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12th European Geoparks Conference National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni Geopark - Italy 4-7 September 2013

FIELD TRIP GUIDEBOOK Four itineraries through the geological and cultural heritage of National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni Geopark Edited by Aniello Aloia, Domenico Calcaterra, Domenico Guida and Renzo Valloni

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Edited by Aniello Aloia, Domenico Calcaterra, Domenico Guida and Renzo Valloni Contributors Aniello Aloia, Geopark Manager of the National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni European and Global Geopark - Italy Mariana Amato, Science Department of Cultivation Systems, Forestry and Environment, University of Basilicata - Italy Sandra Ascione, Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources (DISTAR), University of Naples - Italy Sergio Bravi, Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources (DISTAR), University of Naples - Italy Domenico Calcaterra, Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources (DISTAR), University of Naples - Italy; European Federation of Geologists - Belgium Simona Cafaro, Italian Speleologic Federation Pantaleone De Vita, Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources (DISTAR), University of Naples - Italy Sossio Del Prete, Italian Speleological Federation Umberto Del Vecchio, Italian Speleological Federation Francesco Fiorillo, Department of Geological and Environmental Studies (DSGA) University of Sannio - Italy Domenico Guida, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno; Cilento , Vallo di Diano and Alburni Geopark Scientific Committee - Italy Maurizio Lazzari, CNR-IBAM Potenza - Italy; Italian Association of Geology and Tourism (G&T) Paola Romano, Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources (DISTAR), University of Naples - Italy Marco Ruocco, Italian Speleological Federation Nicoletta Santangelo, Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources (DISTAR), University of Naples - Italy Alessio Valente, Department of Geological and Environmental Studies (DSGA) University of Sannio - Italy Renzo Valloni, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture (DICATeA), University of Parma - Italy Sebastiano Perriello Zampelli, Department of Earth Sciences, Environment and Resources (DISTAR), University of Naples - Italy Graphics and layout: National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni © 2013 Published by National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni ISBN 978-88-907281-2-9 Printed in July 2013 This documents may be cited as follows: Aloia A., Calcaterra D., Guida D., Valloni R. (Eds), 2013. Field Trip Guidebook - Four itineraries through the geological and cultural heritage of National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni Geopark . 12th European Geoparks Conference, National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni Geopark - Italy 4-7 September 2013, 61 p. isbn 978-88-907281-2-9

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Printed by Centro Grafico Meridionale s.r.l. Zona Ind.le - Ogliastro Cilento (SA) tel. 0974 844 039 www.tipografiacgm.com

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CONTENTS

Introduction.................................................................................................. 4 Geological Setting....................................................................... ................. 6 Geological Field Trip N. 1 - From the Capodifiume Spring to Castelcivita Caves (Bravi S., De Vita P., Del Prete S.)...........................................10 Geological Field Trip N. 2 - Bussento Hydro-Geomorphological Karst System (Aloia A., Del Vecchio U., Fiorillo F., Guida D.)...................... 22 Geological Boat Trip N. 3 - From Casal Velino to Camerota (Aloia A., Lazzari M., Rocco M., Valente A, Valloni R., Zampelli S.P.)..................32 Geological Field Trip N. 4 - From Vallo di Diano to Angel Caves (Santangelo N., Amato M., Ascione A., Cafaro S., Calcaterra D., Romano P.).............42 References..................................................................................................52 Glossary......................................................................................................58

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Introduction

The main purpose of the four trips is to insert the visits to the Geopark’s geological heritage within a frame where history, culture, natural beauty and museums mix. The participants will be introduced to living landscapes and to the relationship between cultural and natural heritage, that is to say, the relation between Man and Environment such that natural and cultural values are preserved by the rational and sustainable management. It will be shown the link between Geosites and population, namely between Man, Nature and Culture as an indivisible unicum (Aloia et al., 2010b; 2010c; 2011a; 2011b; 2012; 2013). This guide aims to be a tool of knowledge and an integration of the Proceedings of the 12th European Geoparks Conference. In its role as field guide of the Geopark this book illustrates four geological itineraries with the aim to highlight the Geosites of international value as a key to the understanding of the geological evolution of the central Mediterranean (Aloia et al., 2006; 2007; 2010a). Trips 1 and 4 will explore the fascinating Castelcivita and Angel Caves together with two World Heritage Sites Paestum and Certosa di Padula, trip 2 will browse the mystical karst system of the Bussento river and trip 3 will provide an overview of the entire coastal system of the Geopark (Fig. 1). The information in this guidebook is only for scientific and educational purposes. The authors do not assume liability, civil and/or penal, as the guide itself is a scientific description of some Geosites of the National Park and not an instruction book for hiking or other field activities to be carried out following the specialized literature and expert guides.

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Fig. 1. The four geological itineraries of the 12th European Geoparks Conference.

Field Trip N. 1 - From the Capodifiume Spring to Castelcivita Caves Field Trip N. 2 - Bussento Hydro-Geomorphological Karst System Boat Trip N. 3 - From Casal Velino to Camerota Field Trip N. 4 - From Vallo di Diano to Angel Caves

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Geological Setting The present-day geological setting of the central Mediterranean area is characterized by the presence of several fold-thrusted chains and paired foreland and back-arc areas. These geological features with their characteristically different age, stratigraphic architecture and tectonic setting are due to the convergent interaction between the Eurasian and Africarabian plates and specifically to the closure of an intermediate oceanic domain. The complex interaction between these two plates is recorded in the mountain belts of the circum-Mediterranean orogenic systems. In the southern Apennines and in the Geopark area (Fig. 2) the tectonic transport is mainly related to the final stage of the Alpine orogeny. Such collision affected several domains, marked by oceanic- and intermediate-crust basins and Bahama-type carbonate platforms. The main tectono-sedimentary events affecting the Appennine-Magrebian chain are found in the Cilento Geopark territory; they represent key geological features for the reconstruc-

Fig. 2. Simplified geological sketch map of Southern Italy. 1. Exstensional coastal and intra-Apennine alluvial-plain deposits; 2. Peri-Thyrrhenian volcanic units; 3. Foredeep clastic sequence; 4. Oceanic-basement chain; 5. Carbonate platform chain units; 6. Continental-basement chain units; 7. Apulia foreland carbonate platform (modified after Mostardini et al., 1988 ).

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tion of the geological evolution of the Southern Apennines and of other circum-Mediterranean mountain belts. In the Southern Apennines the tectonic transport is directed eastward and the fold-thrust belt is generally subdivided as shown in Figure 2. From West to East the principal structural domains are: Tyrrenian back-arc basin, Apennine chain, Bradanic foredeep, Apulia foreland . The chain represents the orographic expression of an accretionary wedge associated to a west-vergent subduction. The orogen includes several paleogeographic domains developed from Mesozoic to Cenozoic and deformed from Oligocene to Quaternary. It is generally accepted that the tectonic evolution of the Southern Apennines has been essentially controlled by the post-collisional flexure-hinge retreat on the Apulo-Adriatic lithospheric plate. As a consequence of this eastward migration a series of foredeep basins developed in front of the chain. At the same time smaller and shallower basins were formed on top of the advancing fold-thrust belt. A simplified transect oriented West-East includes the following paleogeographic domains: 1. internal oceanic-to-transitional Liguride-Sicilide basins (Bonardi et al., 1988), 2. Apennine carbonate platform; 3. Lagonegro-Molise continental basins and 4. Apulian carbonate platform. Their deformation during plate convergence and collision created the following tectonic units (Fig. 3). The Nord Calabrese (NC), Castelnuovo

Fig. 3. Stratigraphic architecture and regional tectonic setting of the Southern Apennines (after Sgrosso et al., 2010).

