fisheries Development Corporation was established the 1971 under the Indian Company’s Act 1956. The corporation is engaged in activities like ice production, cold storage plants, , besides marketing of frozen fish. A comprehensive policy for tendering out fish catch in tanks, reservoirs, and rivers has been formulated in 19977, and later amended in 2005. As per these amendments, the tanks are supposed to bne leased out to the following in the order of priority listed below: • • • •

Water Users Associations formed under Jalasamvardhana Yojana Sangha Registered Fisheries Cooperative Societies Unemployed fisheries graduates Registered water users cooperatives and other societies/institutions

The Karnataka Cooperative Fisheries Federation was formed with the objectives of development of fisheries in tanks and reservoirs through fishermen cooperative societies, who are members of the federation by stocking quality fingerlings and marketing of fish through retail outlets and livelihoods improvement of the inland fisherman. National Cooperative Development Corporation has funded Integrated Fisheries Development Project, which was being implemented in the districts of Raichur, Bellary, Shimoga, Davangere and Haveri. The Assistant Registrar of Co-operative Societies plays a key role at micro level to facilitate fisherman cooperative societies’ formation and its functions. Some of the key activities that he monitors are: a) Fisherman has to pay fixed money (INR100-150 across the societies) as one time membership fee to their society. b) Based on the license fee fixed by the Department of Fisheries, each member has to pay fixed annual license fee to the society (e.g, In case of Hale Ayodhya fisherman cooperative society has paid a license fee (through highest bidding process) of INR 12,000 for a period of 5 years. This was effective from the year 2004 for a river stretch of around 40 km in the down stream of TB dam. In turn, the society charges a license fee of INR 120 per year for every fisherman family to catch fish in this stretch of the river. The fisherman has no regulations on catching the quantity of fish within the society’s jurisdiction and usually, fishermen also do not violate the norms. c) Government Subsidies: - One-time provision of 4 kg of net per Scheduled Caste family. But a fisherman has to pay separately for border ropes, led for weigh-down the net in the water, topborder rope and thermo coal pieces to float the net. - One-time subsidy of INR 2000 to buy a bicycle and 50 per cent subsidy (subject to a maximum limit of Rs 1,250 per head) for the purchase of insulated boxes for Scheduled Caste family, for transport and selling of fish in hygiene condition - Some of the other fishermen Welfare schemes are: a) Group Accident Scheme, b) CSS National Welfare Fund for Fishermen Development of Model Fishermen Villages, c) HUDCO sponsored Matsyashraya Scheme (under this scheme housing grants are provided for five families every year)

7

Government Order No. AHF 52 SFM 95 dated 09-06-1997 and amendments have been issued for the above order vide Government order No/AHF/166/SFS/2004 dated 15/01/2005 and 04/05/2005.

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7.2.

Tungabhadra Board

Tungabhadra Board Board (TB Board) constituted in October 1953, is an autonomous body, which does not fall under the purview of the Department of Fisheries.

Chairman, TB Board

Member (AP)

Member (GOK)

Member (GOI)

Secretary (GOI)

Fishries wing Fig 7.3: Organizational chart of TB Board

The Government of India appoints the Chairman with four members as representatives from Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Board has various wings, and fisheries is one among them. The fisheries wing is responsible for management of fisheries in the TB reservoir only. Fisheries wing, TB Board Fisheries Wing in the TB Board is headed by the Secretary and is responsible for timely completion of the approved projects, its maintenance and oversee distribution of benefits to the states, granting of lease of fisheries in the reservoir and in the main canal. Few other responsibilities include, produce and market sale of quality fish seeds and ice and fishnets. Leasing of reservoir to the FCS, maintenance of fish farms, ice plant and FNMP. Secretary (GOI), TB Board

Fisheries Development Officer (GOK), TB Borad

Inspector of Fisheries (GOK)

Inspector of Fisheries (GOAP)

Operator (GOK)

Fig 7.4: Organisation Chart of Fisheries Wing, TB Board

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Assistant Manager (GOK)

