Gastronomy Tourism: A systematic review of studied concepts, findings and research methods used

Abstract: Gastronomy tourism has received much attention. Chengdu, in February 2010, was awarded “Gastronomy City” by UNESCO, becoming the second creative city of creative cities alliance. This systematic review identifies empirical studies of gastronomy tourism and discusses the concepts studies, the major findings and the research methods used. After reading more than 100 articles, the author wants to make research about gastronomy tourism of Chengdu, guided by synergetics on the basis of gastronomy tourism industry cluster division, helping to achieve the synergetic and sustainable development of Chengdu as one member of creative city network. Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 2 2. Background ................................................................................................................................... 2 2.1 Gastronomy ......................................................................................................................... 2 2.2 Gastronomy and Tourism .................................................................................................... 3 2.3 Gastronomy Tourism ........................................................................................................... 3 2.4 Gastronomy tourism and local Identity ............................................................................... 4 3. Method .......................................................................................................................................... 5 3.1 Planning the review ............................................................................................................. 5 3.2 Identification of research..................................................................................................... 5 3.3 Selection of Primary studies................................................................................................ 5 3.4 Classification....................................................................................................................... 6 3.5 Synthesis ............................................................................................................................. 6 4. Results ........................................................................................................................................... 6 4.1 Results of the first period .................................................................................................... 7 4.2 Results of the second period ............................................................................................... 7 4.3 Results of the third period ................................................................................................... 8 4.4 Results of the fourth period ................................................................................................. 8 5. Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 9 5.1 The necessity for study of gastronomy tourism .................................................................. 9 5.2 Some problems relating to gastronomy tourism in Chengdu ............................................ 10 5.3 Research method ............................................................................................................... 10 5.4 Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 10 6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 10 References ....................................................................................................................................... 11

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1. Introduction Foodservice researchers, for example, Hjalager (2002, 2003), Fields (2001), Richards (2002), and Scarpato (2002) have convincingly proposed that an increasing number of tourist destinations have become very sought-after because of their unique gastronomy. According to these researchers, these destinations have become the “foodie” holiday destinations, for example, Tuscany and Lyons in France, where food has become the central marketing feature of the tourist attraction (see also Intrepid Travel, 2004). Chengdu was awarded “Gastronomy City” by UNESCO in February 2010, and become the second creative city that has this title in the creative cities alliance. For Chengdu, “Gastronomy City” is not only a beautiful title, it can improve the international reputation of this city. This is not only limited to gastronomy activities, it means also that cultural creation and technological progress would be critical element for the city development to active a harmonious environment, developed economy and enlarged diversified gastronomy sector. Chengdu should make good use of this opportunity to promote the construction of creative city and the transformation of the city’s development. How to make the best of this chance? How to take advantage of the new brand—“Gastronomy City” to achieve the sustainable development of Chengdu as creative city? All these have critical research value. In this paper, I report on a systematic review of empirical studies of gastronomy tourism. My goal is to provide an overview of empirical studies within this field, what kinds of concepts have been explored, what the main findings are, and what research methods are used. More specifically we ask the following research questions: 1. What is gastronomy? 2. What is gastronomy tourism? 3. What are the major findings on gastronomy tourism? 4. What research methods have been used within the area so far?

2. Background 2.1 Gastronomy The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines gastronomy as the art of selecting, preparing, serving, and enjoying fine food. The classical definition of gastronomy is that it is the study of good eating, (see seminal work by J.A. Brillat-Savarin [1862]. Physiologie du Gout, ou Meditations de Gastronomie Transcendante. English translation by Fayette Robinson (2004), The Physiology of Taste or Transcendental Gastronomy), and is a corpus of knowledge with its roots in all major classical studies. “Culinaria” is a term which is often used synonymously with gastronomy, and it describes a country’s or region’s dishes, foods, and food preparation techniques, which give rise to the country’s or region’s distinctive cuisine. Hence, “Culinary Tourism,” was a term first suggested by Long (2003) in 1998, to express the idea of tourists’ experiencing other cultures through food. Wolf (2002) however, defined culinary and/or gastronomy tourism as travelling for the purpose of exploring and enjoying the destination’s food and beverage and to savour unique 2