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Cilento (CC) and Sicilidi (AV) tectonic units (Fig. 3 and 4), respectively Eocene to Oligocene, Oligocene to early Miocene and Oligocene to early Miocene in age (collectively named Internal Units: UI), originate from the deformation of the Liguride-Sicilide basinal domain (Vitale, 2011). The Apennine carbonate platform includes shelf-interior and shelf-margin deposits, respectively corresponding to the Alburno Cervati Pollino (ACP) and Bulgheria Verbicaro (BV) tectonic units, spanning from Triassic to early Miocene. All these tectonic units show a stratigraphic transition to foredeep basinal settings during Oligocene to early Miocene for NC, during early Miocene for CC and AV and during early-middle Miocene for ACP and BV. Thrust-top basins were formed during late orogenic phases (Fig. 3 and 4) and specifically: Gruppo del Cilento (GC, early to late Miocene) on top of the Internal Units (UI) and Piaggine sandstones (PGN, late Miocene) on top of the Alburno-Cervati-Pollino (ACP) Unit (Aloia et al., 2012; 2012b).

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Fig. 4. Schematic geological map of National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni Geopark.

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Geological Field Trip N. 1 From the Capodifiume Spring to Castelcivita Caves Itinerary: length 80 km, duration 10 hours, difficulty low

Stop N. 1: Travertine roks and the ancient settlement of Poseidonia (by bus) Stop N.2: The Capodifiume karst spring (by foot) Stop N. 3: Meso-Cenozoic paleontological sites of the Vesole-Chianiello and Alburni mountains (by foot) Stop N. 4: The karst system of Castelcivita-Ausino (by foot)

Fig. 1.1. The four stops of Geological Field Trip N. 1 of the 12th European Geoparks Conference.

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Stops 1 and 2: The ancient Greeks - Mesozoic atolls connection The first part of the field trip takes the participants back in time and space and links the foundation and growth of a very important settlement of the Ancient Magna Graecia, called Poseidonia (Paestum since Roman times, 7th century BC - 7th century AD), to geological processes which occurred about two hundred million years before (Triassic period) in shallow oceanic waters under a tropical climate (Fig. 1.2). During the Mesozoic Era, highly productive carbonate factories extended over the Tethys palaeo-ocean. In the Miocene Epoch the collision between the African and European plates deformed the thick sedimentary record of these carbonate platforms, building the highest mountains of the southern Apennines and the major elevations of the Cilento Geopark. In the last million years, these limestones have been deeply karstified by groundwarter circulation. After a complex underground route the waters rich of dissolved carbonates emerged in the area of the huge Capodifiume spring depositing the travertine rocks that were used by ancient Greeks to build Poseidonia.

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Fig. 1.2. The natural and cultural heritage in a loop. Dissolution of Mesozoic organic coralline limestones and the precipitation from spring waters formed travertine rocks. The ancient Greeks quarried travertine to build Poseidonia, namely the town of Poseidon, the God of the Seas

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Stop N. 1 - Travertine rocks and the ancient settlement of Poseidonia In this panoramic stop it will be possible to observe the external wall (Fig. 1.3) of the ancient city of Poseidonia (nowadays Paestum) as well as a scene of the Greek temples. These historical remains will stimulate perceiving the connection between the development of ancient civilizations and availability of natural resources, in this case construction materials such as the travertine rocks. Due to its easy workability in regular blocks and to its high mechanical resistance, travertine was an ideal construction materials for the Greek settlement. The major civil and religious constructions of the ancient Poseidonia were built by travertine blocks and they are still standing up after two and half millennia. According to Cinque (2006) travertine rocks were deposited in three main phases from the middle to the upper Pleistocene, forming terraced surfaces elevated on the surrounding plain up to about 20 m. The flat surface on which Poseidonia was built formed after the last Interglacial transgression (upper Pleistocene); travertine deposition in the area continued until the late Holocene.

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Fig. 1.3. External walls of Poseidonia (7th century BC), constructed with travertine dimension stones, built over travertine tabular deposits.

Stop N. 2 - The Capodifiume karst spring The Capodifiume spring site (Fig. 1.4) is located 30 m asl on the western margin of a carbonate ridge elongated E-W that includes the reliefs of Mounts Vesole and Soprano. With a quite constant discharge of about 3.4 m3/s, the Capodifiume karst spring (N. 7 in Fig. 1.5) is among the most important ones of the Cilento Geopark. Its significance is enhanced both by the cultural heritages of its surroundings and by the peculiar hydrogeological complexity. Fig. 1.4. Capodifiume karst spring (cfr Fig. 1.5., spring 7). The complexity of the groundwater path of the Capodifiume karst spring arises from two amazing aspects. The first is an average discharge greater than that provided by the hydrological budget estimated for the hydrogeological basin of Mount Soprano and Mount Vesole. This observation led Allocca et al.(2007) to hypothesize a connection with the groundwater path of the Mount Cervati hydrogeological basin to the east (Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.5. Excerpt from the Hydrogeological Map of Southern Italy. Numbers refer to principal springs; N.7 is the Capodifiume spring of Fig. 1.4 (after Allocca et al., 2007).

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A further peculiarity is the brackish character of the groundwater, which prevents its drinking and agricultural use. Geochemical studies carried out on these karst waters (Fig. 1.6) revealed a mixing with fossil marine water trapped in the limestones during the last interglacial period when the sea-level was higher and in direct contact with the limestone mountain slopes. The water enrichment of calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2] due to karst processes followed by chemical precipitation at the outflow created the travertine deposits. These chemical rocks outcrop as huge tabular body in the alluvial plain facing the mountain slope (Fig. 1.7). Since historical times, the spring discharges were used to produce motive power for mills and they are still used for the production of electric energy.

Fig. 1.6. Chemical composition of the Capodifiume spring and other reference groundwaters (modified after Celico et al., 1982).

Fig. 1.7. Hydrogeological cross-section showing the Capodifiume spring and the travertine rock terrace (modified after Celico et al., 1982).

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Stop N. 3 - Meso-Cenozoic paleontological sites of the Vesole-Chianiello and Alburni mountains The Meso-Cenozoic sequence cropping out in the Alburni and Vesole-Chianiello mountains is a thick, shallow-water carbonate platform succession ranging from middle-upper Jurassic (lower slopes of Mount Forloso) to lower Miocene in age (Fig. 1.8). The main body of the carbonate sequence is constituted by Cretaceous, inner-shelf limestones; in both the lower and upper Cretaceous they contain Plattenkalktype deposits, sometimes considerably rich in well-differentiated and well-preserved plant and animal specimens (Aloia et al., 2012a). In the Mount Chianiello area these are the Campanian-Maastrichtian Mount Vesole shrimps-bearing fossil site (Bravi et al., 1999) and the Cenomanian, landplants-bearing Magliano Vetere deposits (Bravi et al., 2004). They both represent very shallow, coastal to intertidal environments containing a decapod crustaceans oligotypic fauna (Mount Vesole) and a coastal, pioneer-plants assemblage (Magliano Vetere) including Frenelopsis sp. and Sapindopsis sp. (Fig. 1.9).

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Fig. 1.8. The Mount Chianiello stratigraphic log with the Cenomanian land-plants deposits of Magliano Vetere.

Fig. 1.9. Sapindopsis sp. from the Magliano Vetere platy dolomite.