STRIVER Task Report No. 9.5

7.2.1. Development Activities Within TBSB, developments of fisheries are based on two types of supportive structures, one by the government agencies and another by traditional process practiced by fisherman along the river. The following facilities are provided for inland fishermen through various developmental schemes of the government: a) Assistance for integrated inland fisheries development, provision of capital investment and loans to fishermen cooperative societies through National Cooperative Development Corporation b) Providing to assistance to construct fishponds in saline and water logging areas of in the irrigated belts c) Promoting private fish ponds d) Assistance to fishermen to purchase fish catching gadgets. e) Construction of houses for needy fishermen families under Matsyashraya, f) Assistance to construct fish market, purchase of bike, cycle and ice-box. 7.2.2. Fish Seed Production and Rearing Centres Department of fisheries has established fish seed production and rearing farms and taluk level nurseries to develop infrastructure for producing required quantities of fish seed for stocking in tanks, ponds and reservoirs. At present there are 55 fish seed production and rearing farms (under the control of State Department, ZP and Fish Farmers Development Agencies) and 63 taluk level nurseries. The government also encouraging the establishment of private fish seed production and rearing farms by providing subsidies. For improving the utilisation of fish, the Government of Karnataka has initiated social and infrastructure development programmes since 1980s. It has established facilities for modern methods of preservation, storage and processing. The Karnataka Fisheries Development Corporation established cold-chain marketing system in 1980s to distribute fresh and iced fish to interior markets, and through refrigerated trucks and cold storages to the interior urban markets. 7.2.3. Fishermen Co-operative Societies To ensure proper welfare, the Fisheries Department promoted the formation of Fishermen Cooperative Societies (FCS). FCSs can be formed by registering under the Co-operative Society’s Act 1956, in TBSB, 57 FCS were registered in the riverine systems and 14 in the Reservoir fisheries (Table 7.1). During the study, interactions were held with 8 societies to understand their roles, functions and constraints. It was observed that the dynamics at which the societies worked depended largely on sources, location and year of society formation. The rules evolved were location specific.

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Table 7.1: Fishing Co-operative Societies in TBSB Districts FCS Riverine Reservoirs Chickamaglur 7 1 Shimoga 18 4 Davanagere 2 Haveri NA Bellary 13 3 Raichur 12 1 Koppal 7 3 Total 57 14 Source: Compiled from various sources and field work There were seven active FCS in the Tungabhadra reservoir. Tungabhadra Fishermen’s Society - EV society camp was one of the oldest societies formed in 1964. With the introduction of the Tender system there has been an increase in the tender amount each year that has led to more involvement of middlemen and conflicts among the fishing societies. While this situation prevails in TBRP, in Devarabilikere, the society with the members and representatives from seven surrounding villages is functioning well with well laid out rules. This society does not allow use of Alivinet in the reservoir, as it would affect the livelihoods of small fishermen. However, in Shanthisagara reservoir, the situation was completely different where the society is currently inactive although it was one of the oldest formed in 1956. There was en effort to raise the fingerlings through the society by raising loans and paying to the department three years ago. But with poor rainfall, the reservoir dried up and the society underwent huge loss, forcing the fishermen to migrate to far off places. Kampli Fishermen Society, registered in 1973 was a well-established society with a funds amounting to INR 200,000 and has provided considerable benefits to the fisher folk. Society as a bid winner, fixed price of licence for fishing in riverine course upto 90 km downstream. The society had good institutional arrangements with documentation of fishermen, fishing type, nets used etc and are supposed to abide by certain rules while fishing; 1)License cannot be exchanged, 2) Fishermen to work in allocated areas, 3) Fishermen were not permitted to to fish during breeding season and not to use dynamite in the river. Violation of any rules attracted legal action and penalties. From the funds it generated, the society procured fishing gear and supported weaker sections of fishing community. An active society with new ideas tried to coordinate marketing fish with a brand name but did not succeed, but remain enthusiastic and are looking for better options of improvement in fish marketing and processing. Department of Fisheries can identify such societies and empower them with further skills. With respect to Tank based societies, there was not much of a problem as the rules were quite clear amongst the fishermen societies. In few communities, fishermen expected government support in leasing tanks only to the fishing communities that would secure their livelihoods and avoid middlement. Other problems like poor infrastructure facilities like storage, access to markets etc.

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Across societies, it was observed that, Government support was restricted to provision of some subsidies in the form of nets, bicycles, houses through state housing schemes. The schemes were targeted towards a particular socio-economic group (scheduled castes) and the beneficiaries were identified by the fisheries co-operative societies. In addition, the Department of Fisheries had a scheme each year to raise fingerlings and release into the water bodies. Often these activities did not involve the fishermen or the FCS.