and memorable gastronomy experiences. This definition finds support in an earlier research by Finkelstein(1989), Johns and Clarke(2001),and Kivela and Johns(2002) who suggest that feelings and memories make dining out when on holiday, very special and attractive, because these become transposed into experiences that are often very personal(Finkelstein, 1989). The paper Gastronomy Tourism: A Meaningful Travel Market Segment (Jaksa Kivela, John C. Crotts, 2005) ，pointed out that one of the key functions of the destination’s foodservice industries is the provision of those experiences and feelings that individuals believe they should be having while on holiday or while travelling. Now, gastronomy is often referred to exclusively as the art of cooking and good eating; however, this is only one part of this discipline. Others have suggested that gastronomy is the study of the relationship between culture and food. Someone who is seriously involved in gastronomy is often involved in tasting, preparing, experiencing, experimenting, researching, discovering, understanding, and writing about food, and, usually but not exclusively, about wine. It is important that a careful glance at gastronomy reveal that a. it is very closely related to, and at times is inseparable from, wine and other beverages and b. it often involves an understanding and appreciation of chemistry, literature, biology, geology, history, agronomy, anthropology, music, philosophy, psychology, and sociology. One can therefore argue that gastronomy is a complex, interdisciplinary activity. The first formal study of gastronomy was undertaken by Jean Anthelem Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826), which was most eloquently published in La Physiologie du gout in 1825 and has been translated numerous times into English as The Physiology of Taste. What Brillat-Savarin (1825/1994) has done is to pave the way for subsequent studies about the relationship between the senses and food and food and beverage consumption as a science. 2.2 Gastronomy and Tourism As many of the case studies show, a large number of destination use gastronomy as a tourism marketing tool, and many also use tourism to promote gastronomy. There are signs, however, that such marketing efforts are far less effective than they could be. Because of the separation of the gastronomic product, and many gastronomers do not understand tourism. What is needed is more knowledge of the gastronomy tourism and gastronomy tourism market. What food-related motivations make people want to travel? People travel for many reasons. Types of tourism motivators are as numerous as tourists themselves. Although the range of wants expressed by consumers is vast, many studies have tried to simplify this picture by looking at the needs that are expressed through individual wants. That means gastronomy and tourism have close relation. 2.3 Gastronomy Tourism The research about gastronomy tourism in foreign country starts early and systematically, and the main focus is the concept, function, application and development of gastronomy tourism. The in-depth research is about the wine. The research about wine tourism began in the 1990s, and the first meeting about wine was held in Australia in 1998. David J. Telfer (1999), Donald Getz, Graham Brown (2006) did some researches about wine tourism. Besides, Priscilla Boniface, 3

Barbara Santich and Kevin Nield Merin Kozak and so on made some earlier researches about gastronomy tourism. But, in china, research about gastronomy tourism is a newer field and mainly focuses on the diet culture, gastronomy function, cookbook, cooking tips. There is lack of systematic and integrated research theory about the comprehensive utilization of gastronomy tourism resources and the development gastronomic tourism products. The International Culinary Tourism Association’s (2006, p.1) Web site provides the most comprehensive appraisal of gastronomy and tourism; ※ almost 100 per cent of tourists dine out when travelling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local food and people; ※ dinning is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (and it was in this study also) ※ culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that effects all five human senses-sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch ※ there is a high positive connection between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and those interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festivals, and cultural attractions; ※ interest in cuisine when travelling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnic group; ※ unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of day and in any weather; ※ more often than not, gastronomy tourists are “explorers”; and ※ gastronomy is “experiential” as it satisfies new traveler demands for hands-on, interactive experiences. 2.4 Gastronomy tourism and local Identity As competition between tourism destinations increases, local culture is becoming an increasingly valuable source of new products and activities to attract and interest tourists. Gastronomy has a particularly important role to play in this, not only because food is central to the tourist experience, but also because gastronomy has become a significant source of identity formation in postmodern societies. More and more, “we are what we eat”, not just in the physical sense, but also because we identify with certain types of cuisine that we are encounter on holiday. As Hewison (1987) and other commentators have observed, heritage and nostalgia have provided a rich source of signs of identity, particularly in tourism. Food has also become an important factor in the search for identity. Food is one of our basic needs, so it is not surprising that it is also one of the most widespread markets of identity. We are what we eat, not just in a physiological sense, but also in a psychological and sociological sense as well. Food is a support for images that bind nations, and they may also be the source of negative “they-images” and stereotypes, such as “Frogs”, “Limeys” or “Krauts” (ERICarts 2000). Given the strong relationship between food and identity, it is not surprising that food becomes an important place market in tourism promotion. One of the basic reasons for this is the strong relationship between certain localities and certain types of food. As Hughes (1995:114) points out there is a “notion of a natural relationship between a region’s land, its climatic conditions and the character of food it produces. It is this geographical diversity which provides for the regional distinctiveness in culinary traditions and the evolution of a characteristic heritage.” This link between location and gastronomy has been used in a number of ways in tourism, including 4