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In the Alburni mountains the Albian deposit outcropping near Petina contain fishes, Crustaceans as Alburnia Petinensis (Fig. 1.10; Bravi and Garassino, 1998), a new genus that is only found in this site, and land plants as Sagaria cilentana (Fig. 1.11; Bravi et al., 2010), one of the oldest primitive Angiosperm (Ranunculales) first reported from this Fig. 1.10. Alburnia petinensis (after Bravi and Gaarea. A middle Eocene fishrassino, 1998) from the Petina Plattenkalk. bearing fossil deposit is also present in the Ottati municipal area (Bravi and Schiattarella, 1986); it shows a monospecific assemblage with the Cyclopoma gigas Agassiz species (Fig. 1.12). The fishes, all in a juvenile stage of growth, lived in a coastal pond environment which acted as a nursery for young fishes. The Ottati site is the only fossil site in the Eocene of Southern Italy and hosts the same species (larger size) found in the Bolca fossil site (Province of Verona). The above mentioned fossil sites and specimens are well illustrated in the Ma-

Fig. 1.11. Sagaria cilentana (after Bravi et al., 2010) from the Petina Plattenkalk.

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Fig. 1.12. Cyclopoma gigas Agassiz from the Ottati fossil site.

gliano Vetere paleontological museum (Fig. 1.13 and 1.14). This institution is a multi-purpose educational-scientific museum center with collections and exhibitions of fossil materials for public entertainment and scientific uses (Fig. 1.12 and 1.13). The evolution of life on Earth is explained by means of the most significant specimen of the fossil deposits of Cilento. In the central hall a large diorama, entirely viable by groups of visitors, recreates a Cretaceous environment with real-size fauna and flora (Fig. 1.14) and summarizes the fossil record presented in the four exhibition rooms of the museum. A laboratory space offers the visitors the possibility to simulate the paleontologist’s activities on the microscope and of digging in the field.

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Fig. 1.13. A detail of an exhibit in the paleontological museum of Magliano Vetere.

Fig. 1.14. A view of the large diorama of Magliano Vetere’s paleontological museum that recreates an environment of the Cretaceous.

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Stop N. 4 - The karst system of Castelcivita-Ausino The Alburni massif (Fig. 1.15) is made up of Mesozoic and Tertiary carbonate sediments that favour karst processes and the development of epikarst and ipokarst morphologies. The karst system of Castelcivita-Ausino and the Mulino resurgence (74-95 m asl) are located at the south-western foothills of the Alburni massif, near the Calore river (Di Nocera et al., 1973). According to Cinque and

Fig. 1.15. South-western sector of the Alburni massif.

Piciocchi (1988) the Castelcivita-Ausino karst system (Fig. 1.16) was developed from the middle-late Pleistocene. The system presents different types of ipokarst morphologies, such as underground lakes, active and fossil phreatic caves and dripstones, strictly connected with the morpho-structural evolution of the massif and is considered an important example of the influence of karstic channels on groundwater circulation within a carbonate massif (Santangelo and Santo, 1997; Santo, 1993; Santangelo et al. 2005).

Fig. 1.16. Entrance of the Castelcivita cave.

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The presence of fossil and active phreatic levels (Fig. 1.17) is characteristic of the morpho-structural evolution of this sector of the Alburni massif (Di Nocera et al., 1972; Santo, 1993).

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Fig. 1.17. The Lago Sifone in the central sector of the Castelcivita cave (photo P. Fiorito).

Speleological exploration and hydrogeological research, carried out also with the aid of artificial tracers, allowed to recognize over 6000 m of galleries and to define the groundwater flow direction (Di Nocera et al., 1972; Santo, 1993; Del Prete, 2008; Fig. 1.18).

Fig. 1.18. Groundwater flow direction of the Castelcivita-Ausino karst system and Mulino resurgence (modified after Santo, 1993). 1) spring; 2) stations of flow measurement in riverbed; 3) flooded karst channels; 4) groundwater flow direction indicated by artificial tracers; 5) borehole; 6) watertable altitude; 7) flow direction along phreatic galleries; 8) colorant injection points; 9) bedding.

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The karst system of Castelcivita-Ausino is of great interest because of the important archaeological record (Piciocchi, 1972; 1973) and paleoenvironmental information preserved (Fig. 1.19, 1.20 and 1.21) such as the evidence of human presence dating back to the Paleolithic, i.e., between 40,000 and 31,000 years BP (Di Nocera et al., 1972; Gambassini Ed., 1997).

Fig. 1.19: Archaeological exposition at the entrance of the Castelcivita cave.

On the base of the radiometric dates and the archaeological findings the whole of the Castelcivita cave system can be placed in the Würm interpleniglacial I, corresponding to the upper part of Isotopic Stage 3 (Gambassini Ed., 1997); one of its most spectacular spots, known as the Great White Waterfall, is shown in Figure 1.22.

Fig. 1.21. Worked bone in the Gravettian level of the Ausino cave (after Di Nocera et al., 1972). Fig. 1.20. Stratigraphic section exposed at the entrance of the Castelcivita cave (after Fumanal, in Gambassini Ed., 1997).

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Fig. 1.22. The Great White Waterfall.

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Geological Field Trip N. 2 Bussento Hydro-Geomorphological Karst System Itinerary: length 75 km, duration 10 hours, difficulty low

Fig. 2.1. The four stops of Geological Field Trip N. 2 of the 12th European Geoparks Conference.

Stop N.1: San Severino di Centola (by bus) Stop N. 2: Caselle in Pittari, the upper Bussento karst system (by foot) Stop N. 3: Casaletto Spartano, Geodiversity-Biodiversity monitoring system (by foot) Stop N. 4: Morigerati, the lower Bussento resurgence-spring cave (by foot)

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STOP N. 1 - San Severino di Centola The Medieval fortified hamlet of San Severino (Fig. 2.2), abandoned since the end of 19th century, was built in that position to control the valley of the Mingardo river. The historical nucleus of San Severino is located on the northern slope of Mt. Bulgheria (Ascione and Romano, 1999; Ascione et al., 1997), made up of carbonates of the Campanian-Lucanian-Calabrian carbonate platform, ranging from upper Triassic to Eocene in age. In the area occupied by the Medieval hamlet, N-NW dipping thinly-bedded calcilutites and marly limestones crop out along with fine-grained scaglia rossa-like marly intercalations. The lower- middle part of the slope, elevated 100-150 m asl, is made up of thin-bedded sandstones ntercalated with clayey marls of the Bifurto Formation; these flysch-type rocks have a chaotic aspect and are mantled by a few meters-thick weathering cover. The stratified calcilutites are in contact with the underlying chaotic flysch deposits by means of an E-W oriented normal fault.

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Fig. 2.2. Panoramic view of San Severino di Centola (photo A. Guarracino).

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FIELD TRIP N. 2

Stop N. 2 - Caselle in Pittari, the upper Bussento karst system The Bussento river basin is one of the more complex drainage systems in the region (Laureti, 1960). This is due to the strong control exerted by karst processes on surface and groundwater flow and on large-scale morphogenetic processes. The treasure chest of the Bussento basin includes karst highlands with dolines and poljes, lowlands with blind valleys, streams disappearing into sinkholes, cave systems, karstic groundwater flow and resurgence and gravitational karst-induced sackungs (Fig. 2.3). The Bussento river originates on the slopes of Mt. Cervati (1,888 m asl) and in its upper course flows partly in wide alluvial valleys (i.e. Sanza valley) and partly along steep gorges and rapids (Aloia et al., 2011c; Davide, 1958). Along this path, numerous springs, sourced from karst aquifers, deliver fresh water to the streambed increasing progressively the river discharge. C

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Fig. 2.3. Hydro-geo-mophological map of the Bussento and upper Mingardo river basins. Large arrows: main groundwater circulation; drops: springs; dots: submerged springs; stars: sinkholes (courtesy of Domenico Guida and Vincenzo Siervo).