8. Major Challenges in Fisheries Development 8.1.

Declining trend in Production

Fish production in TBSB has declined due to various constraints but has scope for improvement (See Table 8.1). The local and regional markets based in the basin, imports fish from neighboring states (to the tune of 10 tons on weekends and 5 tons on other days). Tungabhadra reservoir has the highest water spread area and supports highest number of fishing communities with good potential for fish rearing. The reasons indicated for decline by the fishermen were - inadequate quantity of fingerlings released by the Department of Fisheries, increase in illegal fishing, production of fish seed in government nurseries is far below than the actual demand, pollution from industries and dynamite operation in river stretches. Table 8.1: Fish production in TB Basin from 2000-01 to 2004-05

Districts Bellary Chickmagalur Davanagere Haveri Koppal Raichur Shimoga Total

2000-01 10394.99 4302.99 4079.65 3102.91 3324.22 3409.92 12573.71 41188.39

Fish production in Metric tonnes 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 7660.57 6339.79 5736.53 4155.99 2796.99 2399.76 3801.49 2906.49 2700.36 2444.91 739.91 1499.46 2382.22 1559.74 1300.39 3433.92 2597.92 1611.44 9297.71 5006.71 5455.42 33176.81 21947.55 20703.36

2004-05 7667.76 2838.92 2641.47 2906.22 1400.81 2250.52 5932.85 25638.55

Source: Statistical Bulletin of Fisheries 2004-05, Department of Fisheries, GOK

The impacts due to declining production are serious and affect livelihoods. High demand for fingerlings has lead to entry of private sector, which has resulted in corruption. Public water bodies like reservoir and river rarely gets required fish seed and results in underproduction of water bodies. Less production automatically results in lower catches per fishermen. To maximize his individual catch, he resorts to over fishing does not keep in mind the sustainability of fish stock. Apart from this, lower catch forces average fisherman to be trapped permanently to the moneylender and forced to sell for lower prices perpetually. There is a need for ensuring accountability processes for improvement in fisheries production in TBSB.

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8.2.

Lack of Integrated Approach

The various departments including Fisheires, Irrigiation and Agriculture did not have a common strategy or management to address the problems and needs of respective sectors. The State Water Policy does not specify the how the needs of various sectors can be addressed simulatanourlsy. The Iririgation Department controls the water management and does not consider allocating water for fisheries as a priority. Implementation of IWRM initiatives in TBSB is one way to keep a balance of the needs of various sectors. Improvement of livelihoods is part of IWRM principles, and any attempts to implemnent IWRM can also ensure the development of Fisheries sector in the region ,

8.3.

Government Benefit Schemes and Small-scalefishermen

Government has various schemes to meet the requirements of the fisherment. However, during field work it was observed that benefits of the various schemes did not reach the vulnerable groups, especially, small-scalefishermen ( Table 8.3). As the schemes were routed through the societies that were usually dominated by the rural elite, favouritism was prominent. With poor accountability and transparency, there was scope for misuse of funds. It was observed that certain schemes were meant to certain socially depreived classes (Scheduled Caste) and the fishing communities were not eligible to apply to these schemes. The benefits (cycles, nets etc) from these schemes were not actually used by the beneficiaries, instead were sold to the fishermen or other people. The survey indicated that majority of the marjinal fishermen (82 percent) did not receive any kind of support/benefits from the government. It is necessary that the policies should be framed towards targeting weaker section / marjinal fishermen in order to improve their livelihood and quality of life. Table 8.2: Benefits received from Government Benefits Per cent Cycle and house 3 Nets 1 Cycle, house and nets 3 Cycle, house and loan 1 House 9 Seeds at subsidized rates 1 Not received 82 Source: Based on Survey

8.4.

Skill Upgradation and Training

Training provided by the Department of Fisheries mainly focused on methods of fishing and related aspects. Fishing being the traditional occupation, the training was not of much help to the fishermen. Fishermen preferred skill development programmes in fish processing, particularly in making value added products like fish and prawn pickles, fish paste, fish chips to cater urban demands. As major quantity of such products comes from small-scale home industries, training women was considered important.