promotional efforts based on distinctive or “typical” regional or national foods. Food can also be used as a means for guiding tourists around regions or countries. The close association of gastronomy and local, regional and national identities is apparently threatened by the process of globalization. As food such as “French fries” become available everywhere and previously seasonal foods are sold all year round there is an apparent dissociation of food and place.

3. Method The research method used is a systematic review, with demands placed on research questions, identification of research, selection process, appraisal, synthesis, and inferences. We now address each of these in turn. 3.1 Planning the review The study started by developing a protocol for the systematic review, specifying in advance the process and methods that I would apply. The protocol specified the research questions, the search strategy, criteria for inclusion and exclusion, and method of synthesis. The aim of the study was to provide an overview of the empirically studied methods for gastronomy tourism, answering the research questions listed in Section 1. 3.2 Identification of research A comprehensive, unbiased search is a fundamental factor that distinguishes a systematic review from a traditional review of the literature. My systematic search started with the identification of keywords and search terms. I used general keywords in the search in order to identify as many relevant papers as possible (see Table 1) Table 1 The key words of each time Time

Key Words

First Time

Gastronomy, managements

Second Time

UNESCO, Food, Food Gastronomy of Chengdu

Third Time

Cluster, Industrial Cluster, Tourism industry cluster, Competitiveness

Fourth Time

Gastronomy of France, Gastronomy city; Gastronomy and tourism; Gastronomy tourism; Gastronomy tourism of Chengdu; Creative city

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Tourism

,

Knowledge

of

Chengdu,

3.3 Selection of Primary studies The first step after the articles had been identified was to select the primary studies. According to the key words, abstracts of these articles were obtained and read and identified First stage: ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on gastronomy ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on tourism ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on knowledge management Second stage: ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on gastronomy ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on UNESCO ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on Gastronomy of Chengdu Third stage: ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on Industrial cluster ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on gastronomy tourism ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on competitiveness ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on Diamond Model Forth stage: ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on gastronomy tourism ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on creative city ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on gastronomy tourism of Chengdu ·Include if the focus of the paper is clearly on Identity and sustainable development of Creative City 3.4 Classification The articles were categorized into empirical studies and lessons learned report (may be belong to theory studies). The criterion for being accepted as an empirical study and not theory study was that the article had a section describing the research method and context. 3.5 Synthesis For the synthesis, firstly, I read all the theory studies to learn the basic knowledge about gastronomy, industrial cluster, gastronomy tourism, and creative city concepts. Secondly, abstracted concepts covered main findings and the research method for each empirical article to study the application of the concept and methods. Last, problems included in these articles were generalized. The articles for further study were categorized into four groups: ⊙Articles about gastronomy tourism ⊙Articles about industrial cluster ⊙Articles about creative city ⊙Articles about synergetic development

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4. Results Using the contents listed in section 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5, some results related to my study were obtained, such as the relationship between gastronomy and food; between tourism and gastronomy; between tourism and food production, and so on. Tourism is intimately linked to local food production. Tourists, just like local people, need to eat. If their demands can be met from local resources this can provide an important boost to the local economy. If not, tourism can add to the demand for imported foods, harming local agriculture, increasing imports and reducing the economic benefit of tourism. Strong linkages between tourism and local food production can, as Hjalager shows, create considerable added value; but poor linkages can be costly. Therefore, developing gastronomy tourism is critical and necessary. 4.1 Results of the first stage The results would be discussed on a perspective of four stages, for the first stage. I studied some basic knowledge about the key words: gastronomy, tourism, knowledge management, without any emphasis because of my lack of knowledge in this field. Therefore, in this space, all the papers are some theories. In the following part, the second, third, and fourth stages would be mainly discussed. 4.2 Results of the second stage During the second stage, food is my key word; there are lots of articles talking about the innovation about food Industry. (See Table 2) Study Field

Findings

Demand for innovation in food industry

In most cases, firms understand the areas to be improved, but do not have a technological solution in mind. Demand for innovation is mostly latent.