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Karst Geosites hazard. Near Caselle in Pittari the Bussento river and adjacent minor creeks (Damiano et al., 2007) flow into three active sinkhole Geosites, named La Rupe, Orsivacca and Bacuta-Caravo, respectively (Fig. 2.4).

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Fig. 2.4. The location of Geosite La Rupe near Caselle in Pittari.

During severe storms La Rupe sinkhole is subjected to occlusion and formation of a temporary karst lake. These sinkhole-occlusion events are among the most singular in the middle Bussento karst system (Fig. 2.5) and locally named Votemare, meaning that sometimes the valley becomes sea (Fig. 2.6). In 1983 a karst-induced ephemeral lake threatened the Sabetta reservoir dam; today this reservoir retains much of the river discharge and leaves the Bussento river only the minimum flow.

Fig. 2.5. La Rupe sinkhole occlusion.

Fig. 2.6. The votemare event.

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La Rupe portal represents the entrance of the upper Bussento sinkhole-cave system (Fig. 2.7 and 2.8). At a distance of about 4 km, close to the village of Morigerati, the Bussento river springs out again to the sunlight with another cave, the Bussento Resurgence Cave. This undergroud path has a long exploration story (Del Vecchio et al., 2011), not yet terminated (Fig. 2.9); actually the karst system is largely unknown since only a few hundred meters downstream the La Rupe sinkhole and upstream the resurgence have been explored.

Fig. 2.7. Entrance of the Bussento cave (photo N. Damiano).

Fig. 2.8. Historical speleological map of the upper Bussento sinkhole-cave system.

Fig. 2.9. Cross-section from the upper (left) to the lower (rigth) Bussento cave.

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Karst Geosites as educational resources. In Caselle in Pittari a karst Virtual Museum (MUVI) was built in close proximity of the karst Geoites (Fig. 2.10). It is an educational and scientific center, where teaching materials are organized for presentation by means of visual technologies (Fig. 2.11) consisting of: 1. a Multi Touch Totem, providing information about the network of museums in the National Park, the tourist paths and their Geodiversity, 2. an Holographic Table illustrating the territory of the National Park, 3. two Multi Touch Screens, with educational contents in folders organized for user-friendly manipulation and 4. a 3D room where images and videos create an optical illusion around viewers and transport them into a 3D virtual dimension (Fig. 2.12).

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Fig. 2.10. Outside view of the karst Virtual Museum (MUVI) at Caselle in Pittari.

Fig. 2.11. Inside view of the Virtual Museum.

Fig. 2.12. The 3D room of the Virtual Museum.

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Stop N. 3 - Casaletto Spartano, Geodiversity-Biodiversity monitoring system The eastbound Bussentino gorge joins the Tortorella carbonate anticline and the Casaletto valley. At the end of the Casaletto valley lies the Capello Oasis, with the Capello spring and the Capillus-veneris (Hair of Venus) travertine waterfalls (Fig. 2.13). These are Bryophyte petrifying springs with active formation of tufa (Cratoneurion) of considerable ecological and hydrogeological interest listed as a priority habitat on Annex I of the EU Habitat Directive (Aloia et al., Fig. 2.13. Capillus-veneris (Hair of Venus) waterfall. 2012). They occur where calcium-rich water springs out dripping on surface and depositing calcium carbonate. Tufa appears as a whitish, crunchy coating on plants and ground surface. The flora of petrifying springs is usually dominated by Bryophytes such as Palustriella commutata, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Eucladium verticillatum and Cratoneuron filicinum (Fig. 2.14). A large variety of ferns, such as Maidenhair (Adiantum capillus veneris, L.), Spaccasassi (Ceterach officina rum, L.) and Asplenium (Asplenium trichomanes, L.), is also found. Travertine deposition occurs under specific environmental and geological conditions which create a complex natural system controlled by several variables, such as water chemistry, dissolved carbon dioxide, hydrodynamics, biological activity, climate and may be also human impact. Even slight changes in one of these factors may affect the balance of precipitation. The Capello Old Mill, located in the area, will be renovated and used as a center for monitoring Geodiversity and Biodiversity (Fig. 2.15 and 2.16). Fig. 2.14. Bryophyte petrifying spring and tufa formation.

Fig. 2.15. Map of the Capello Old Mill area.

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Fig. 2.16. Inside view of Capello Old Mill.

Stop N. 4 - Morigerati, the lower Bussento resurgence-spring cave The Morigerati gorge (Fig. 2.17) is a protected area (Oasis) managed by the Italian branch of the NGO WWF that hosts two important and fascinating group of springs: the Molino Vecchio (Fig. 2.18) and Bussento Caves springs and the Bussento pools. These springs are present at different heights above sea level and are referred to different hydrogeological circuits. The Molino Vecchio and the Bussento Caves springs are located 150 m asl and are fed exclusively by karst channels; both have an average discharge of 0.5 m3/s. The Molino Vecchio springs

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Fig. 2.17. The Morigerati gorge.

burst out upstream of a mill, like a waterfall in the river; the Bussento Caves springs protrude in a spectacular karst cave. The Bussento pools, with an average discharge of 1.5 m3/s) are located at 79 m asl at the termination of the Morigerati gorge on the contact with the impermeable substrate (Iaccarino et al., 1988). The water spills are represented by 15 spring pools, located on the banks of the river along gaping fractures in the Miocene calcarenites, fed by a very deep karstic aquifer network. The Bussento gorge, entirely incised in limestones on the western slope of Mt. Chiappe, extends for about 3000 m to the East in the Bussentino gorge Geosite. The walls of the gorge are subvertical with an average height of 70 m and force the water to flow in a narrow channel with strong currents and whirlings, difficult to overcome. The height of the gorge walls is in relation with the depth of the cavity, in this case the Bussento cave (Fig. 2.19), characterized near the entrance by the “inforrata” morphology, as it tends to widen upwards in the first 100 m of its trail.

Fig. 2.18. The Molino Vecchio spring.

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Fig. 2.19. A glimpse of the Bussento cave, Morigerati Oasis.

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In recent explorations of the middle Bussento karst system (Del Vecchio et al., 2005; Parenzan, 1957), the most successful target has been the immersion in the final siphon of the Bussento Resurgence Cave after covering a distance of more than 130 m and reaching the depth of 47 m. Despite the cave was still continuing the speleologist stopped exploration since he was not well equipped for such a depth (Fig. 2.20). Contrary to the assumptions made the siphon descends deeply, very large, always underwater. This information is very important for the understanding of the Bussento river karst and surface hydrology.

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Fig. 2.20. Updated map of the Bussento Resurgence Cave; in the lower left the entrance, in the upper right the siphon (Courtesy Campania Speleological Federation Cadastre).

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Geological Boat Trip N. 3 From Casal Velino to Camerota Itinerary: length 21 nautical miles, duration 10 hours, difficulty low The boat trip develops entirely in the Geopark area along the coastline extending from Casal Velino Marina to Baia degli Infreschi, not far from the Camerota marine resort (Fig. 3.1). In the final stretch of the trip (Camerota area) the Geopark territory is fronted by a marine Protected Area. During navigation it will be possible to observe and discuss about several geological, geomorphological, archaeological and historical features of the Cilento Geopark.

Fig. 3.1. The nine Panoramic Views (PV) of Geological Boat Trip N. 3 of the 12th European Geoparks Conference.