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8.5.

Linkages

Marketing - Access to markets due to long distance was a major problem that was observed during the fieldwork. For instance, fishing community in Nellisara village indicated that the distance from the village and town was distant and fish would decompose if not sold on time, Lack of storage facilities and poor networking were other constraints, which force them to sell at low prices. This applies to many other fishing communities who were spread across the basin. If better infrastructure facilities are provided to preserve fish, fish could be sold at bigger markets. In addition, fishermen were largely dependent on the middlemen for credit. Dependency on the middlemen makes it inevitable for the fishermen to come out of the vicious cycle of debt and also to sell the fish at low prices. However, Nellisara village was a exception had access to bank loans and fishermen availed this facility.

8.6.

Conflicts

Conflicts were common among various sectors and the issues were related to water sharing, pollution, change in institutional arrangements and less release of fingerlings (see Table 8.4). These problems varied in terms of intensity across the basin. Conflicts among fishermen were mainly due to deriving benefits from the department. Societies that were established early were in a dominating position to get schemes and also to allocate them to people of their choice. This caused tension amongst the fishing communities and led to establishment of new societies. For instance in Hulagi, terms of contract and sharing of the river creates conflict due to poor clarity. Fishermen in Hulagi who have been traditionally fishing for a stretch of 35 kms from Hulagi to Kampli were now restricted to fish for 10 kms. The stretch is shared between Hulagi and Kampli society. Hulagi society demands for their initial right of obtaining lease for 15 kms, which, has not been sanctioned as yet. Table 8.3: Conflicts Conflicts Sectoral conflicts Industry and Fishing community Agriculture and Fishing community Department and Fishing communities

Locations

Reasons

Medleri, Hulagi, Hale Ayodhya

Pollution

Mandagaddhe, Nellisara

Water sharing Pollution Tender system Less release of fingerlings Benefits unsatisfactory Schemes not fishermen friendly

Hospet regarding tender Hulagi village and Department regarding leasing river stretch Hale Ayodya for schemes Conflicts within the community Conflicts among Tungabhadra stretch fishermen societies Societies in the TB reservoir Kampli and Hale Ayodhya – riverine fishing Kampli and Tekkalakote Source: Based on Survey

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Change to tender system Domination by the old society No accountability by the society Stringent regulations by the society No benefits from the Society

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8.7.

Industrial pollution

Pollution from industries located on the riverbank is one of the major factors affecting fishermen livelihood. The industries discharge effluents into the river, which includes heavy metals, affecting breeding and also leading to fish kill. Fishermen opined that during such discharges, particularly in summer when the water flow is less, 25 per cent of the fish population die. Instances of fish kill were prominent at different stretches of the river, for an instance, in Hale Ayodhya, in 2004, fish kill was very intense, where the fishing communities were unable to fish for the whole year. There are documentations on the composition of fish species that has been reducing /extinct over the years. During the field study many fishermen expressed concern over the increasing use of chemical, fertilizers in agriculture. Several stretches of the river are polluted affecting around 75 villages. 47 per cent of fishermen indicated that water was polluted due to pollution and fish kills had negative impacts in terms of health and reduced income - 26 per cent, while some had a combination of health, reduced income and also witnessed fish kills – 9 percent. 44 per cent of the fishermen felt that it was the responsibility of the government to clean the river while 20 per cent felt it should be the responsibility of the polluters.

8.8.

Dynamite Operation

Stretches of the river face threat by some groups of people who illegally blast dynamite. The purpose is to catch fish at one go (20-30 kgs). Dynamite blast kills all the fish, particularly the small ones and the eggs. The blast occurs 2-3 times in a week in 10 locations across the river. Only partial fish can be collected in the process, remaining fish decomposes giving bad stench and pollute the river and ecosystems. Although there have been many conflicts with these groups and also complaints to the department, the problem remains. Irrespective of the Fisheries Acts placing a ban on such activitites, the issue remains. The Indian Fisheries Act 1897 empowers the state governments to make rules for the introduction of conservancy measures and licensing system. The Mysore Game and Fish Preservation Regulation 1901 applicable to old Mysore districts empowers the government to prohibit poisoning or use of explosives in any stream or lake and declare closed seasons. The district forest officer with the approval of the district commissioner (head of the district) is authorised to declare any river stream, pond, lake, tank or other water body to be closed to fishing during any year or during the spawning season. The regulation also prohibits the use of dynamite or deleterious substances and the use of nets having mesh of less than two inches in perennial streams (Gadgil, 2001).