Innovation determinants in food machinery enterprises

In contrast with the trend of the industry investigated, great importance is attributed only to collaboration with universities and research centres. Network actors are not perceived as an important source of information for innovation, while universities, conferences and scientific papers are significant sources of information in explaining the share of total turnover from new products or processes and process innovations, respectively.

Value innovation in the functional foods industry

Value innovation initiatives in this industry are undertaken along two dimensions: breaking the dominant chain logic through new forms of collaboration and/or by crossing existing industry boundaries; breaking the dominant product focus through introducing original value concepts. These researches provide tools for managers in the food industry to question their value creation processes.

Package schemes innovations

The use of FOP labels is selective among companies and across food categories. Guideline daily allowance (GDA) labeling is more widely adopted than the traffic light labeling system (TLS). Both systems

nutrition in food

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have been more broadly adopted in target food categories when compared to non-targeted food categories

4.3 Results of the third stage The achievements in special research on the type of tourism cluster are few, needless to say the classification of gastronomy tourism industrial cluster. During the third stage, Industrial cluster is my key word. About this part, most papers are about industrial cluster partition and industrial cluster types. (See Table 3) All these will help me analyze the constitution of tourism industrial cluster. Study Field Types of Tourism Cluster

Findings The classification of tourism cluster contributes to identifying the tourism clusters with different development characteristic, development condition and development way and providing the basis for the sustainable development of the tourism cluster. The paper divides the type of tourism clusters according to the way of identifying industrial clusters and the research achievements and practice of tourism clusters from the different angles including the leading factors to promote tourism cluster in development, the connection between business and the organization structure in tourism clusters and the environment of tourism cluster. Now, the “leader+ Network” tourism cluster is popular.

The development of domestic modern services industrial cluster

The research in foreign and domestic indicate that cluster, as the space carrier and production organization form of industrial value chain, has become the effective organization form of modern services industry. The reason for the formation of modern service a industrial cluster is to get demand and supply benefit. The conditions of formation of modern service industrial cluster are: the economic development and evolution of industrial structure; sound infrastructure and institutional conditions; rich culture, the scale and quality of professional services talents……

The relationship between industrial cluster and competitiveness

Industrial cluster could improve the whole competitive ability of the industry, could strengthen the cooperation and collaboration of enterprises in the cluster, could strengthen the innovation ability of the region and enterprises and achieve the resources-shared

4.4 Results of the fourth stage In this part, some papers related to tourism and synergetic development were chosen. I planned to make synergetic analysis on the basis of dividing the gastronomy tourism industry cluster. Study fields Gastronomy Tourism

Findings Some problems exist in the gastronomy tourism of Chengdu: having 8

of Chengdu

certain local features, but the restaurants markets are mess; gastronomic products are similar, lack of cultural connotation; the supply process of gastronomic products are lack of participation, knowledge and interesting characters

Gastronomy Tourism of Chengdu

Gastronomy tourism is a new type of tourism. Chengdu is famous for its gastronomy tourism resources home and abroad. Research on the stage of Chengdu gastronomy and its historical, economic and environmental factors, which makes Chengdu gastronomy tourism has strongly attractive and competitive strength. It can help Chengdu tourism development healthily, constantly and harmoniously.

Study on synergetic development of urban-rural tourism based on sustainable development

Tourism is a highly comprehensive and correlative industry. It can play an important role in the development of the urban and rural economy and society. It can be a breakthrough and an effective approach to harmonize the development of the urban and rural economy and society. With the gradual development of tourism, the relationship between the urban-rural tourism has been connected. To achieve synergic development of the urban-rural tourism is a new approach and an inevitable choice to some certain degree. It is of significance for the improvement of the regional tourism competitiveness and the sustainable development of urban-rural tourism to strengthen the comprehensive coordination of urban-rural tourism, to achieve an effective integration of urban-rural tourism factors, to achieve mutual advantage complementation of the urban-rural areas and to try for the mutual development of the urban-rural tourism.