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PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV PV

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9:

Ascea sandy beaches and Elea-Velia archaeological area The ocean-floor rocks outcropping at Punta del Telegrafo Rockfalls along the cliff near Pisciotta Palinuro Pleistocene marine terraces and Ficocelle beach sequence The Palinuro caves Natural Arch of Palinuro Cala del Cefalo beach Prehistoric life in coastal caves Baia degli Infreschi, precious box of biodiversity

Panoramic view N.1 - Ascea sandy beaches and Elea-Velia archaeological area The Casal Velino-Ascea coastal stretch develops on the wings of the Alento river mouth. The Alento plain is constituted by coastal-marine, aeolian and alluvial sediments of Holocene age. They deposited during coastal progradation on top of the transgression surface formed during the last eustatic sea-level rise (from MIS 2 to MIS 1; Lambeck and Bard, 2000 ). The Holocene progradation occurred in several pulses and several shorelines are recognizable in the coastal plain. An ancient shoreline has been used to reconstruct the paleogeography of the plain during the settlement of the Greeks at Elea which ruins are located in the low-lying hill bordering the coastal plain to the south (Fig. 3.2). The Elea-Velia settlement (Amato et al., 2010) is an important archaeological area inserted in the Unesco World Heritage List. In particular, it is possible to see an Agora, a thermal installation, a sanctuary, an Acropolis (3rd century BC) and the Porta Rosa, one of the most important Greek civil monuments in Magna Graecia.

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Fig. 3.2. Coastline evolution at Elea-Velia (after Aloia et al., 2012c).

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Panoramic view N. 2 - The ocean-floor rocks outcropping at Punta del Telegrafo South of Ascea the sandy beach becomes rocky and gradually higher. The promontory of Punta del Telegrafo shows spectacular deformational features (rock cleavage and folds) of limestones, shales and slates, from grey to black in color, cut by numerous quartz and calcite veins (Fig. 3.3 and 3.4). The mineralogy of these rocks indicates an early metamorphic stage and stratigraphic relations (Fig. 3.5) show that they belong to the upper portion of an ophiolite-bearing succession (Liguride Complex), i.e., that they accumulated in a basin floored by oceanic crust situated between the European and African lithospheric plates. The entire succession of ligurian rocks spans from upper Jurassic to lower Miocene and Fig. 3.3. The metamorphic folded rocks occupies the geometrically highest position of Punta del Telegrafo hosting a tower of in the pile of thrusts and folds of the Apen- the coastal defense system of the XVI nine chain (Mauro and Schiattarella, century. 1988). The rocks of the promontory offer the possibility to observe the wave-cut platform shaped during the last marine transgression (Versilian auct.) which was subsequently covered by a slope breccia gently dipping toward the sea.

Fig. 3.4. The tip of the promontory of Punta del Telegrafo.

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Fig. 3.5. The succession of Liguride complex terranes resting on crystalline rocks and overlied by the siliciclastic turbidites of the Cilento Group (middle-upper Miocene).

Panoramic view N. 3 - Rockfalls along the cliffs near Pisciotta Several landslides (mainly rock-falls and shallow-seated slides) affect the cliffs of the Cilento Geopark as may be seen on the coastal stretch of Pisciotta. Here the morphology of the coast is probably controlled by the effects of the Pleistocene climatic changes linked to the glacial/interglacial stages. Debris, formed during the last glacial stage extended seaward as an apron covering the shore platform. The apron was successively undercut by wave action during the late Pleistocene-early Holocene sea-level rise. The result is a coastal profile composed of a vegetated slope (50°-60°) descending to a steeper rocky cliff passing to an emerged shore platform consisting of beach deposits (De Pippo et al., 2008). Lately, a gravelly beach was created at the base of the cliff with sediments supplied by the adjacent eroding coastal stretches and by rock pile materials collapsed from the overlying slope (Fig. 3.6 and 3.7). Today, the significant erosive action of stormy waves causes the retreat of the cliff while the related marine aerosol provokes intense weathering of slope deposits with negative impacts on the important structures built along the slope (railway and road).

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Fig. 3.6. Block-diagram of the coastal cliff near Pisciotta. 1. Deformed and sheared terrigenous succession, 2. Ancient pebbly-gravelly beach, 3. Debris deposits, 4. Modern gravelly beach.

Fig. 3.7. The rocky coast near Pisciotta. Left, the present slope-over-wall profile; right, an aerial photo with the perimeter of the landslide in blue.

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Panoramic view N. 4 - Palinuro Pleistocene marine terraces and Ficocelle beach sequence The cliffs of Palinuro are made up of Mesozoic carbonate-rock often with a vertical profile. Stepped marine terraces of Pleistocene age, either due to marine abrasion or depositional processes, are carved on the slopes of the promontory (Romano, Fig.3.8. The stepped marine terraces of Cape Pali1992). They indicate phases of tec- nuro (after Antonioli et al.,1994). tonic uplift affecting the Cilento territory located in the Tyrrhenian margin of the Apennines during the Pleistocene (Ferranti et al., 2006). The elevation of the middle Pleistocene marine terraces allows to estimate an average uplift rate of 0.2 mm/y during the last 700 ky BP (Antonioli et al., 1994). Along the coasts of southern Cilento however, the upper Pleistocene shoreline positions Fig. 3.9. In the background Cape Palinuro with occur at elevations up to only a few marine terraces of middle Pleistocene age (armeters asl testifying for a very low rows); in the foreground a beachrock dated 130 ky rate of tectonic uplift in the last 130 BP. ky BP (Fig. 3.8 and 3.9). Beach deposits of the last Interglacial stage (Tyrrhenian auct.) outcrop at Lido Ficocelle (Fig. 3.10), near the Palinuro harbour, at 2-7 meters asl. Remnants of the gastropod Strombus bubonius found in these deposits date them to the MIS 5e (125 ky BP). The Lido Ficocelle section represents a complete progradational sequence composed of shoreface sands, arranged in horizontal and tabular cross strata with bedsets of symmetrical ripples, covered by foreshore sands in their turn topped by two distinct bodies of coastal dune sands about 5 m thick.

Fig. 3.10. Beach sequence outcropping at Lido Ficocelle and related sedimentologic log (after Antonioli et al., 1994, modified).

Panoramic view N. 5 - The Palinuro caves Cape Palinuro is a carbonate-rock promontory almost exclusively characterized by plunging cliffs. As a result of the widely developed karst phenomena 30 submerged and 20 partly-submerged marine caves have originated (Antonioli and Oliviero, 1994). In general the caves consist of a systems of short communicating galleries connected to wells or to other meandering galleries (extended several hundred meters) that lead to sub-spherical blind rooms with smooth walls situated at the maximum depth of 20 m. In the Azzurra cave (Fig. 3.11 and 3.12) located north-west of Cape Palinuro, the stalactites- and stalagmites-rich emerged gallery is in communication with a lake-room characterized by milkwhite water due to the presence of sulphur bacteria and colloidal sulphur. The main submerged entrance, located at -33 m depth, lead to a huge underwater room hosting several sulphur springs. In the caves with sulphur waters the submerged walls are covered with a snow-white film of sulphur bacteria while the emerged walls are encrusted with gypsum and sulphur deposits . The principal sulphur spring of the area is localized nearby in the Cala Fetente cave (Fig. 3.13) where an emerged gallery 20 m long ends with a lake 70 m wide. The corresponding submerged cave opens at -10.5 m depth with a main gallery in which a continuous flow (200-300 l/s) of sulphur-rich waters occur (Forti, 1985). A secondary submerged branch of the Cala Fetente cave leads to two small rooms saturated by unbreathable air.