8.9.

Deteriorating Tanks

Although fishing in Tanks form a major source of livelihoods for the fishermen, tanks have deteriorated in numbers due to neglect. Although tank fishing is comparatively more secure financially and physically than river fishing, it still remains neglected. Fishermen in most of the places were unable to invest due to lack of funds inviting middlemen. However, efforts are on but are minimal where youth from the fishing communities are giving subsidies to practice aquaculture. It would be useful if fishing in the tanks were to be restricted to the fishermen in the villages only. This way, the livelihoods of small fishermen could be protected. Panchayats should take up the fisheries development in village tanks in co-operation with the Fisheries Department and the Fisheries Co-operative Societies.

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9. Development of Fisheries as a livelihood option 9.1 Women and fisheries 1. Education and training: The low literacy status amongst women restricts accquiring proper skills. It is important to design training programs that suits women. Besides, extension services are dominated by males, and male-female contact is not allowed socially. They should be conducted close to villages or homesteads, made simple with the use of more visual aids for the benefit of women who are not literate and organized during the day when women are free from household chores. 2. Physical mobility: Women in developing countries are not permitted to work outside the homesteads or with men folk. This is closely linked to religion, class or caste to which the household belongs. Such socio-cultural restrictions limit women’s contribution to household income and narrow down options for employment and income sources. 3. Access to credit. In general, women have less access to credit or financing sources due to the various socio-cultural restrictions and low literacy. Lack of legal ownership over land makes it difficult to procure loans from banks or other formal credit facilities. 4. Lack of recognition: Research has not adequately documented women’s contribution to the economy. Poor documentation is one of the reasons for lack of gender senstiveness in government policies and programs. Benefits of women’s participation in aquaculture On the contrary, women’s participation is changing with the mounting pressure on land and water resources, environmental degradation, out-migration of male family members and increasing rural poverty. Integrating gender in aquaculture: •

benefits women through an increase in household income and improvement in nutrition (practical needs/efficiency goal);

•

helps women gain control over their own livelihoods and improve their status both within the household and the community (strategic needs/empowerment).

•

Improved access to income and livelihood options

•

Increased fish availability for family consumption, an important source of animal protein for poor households

• •

Higher household income due to added human capital inputs in aquaculture Increased participation in various decision-making processes within the family.

To ensure better involvement of women in aquaculture development as well as improve the economic condition of women, the following aspects are to be considered: •

A better understanding of the existing gender relations in the community and the household must be gained by institutions/organisations working for the development of aquaculture. Participatory technology development offers more scope to incorporate women's experiences.

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•

Successful cases of women's involvement in aquaculture can be emphasised. Aquaculture training and extension efforts should be improved by taking a more holistic approach that encompasses women's time use, household responsibilities, literacy levels, as well as all aspects of their daily chores.

•

Development of indicators to ensure that the involvement of women is monitored on a regular basis so that their activities or participation in aquaculture can be re-focused regularly.

•

Even though women are the ones who do the retail marketing of fish in many of the Southeast Asian countries, their information on market is very limited. A mechanism is necessary to expose women to more extensive market information and to link them to a wider market network.

9.2.

Building capacities and skill up gradation

Fisheries have definitely proved to be an important sector supporting livelihoods of a large population directly and indirectly. However, it was observed that this sector largely supported the fishermen at a subsistence level but had a large scope for improvement by building capacities through skill up gradation and empowerment. Small interventions can have a larger impact on their quality of life and secure their livelihoods. It is important that the trainings are focused and need based. As stated earlier, fishermen preferred to improve their economic status through upgrading themselves with value addition options. It would be important to organize meetings where the fishermen are involved wherein they could come up with suggestions about their requirements. For instance – Pond fishing had taken off very well in Raichur district where salinity is a serious issue, which may not be applicable in other parts of the basin. However, fishermen are poor and cannot undertake aquaculture programmes without financial aid. 9.2.1. Suitable Options 1. Entrepreneurship development – Rearing fingerlings, Tank fishing, Private Pond fishing etc - There is shortage of fish seed production although the techniques of fish seed collection have been improved and several new centers established. Although demonstrations by extension agencies of the States and Central Government, small farmers do not have enough resources and cannot afford to undertake the risks involved in fish culture enterprises. As economic feasibility is evident, it is important that commercial entrepreneurs amongst the fishing communities take up aquaculture and seed production. 2. Value addition through fish processing units, training in catering was seen as most relevant options to engage women in particular. 3. Provide scientific information and technical support regularly. 4. Financial Aid with accountability and ensuring fair distribution. 5. Involving younger generation in infrastructure development to promote marketing

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9.3.