Development of Jining tourism industry based on synergetics theory

There is a reasonable mechanism that synergetics theory is applied in the development of regional tourism industry. It is the inevitable choice to carry out tourism synergy development for regional tourism industry’s development.

5. Discussion 5.1 The necessity for study of gastronomy tourism Gastronomy tourism is the result of social economic development and living standard improvement. Gastronomy has developed considerably through the ages, and there are numerous studies that chart the development of gastronomic styles and tastes over time. For example, Mennell (1985) traces the development of eating in England and France since the Middle Ages, and Parsa (1998) has summarized the development of Western cuisine in America. Rosario Scarpato examines the development of the concept of gastronomy in some detail. Scaparto argues that we can now talk about “gastronomy culture”. More recently, the serving and consumption of food has become a global industry, of which tourism is an important part. With the improvement of living standards, “eating” is not only the product that satisfies the basic 9

physical needs, but also one kind of symbol that enriches life. Making good use of the gastronomic resources and connecting gastronomy with tourism not only diversify the tourism products, but also improve the attractiveness of tourism. We can propagate local gastronomy by tourism, set the image of tourism by gastronomy. Chengdu was awarded “Gastronomy City” by UNESCO in February 2010, and become one member of creative cities alliance. For Chengdu, “Gastronomy City” is not only a beautiful title, we can regard it as the business card. We can use it to improve the international reputation of this city. Chengdu should make good use of this opportunity to promote the construction of a creative city and the transformation of the city’s development, to achieve the sustainable development of Chengdu as creative city. Then, Chengdu can be one permanent member of the creative city alliance and make more contribution to it.

5.2 Problems relating to gastronomy tourism in Chengdu The recognition and development for gastronomy tourism of Chengdu are obviously not enough, the further research is needed.(more detailed problems written in the former parts) Some papers could be found now are simple; more time must be spend in doing the research if I want to get the reasonable result. Moreover, about the constitution of gastronomy tourism industry cluster, there is not a clear division. There is not any research connecting the tourism industry cluster, synergetics and creative city with gastronomy tourism of Chengdu now. There is not any systematic research.

5.3 Research method Until now, methods often used in the related study are the following: data collection by online survey, by questionnaire; literature review; exploratory survey; qualitative methodology. In the paper “Research on Gastronomy Tourism of Chengdu”(Zhang Yuan, 2008) , the author explains the situation by actual survey. “ The Study on Synergetic Development of Urban- Rural Tourism based on Sustainable Development- A Case Study of Jinan” (Han zhiqiang, 2008) combines the theoretical analysis with empirical analysis, mainly adopts literature review, qualitative research, comparative research, empirical research, comprehensive and integrated research method, introducing the synergetics, sociology, economics, human geography and related subjects into the research.

5.4 Limitations At present, gastronomy tourism research is a new field, the materials and data about the foreign gastronomy and gastronomy tourism research are less; more effort should be made to collect the related materials and data. Meanwhile, my understanding for synergetics is not enough to make empirical research. At last, I am not familiar with some research methodology, even know little. In the beginning, I study the knowledge about gastronomy and tourism separately; therefore, I have not obtained enough materials about gastronomy tourism.

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6. Conclusion Until now, a clear understanding about the connotation of gastronomy tourism and the basic related knowledge were learned by reading the more than 100 papers. Meanwhile, some problems were discovered exist. Chengdu became one member of creative city network as “Gastronomy City” by UNESCO in February 2010. And in 2012, the UNESCO will check Chengdu city, to judge if this city has certain contribution to the development of gastronomy city, if it is qualified with the standard of creative city. That means, one city become one member of creative, it must develop continuously, must make certain contribution to this network of creative city. Chengdu, as a creative city, how to make good use the plentiful gastronomic resources, how to apply its geography location, how to achieve the synergetic development of elements of gastronomy tourism industry cluster are critical. All these need empirical researches to support.

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