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Fig. 3.11. Cross-section of the Azzurra cave.

Fig. 3.12. The entrance of the Azzurra cave.

Fig. 3.13. The entrance of the Cala Fetente cave.

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Panoramic view N. 6 - Natural Arch of Palinuro The Natural Arch of Palinuro is located at the southeastern extremity of a cliff (Budetta and Santo, 2000; Budetta et al., 2000a) locally called Molpa (Fig. 3.14).

Fig. 3.14. The Natural Arch of Palinuro.

The evolutionary stages of the coastline are shown in Figure 3.15. One hundred ky BP, when sea level was 6-8 m above present sea level, the natural arch was partly submerged (Fig. 3.15A). In 1871, because of increased sediment input, a pocket beach was created (B). In 1995 the beach was eroded and the waves threatened the cliff (C). In 2009 the beache was restored in response to the construction of a submerged barrier (D).

Fig. 3.15. Evolution of the coastline adjacent to the Natural Arch (after Aloia et al., 2012).

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Panoramic view N. 7 - Cala del Cefalo beach After passing the Arch the boat crosses the small bay where the Mingardo river mouth, partially hidden by a breakwater, enters the sea. The beach extending southwards, named Cala del Cefalo (Fig. 3.16) is characterized by the presence of coastal dunes with a typical Mediterranean vegetation that has been considered in a Life project as a pilot study area. Further southeast the coastal road has completely altered the dune system and, more generally, the equilibrium of the entire littoral zone so that the beach has suffered a strong erosion (Esposito et al., 2003b; Valente et al., 2012). The Cala del Cefalo beach is now protected by submerged groins and the coastline in sufficiently stable. The beach is bounded inland by a high and steep carbonate-rock cliff affected by various instability processes, rock-falls in particular, and a monitoring program is in progress. Similar instability conditions are visible in the backshore of the adjacent beach of Cala d’Arconte (Fig. 3.17).

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Fig. 3.16. Cala del Cefalo beach and its dune system. In the background Cape Palinuro.

Fig. 3.17. The Cala d’Arconte beach backed by a high cliff of carbonate rocks.

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Panoramic view N. 8 - Prehistoric life in coastal caves The coast east of Marina di Camerota is still characterized by high and in part plunging cliffs of Triassic-Jurassic carbonate rocks. Marine caves are common also in this area (Fig. 3.18): those known are twenty, six of which are submerged (D’Avenia et al., 2001; Mitrano, 2012). Their origin is linked to marine erosion, expecially develops along faults and fractures, and to karst processes due to Fig. 3.18. The caves along the coast east of Marina di Camerota. groundwater percolation (Del Vecchio, 2005). In some of these caves, such as the Noglio Cave (Fig. 3.19 and 3.20), traces of human settlements (in particular a molar and an astragalus belonging to the Neanderthal man) dated from the lower Paleolithic to the Bronze age have been found (Gambassini and Ronchitelli, 1998). In the Poggio cave, a Bronze age sequence composed of squared clay flooring and residual combustion products has been found Fig. 3.19. Cross-section and horizontal (Fig. 3.21). development of the Noglio cave.

Fig. 3.20. The stately entrance of the Noglio cave at 5 m asl.

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Fig. 3.21. Lithic industry from the Mousterian levels (middle Paleolithic) in the Poggio cave.

Panoramic view N. 9 - Baia degli Infreschi, precious box of biodiversity This sub-circular bay (Fig. 3.22) is included in a marine Protected Area that extends well beyond the visited coastal stretch. This area, not accessible by car, is unspoiled and owes its name to the fresh water that locally flows into the sea. A lot of different erosional indicators of ancient sea-level stands are well preserved on the cliffs. Specifically, the ancient shorelines located above present sealevel are represented by bio-erosive notches at +8.0 and +3.5 m and by a wave-cut terrace at +4.5 m. The Th/U dating of speleothems interbedded with marine deposits rich in mollusc shells, red algae and corals (Esposito et al., 2003a) indicates that these shoreline features formed in the early late Pleistocene (>111 ky BP). In particular, in one of these caves a Mousterian lithic industry was found.

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Fig. 3. 22. Infreschi Bay. Red arrows indicate the notches, blue triangles stand on the wave-cut terrace.

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Geological Field Trip N. 4 From Vallo di Diano to Angel Caves Itinerary: length 120 km, duration 10 hours, difficulty low

Fig. 4.1. The two stops of Geological Field Trip N. 4 of the 12th European Geoparks Conference.

Stop N. 1: Vallo di Diano and Certosa di Padula (by foot) Stop N. 2: Angel Caves and MIDA museum (by foot) 42

Stop N. 1 - Vallo di Diano and Certosa di Padula The about 30 km long and 8-10 km wide Vallo di Diano (VDD) is the largest intermontane basin in the southern Apennines (Fig. 4.2). The flat basin floor, which is located at an average elevation of 450 m, corresponds to the slightly

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Fig. 4.2. Panoramic view of the Vallo di Diano basin.

dissected ground surface of a fluvial-lacustrine and palustrine fill of PleistoceneHolocene age. The northeastern margin of the basin, bounded by a rectilinear NW-SE trending fault (Fig. 4.3), is flanked by a mountain front with an average elevation of 970 m and the highest peak at 1500 m (Maddalena Mountains). The stratigraphical architecture of the VDD basin fill has been reconstructed based on outcrop data from both dissected and uplifted areas and on numerous well logs up to some 200 m Fig. 4.3. Morpho-structural sketch of the Vallo di Diano basin.

deep (Santangelo, 1991; Ascione et al., 1992). In its northeastern margin, the basin fill consists of gravelly and sandy alluvial fan deposits which pass laterally into finer marshy-lacustrine sediments (Fig. 4.4). The lacustrine succession may be framed in the 700-250 ky BP time span. Fig. 4.4. Lacustrine clays outcropping near Buonabitacolo.

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The analysis of pollen (palinology) content of Quaternary deposits is particularly useful for paleoenvironmental reconstructions and lacustrine basins are most suited for pollen preservation. The lacustrine succession filling the Vallo di Diano basin holds a valuable record of past climate changes in southern Italy (Fig. 4.5). The study of a 207m-deep core drilled in the Vallo di Diano (VDD) axial zone (Fig. 4.6) allowed the detailed reconstruction of the middle-late Pleisto-

Fig.4.5. Coring at Vallo di Diano (VDD).

cene climate changes in southern Italy. In the Quaternary the Earth’s climate Fig. 4.6. Pollen and isotopic stratigraphy of a VDD core. has been characterized by the alternation of cold (glacial) and warm (interglacial) stages (Fig. 4.7 and 4.8) and the Earth’s vegetal cover has changed in response to climate fluctuations. In southern Italy hilly and mountainous areas were covered by grassland in the cold-arid stages and by woods of firs and oaks during warm-humid stages. The palynologic record and the corresponding oxygen-isotope curve of the 207m-deep core penetrating the lacustrine sediments of the VDD axial zone allowed the recognition of two distinct glacial/interglacial cycles in the 600-400 ky BP time span.

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Fig. 4.7. Warm environmental conditions: Quercus pollen grains are well represented in the VDD record of interglacial periods.

Fig. 4.8. Cold environmental conditions: Artemisia pollens are well represented in the VDD record of glacial periods.

Fig. 4.9. Geomorphological map of Vallo di Diano that highlights the distribution of coalescent alluvial fans. In the inset the feeder channels and the terminal splay of an alluvial fan.