Establishing market linkages

Establishing market linkages to ensure that the benefits are accrued by the fishermen directly is important as the fishermen are at the mercy of the middlemen. The fishermen are pushed to further insecurities due to debt trap with the middlemen. Providing the fishermen with adequate access to finances to support them would liberate them from middlemen. (1) Establishing markets with supportive storage facilities would ensure the quality of fish and option for better price. It was observed that more than 70 per cent of the fishermen did not have any access to cold storage facilities, which forced them to sell the fish at lower prices. Cold storage facilities and ice factories would aid in safely transporting fish to long distances and to reach urban markets. It is also important to build markets keeping in view the location of the fishing communities and proximity making it convenient for direct selling and storage. Improvement in hygienic way of handling fish for better pricing is another important dimension that needs attention. Linking up with city based marketing outlets – Reliance, Foodworld, smart, e-choupal and others would be another vital option. None of the fishermen had any direct linkages with city based marketing outlets. As discussed earlier, in the TB basin, demand for one particular species ‘Pabda’ that reached the Calcutta market would be sold at INR250 but purchased at a meager sum between INR 30-45 from the fishermen. Fish obtained from river is of high demand and it would be useful to work on providing supportive mechanisms to endure the quality and transportation to the city based outlets.

9.4.

Build 3 tier structures for fisherman cooperatives/vertical corporations

Social mobilization is confined to large-scale with limited role for the small fishermen and issues encountered vary at times. Setting up a 3-tier structure for fishermen co-operative would aid in better mobilization of resources to meet the requirements of the fishermen communities. Education and awareness creation are to be incorporated for empowering them with disaster preparedness, approach to resolving local conflicts, legal aspects and alternatives in income generating activities.

9.5.

Basin level fisherman cooperatives, to support all round development of their livelihoods on a full cycle basis

Fisheries in the TBSB contribute to livelihoods in various ways, as a source of food, income, social benefits and reduced vulnerability to poverty. It also provides opportunities to fisher folk and women in particular. However, the situation across the communities is very complex and dynamic. Fishing practices in the basin are dealt in detail across the communities, sources, location etc. However, largely, the fishing community is a poor and vulnerable community whose livelihoods are subject to external influences like environmental degradation, poor legal framework, weather conditions, and pollution as a result of poor water management, inadequate institutional arrangements and volatile markets. It is important to effectively manage and tap the potential, as there is large scope for improvement to recognize importance of fisheries to livelihoods in the basin, to change approaches and ensure that fisheries are sustainable.

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9.6. Policy and Management Initiatives The study suggests the following measures to be taken inorder to ensure that the poor, women and youth are included in any future development programs. At the national level: • Certain national policies mention “poverty alleviation” and “social equity” as one of the objectives but these need to be implemented at the field level. • There is a need to allocate national budgets for training of the poor and women in Fisheries. • To emphasize on co-ordination of relevant sectors to make it easy for the entry of poor into fisheries. At the regional level: •

Improved cooperation in Fisheries management, which should be oriented to strategic and cross-sectoral matters, such as capacity-building of the poor, co-ordination of relevant sectors, etc.

•

Exchange of experiences among researchers and managers on the formulation and enforcement of measures proposed in national policies.

•

Closer cooperation among national and regional governmental organizations and international and local NGOs in the promotion of participation of poor and small scale fishermen.

•

The water bodies should be divided into coherent management units, which should be the basis for planning of fisheries development, and integrated with other sectoral development plans.

At the local level •

To provide authority and improve capacity of community organizations or village councils to monitor the farms to make sure that regulation are enforced. To ensure the participation of fishermen in planning and implementation.