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Alluvial hazard. A system of coalescing alluvial fans occurs at the foot of the mountain range bounding the Vallo di Diano basin to the NE. Two distinct orders of alluvial fans are distinguished (Fig. 4.9). The first order includes older (middle Pleistocene in age), inactive alluvial fans. The second order fans are younger (late Pleistocene to Holocene in age) and partly active fans, nested in the underlying first order fans. Historical reports and the comparison between present-day and historical (early 20th century) topographic maps, indicate the presence of very recent depositional lobes on the younger fans (Santangelo et al., 2006). Alluvial fans are common landforms along mountain footslopes (Bull, 1968). In the intermontane basins they form at the mountain front - alluvial plain transition in response to the sharp decrease in the stream gradient which causes an abrupt decrease of its competency. Alluvial fans are formed by stream-channel and debrisflow processes. Flood events may seriously damage infrastructures built on alluvial fans with loss of lives (Santangelo et al., 2012). The most important and well-documented catastrophic flood affecting the Vallo di Diano dates back to 1857 when flooding severely damaged the San Lorenzo Carthusia monastery (Fig. 4.10), in the Padula area (Budetta et al., 2000).

Fig. 4.10. The entrance of San Lorenzo Carthusia buried by alluvial deposits (left) and after their removal (right).

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The Padula charterhouse. The Padula charterhouse (a.k.a. San Lorenzo chartehouse), World Heritage site since 1998, is one of the most impressive historical buildings of southern Italy, with an extent of 51.500 m2, more than 320 rooms and, according to some sources, the biggest cloister in the world (12.000 m²). Its construction began in 1306 on the site of an earlier monastery, by the will of Count Tommaso di Sanseverino, and continued until the beginning of the 19th century (Fig. 4.11). The architectural style of the charterhouse is prevailingly

Fig. 4.11. The Padula charterhouse.

Baroque with squared elements, as in the case of the monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial in Spain, in memory of the martyrdom of San Lorenzo burned alive on a gridiron. In the charterhouse there are a variety of building stones with both structural and ornamental functions. Among them a prominent role is played by the so-called Pietra di Padula (Padula stone), whose name clearly indicates its provenance (Fig. 4.12 and 4.13). The Padula stone belongs to the pseudo-saccharoid limestones Formation of upper Cretaceous - lower Eocene age. It is a fossil-bearing limestone, whitish in colour with small grey-black dots, locally called pulci (fleas). It displays good physico-mechanical properties (dry unit weight: 28-33 Fig. 4.12. Polished slab (left) and micrograph kN/m3; open porosity: 0.6–5.9%; (right) of the Padula stone (after Calicchio et al., 2013). uniaxial compression: 75110 MPa), which make the stone quite resistant to weathering. However, after some centuries of exposure, weathering damages such as stains and patinae which cause the bleaching of the rock, are quite evident; fissures and lacks, generally related to pre-existing joints and/or lineations, are also present. Fig. 4.13. Weathering forms of the Padula stone. Left, fissures; right, stains and patinæ (after Calicchio et al., 2013).

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Alluvial fan flooding hazard at Sala Consilina. In the last centuries, the Sala Consilina area has been affected by several alluvial events and noticeably in 1871, 1989, 1954 and 2004 (Fig. 4.14), some of which were characterized by debris flows (Santangelo et al., 2011). Due to the relatively long time-lag separating successive floods, and the consequent loss of historical memory, the development of urban areas in the last decades has not taken into the necessary consideration the presence of active alluvial fans. In several cases, the apical areas of the active fans have experienced significant urban expansion and the feeder channel has either been completely buried or occupied by a road (Fig. 4.15). If events of the same magnitude of those occurred in the 19th century were to occur nowadays, the extent of damage would be much larger than in the past. Today, the areas particularly exposed to flooding are marked by geologists on flood-susceptibility maps (Santangelo et al., 2011). Prevention and mitigation actions Fig. 4.14. The Sala Consilina example of urban expansion on alluvial fans dumay consist of routine maintenance works ring last centuries. in the hydrographic basin upstream and the removal of obstacles to the flow of channeled water in the fan area.

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Fig. 4.15. Capped channel (arrow) at the apex of the Sala Consilina fan.

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Seismic hazard. The fault-controlled mountain front of the Monti della Maddalena bounds to the northeast the Vallo di Diano (VDD) basin (Fig. 4.16 and 4.17). The mountain front is 41 km long, and has a fairly well-defined rectilinear shape reflecting the geometry of the extensional fault system running along its toe. The longFig. 4.16. The trace of the main term activity of the Fig. 4.17. Examples of active faults along the VDD basin fault system is re- faulted slope deposits. Maddalena mountains border (after Villani and Pierdominici, 2010). vealed by the 6001000 m high staircase of bedrock fault scarps (Fig. 4.18) developed on the mountain slope (Santangelo, 1991; Ascione et al., 1992; Sgrosso et al., 2010; Villani and Pierdominici, 2010) . A complex array of scarplets affecting the middle Pleistocene-Holocene alluvial fan deposits forming a 9,000 m long and up to 1,400 m wide network of fractures (Fig. 4.19) indicate the recent activation of the main fault scarp. More than 60,000 people are currently living in the VDD basin, on the hanging wall of one of the major active extensional fault systems in the Southern Apennines. As demonstrated by the April 2009 earthquake occurred in L’Aquila, in this region a M > 6.0 earthquake has the potential to severely damage infrastructures and cause a large number of casualties.

Fig. 4.18. Geological cross-sections of VDD basin (after Sgrosso et al., 2010).

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Fig. 4.19. Main scarplets recognized in the piedmont zone of the Maddalena mountains (after Villani and Pierdominici, 2010).

Stop N. 2 - Angel caves and MIDA museum The Angel Caves (Fig. 4.20) are a karst system located not far from the villages of Pertosa and Auletta (Province of Salerno) which represents one of the most important geological and archeological sites of Southern Italy (Russo et al. Ed, 2005). Pertosa, from the Latin Pertugium, means “hole”, and refers to the entrance of the caves visible from the surroundings as a black hole. The main entrance is adjacent to the Tanagro river, at 280 m asl, on the western slope of the Alburni Massif. The entrance to the caves is only possible by boat because the underground course of the Negro river flows Fig. 4.20. A glimpse of the Angel Caves. through it and is also an archeological site with findings of ceramic vases, stone artifacts, ornamental objects and coins aged from the midBronze to the Roman Empire. The Angel Caves have a sub-horizontal development and extend for a total of 3300 m; they are divided into three main branches, each of which is characterized by different morphological features (Fig. 4.21). The northern branch is a tourist route of about 800 m characterized by a succession of large rooms rich of concretions with spectacular morphologies (Fig. 4.22). The intermediate and southern branches are speleological ways. The Angel Caves are one of the main basal springs of the Alburni mountains massif and probably receive waters from the Vallo di Diano basin through Le Crive and Molino Curcio, both located in the Polla village, and Molino Spinelli located in the Sant’Arsenio village (Carucci, 1907; Nicotera and De Riso, 1969). This connection is confirmed by hydrogeological data (Fig. 4.23) including tracer tests (Celico et al, 1994). These caves are remarkable also for biospeleology (Fig. 4.24) since they preserve several endemic species (Inguscio, 2010). This Geosite is part of the identity of the Cilento community and is enjoyed by geotourists since 90 years. From 2013 the Geosite leads the Italian national network of touristic caves and coordinates its research and educational activities. The Geosite is presently managed by the “Integrated Museums of the Environ-

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ment” (MIdA) Foundation, a body of the Regional government of Campania, the Province of Salerno and two municipalities: Pertosa and Auletta. Besides serving the Geosite the MIdA activities include a geological and speleo-archeological museum, a museum on the Geopark’s vegetation and agriculture and an observatory on social and environmental modifications induced by earthquakes that have hit the territory of Cilento. The vegetation and agriculture museum includes a center for environmental education targeted on local schools and geotourists.