•

To strengthen the capacity of organizations in planning, monitoring, and data bases etc. at the local level. It can help to maintain simple databases at the local level for the benefit of the poor and agencies dealing with poverty reduction programs.

•

To organize/strengthen fish farmers associations at the local level

•

Priority should be given to the poor while issuing permits, rights and licenses for aquaculture.

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10. Conclusion The study showed that fisheries in Tungabahdra and other water bodies in the basin supported the livelihoods of a siginificant percent of population. However, the State Water Policy (and the water management plans in TBSB do not consider fishieries as a priority, though it does mention that water should be ensured for various sectors and to support livelihoods. The Water Resources Department controls and manages a majority of the water bodies within the TB and adjoin areas. As a consequence, Fisheries Department does not have the freedom and the competence to develop waterbodies to improve fisheries. The main focus in TBSB is on agriculture and managing water to meet the needs of irrigated farmers in addition to the domestic drinking water needs. The State Water Policy documents makes a mention of IWRM, but does not highlight the principle focusing on ensuring livelihoods of different groups that are dependent on water, in this case the fisheries. The Development initiatives by the Fisheries Department are also not integrated with the water management plans or other development activities of the water resources department or the Agriculture Department. This was evident from fieldwork where certain parts of the river where fishermen were dependent for fishing as a source of livelihood were completely dry during late winters. The reason was that the water release is conrolled by the water resources department who do not have much co-ordination with the fisheries department. This definitely shows the importance of IWRM to support sectors such as fisheries where a significant percentage of population are dependent on fishing for their livelihoods. Though Agriculture supports majority of the landless and poor in TB, fisheries is also an important source of livelihood and a means to improve to water productivityu and water use efficiency. Non-consumptive use nature of fisheries can help to improve the productivity without actually competing with other water users. A number of policies and institutions already exist in TBSB that can facilitate the entry of poor, women and youth into fisheries. What is needed is an integrated framework where the relevant polices, departments (state and local agencies) and programs can be pulled together to facilitate the access of the poor to fisheries. A number of measures can be initated at the local level, for example, improving the water boides, issuing licenses only to small scale and traditional fishermen who operate the fish themselves and pioritizing the poor, developing local co-operative insurance schemes to include poor, legitimizing community networks, increasing training programs etc. Security of tenure is an important issue and fishermen are concerned about the rights to access and use common waters. The contexts of the poor are diverse and need to be addressed in a holisitic and systems approach in future fisheries development programs.

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Annex Annex 1: District wise Fishermen population in the TB River basin District Fishermen Population Full time involved Fishermen Male Female Total Male Female Total Chikamagalore 4642 2127 6769 985 335 1320 Shimoga 15432 13735 29167 2493 898 3391 Davanagere 8726 8343 17069 1830 242 2073 Haveri 8379 594 8973 1458 225 1684 Bellary 22400 19380 41780 10930 2990 13920 Koppal 7545 7434 14978 5934 3788 9721 Raichur 7777 7474 15251 1333 586 1919 Total 74901 59087 133987 23630 9064 34028 Source: Compiled from Fisheries Department

Annex 2: Labour are given monthly salary and perks – One Group (20 labourers) Details Investment Recurring/O and M cost Cost Salary Rs.40,000 (Rs.2000/person/month) Food and Perks (Drink, Rs. 60,000 Beedi, travel, sickness) Contractor Rs. 80,000 (for location) Net Rs.1,00000 3 Boats Rs. 9000 (3000 each) Tar to seal the boats (skin Rs.150 was used in olden times) Total 1,09,000 1,80,150.00 Grand Total 2,89,150.00 Source: Compiled during Survey

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Reference:

National Water Policy, Government of India 2002 State Water Policy, Government of Karnataka, 2002 Karnataka Fisheries Statistics- 2005-06 Government of Karnataka. 2000. Statistical Bulletin of Fisheries 1998-99. Directorate of Fisheries, Government of Karnataka, Bangalore. EPW Research Foundation. 1998. National Accounts statistics in India 1950-51 to 1996-97 III Edition. Economic and Political Weekly Research Foundation, Mumbai. Government of Karnataka. 2000. Statistical Bulletin of Fisheries 1998-99. Directorate of Fisheries, Government of Karnataka, Bangalore. (http://www.ysr.in/userpressitem.aspx?id=35)

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