Fig. 4.21. Plan-view of the Angel Caves karst system: entrance 280 m asl, planimetric extension 3,300 m, depth +46 m (courtesy Campania Speleological Federation cadastre).

Fig. 4.22. Close-up view of a cauliflower-shaped limestone structure.

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In addition, the MIdA Foundations is active in other educational and scientific activities such as: climate change including the use of subaerial and aquatic sensors for cave environments; geology, speleo-biology and speleo-archeology of caves in cooperation with national and international institutions; sustainable development of cave territories and cave management; promotion of local products and creation of brands related to karst Geosites.

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Fig. 4.23. Hydrogeological map of the Alburni karst system (modified after Santangelo and Santo, 1997).

Fig. 4.24. Malacostrada Amphipoda fam. Niphargidae, one of the endemic species found in the cave (photo G. Pinto).

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References

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Allocca V., Celico F., Celico P., De Vita P., Fabbrocino S., Mattia S., Monacelli G., Musilli I., Piscopo V., Scalise A.R., Summa G., Tranfaglia G., 2007. Illustrative Notes of the Hydrogeological Map of Southern Italy. Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato Editor Rome, 211 p., 3 maps (ISBN 88-448-0215-5-6). Aloia A., Guida D., 2012. The Geosites: Geopark’s gaia symphony-National Park of Cilento Vallo di Diano and Alburni. 192 p. Aloia A., Bartiromo A., Bravi S., 2012a. The Plattenkalk-type Fossil-lagerstätten in the Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano Area (S-Italy): An Overview. In: Proceedings of the 10th European Geoparks Conference - European Geoparks Network (Dolven J.K., Ramsay T. and Rangers K., Eds), Porsgrum 2012, 20-31. Aloia A., Burlando M., De Vita A., Firpo M., Guida D., Queirolo C., Toni A., Vacchi M., Valente A., 2010a. La divulgazione del patrimonio geologico attraverso i sentieri tematici: le esperienze del Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano e del Parco del Beigua - Beigua Geopark. Atti Convegno Nazionale: Il patrimonio Geologico - una risorsa da proteggere e valorizzare, Sasso di Castalda (PZ) 29-30 Aprile 2010, Grafica Editing s.r.l., 318-329. Aloia A., De Vita A., Guida D., Toni A., Valente A., 2010b. La geodiversità del Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano: verso il Geoparco. Atti Convegno Nazionale: Il patrimonio Geologico - una risorsa da proteggere e valorizzare, Sasso di Castalda (PZ) 29-30 Aprile 2010, Grafica Editing s.r.l., 108-201. Aloia A., De Vita A., Guida D., Toni A., Valente A., 2010c. National Park of Cilento and Vallo di Diano: geodiversity, geotourism, geoarchaeology and historical tradition. Proceedings of the 9th European Geoparks Conference - European Geoparks Network, Mytilene Lesvos October 2010, 41 p. Aloia A., De Vita A., Guida D., Valente A., Troiano A., 2012b. The geological heritage of Cilento and Vallo di Diano Geopark as key in the evolution of the central Mediterranean in the last 200 MY. In: Proceedings of the 10th European Geoparks Conference - European Geoparks Network (Dolven J.K., Ramsay T. and Rangers K., Eds), Porsgrum 2012, 32-41. Aloia A., De Vita A., Positano M.P., 2012c. Cilento and Vallo di Diano Geopark: Elea-Velia an Unesco Geoarchaeological Site. Publications of the Natural History Museum of Lesvos: European Geoparks Magazine, 9, 14 p. Aloia A., De Vita A., Toni A., 2011a. Cilento and Vallo di Diano Geopark: a territory to be discovered. Publications of the Natural History Museum of Lesvos: European Geoparks Magazine, 8, 31 p. Aloia A., De Vita A., Troiano A., 2011b. Il Geoparco del Cilento e Vallo di Diano. Uomo e Natura, semestrale delle aree protette mediterranee, Giannini Editore Napoli, 9-12. Aloia A., Guida D., Iannuzzi A., Lazzari M., 2006. Guida geologico-ambientale del Monte Gelbison-Novi Velia. Ed. Centro di Promozione Culturale per il Cilento, 180 p., 2 tav. f.t. (ISBN 978-88-902317-1-8). Aloia A., Guida D., Iannuzzi A., Lazzari M., Siervo V., 2007. Guida al patrimonio geologico-ambientale del Monte Gelbison quale premessa per l’istituzione del “Geoparco del Cilento”. Atti del 3° Congr. Naz. di Geologia e Turismo, Bologna, 1-3 Marzo 2007, Tipografia Moderna Bologna, 28-36. Aloia A., Guida D., Toni A., Valente A., 2011c. I geositi del Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano: le forre fluvio-carsiche. Atti II Convegno Regionale di Speleologia: Campania Speleologica, Caselle in Pittari (SA) 2-6 Giugno 2011, 251-261. Aloia A., Lazzari M., Guida D., 2013. Le potenzialità geoturistiche del geoparco del Cilento. Riassunti 5° Congresso Nazionale Associazione di Geologia e Turismo, Bologna 6-7 giu-

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gno 2013. Alvisi M., Barbieri F., Colantoni P., 1994. Le grotte marine di Capo Palinuro. Atti Convegno Speleomar ‘91 (M. Alvisi, P. Colantoni e P. Forti, Eds.), Palinuro, 25-30 maggio 1991, Memorie Istituto Italiano di Speleologia, 6 (2), 143-181. Amato V., Bisogno G., Cicala L., Cinque A., Romano P., Ruello M.R., Russo Ermolli E., 2010. Palaeo-environmental changes in the archaeological settlement of Elea-Velia: climatic and/or human impact signatures? Scienze Naturali e Archeologia “Il paesaggio Antico: Interazione uomo/ambiente ed eventi catastrofici”, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, 13-16. Antonioli F., Oliviero M., 1994. Dating deepest Mediterranean submerged speleothem (Capo Palinuro, Italy): biological and Holocene sea-level consideration. Memorie Descrittive della Carta Geologica d’Italia, 52, 321-328. Antonioli F., Cinque A., Ferranti L., Romano P., 1994. Emerged and Submerged Quaternary Marine Terraces of Palinuro Cape (Southern Italy). Memorie Descrittive della Carta Geologica d'Italia, 52, 293-319. Ascione A., Romano P., 1999. Vertical movements on the eastern margin of the Tyrrhenian extensional basin. New data from M. Bulgheria (Southern Apennines, Italy). Tectonophysics, 315, 337-356. Ascione A., Caiazzo C., Hippolyte J.C., Romano P., 1997. Pliocene-Quaternary Extensional Tectonics and Morphogenesis at the Eastern Margin of Southern Tyrrhenian basin (Mt. Bulgheria, Italy). Il Quaternario, 10 (2), 571-578. Ascione A., Cinque A., Santangelo N., Tozzi M., 1992. Il bacino del Vallo di Diano e la tettonica trascorrente plio-quaternaria: nuovi vincoli cronologici e cinematici. Studi Geologici Camerti, Volume Speciale 1992/1, 201-208. Bonardi G., Amore F.O., Ciampo G., De Capoa P., Miconnet P., Perrone V., 1988. Il Complesso Liguride Auct.: stato delle conoscenze e problemi aperti sull’evoluzione pre-appenninica ed i suoi rapporti con l’arco calabro. Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 41, 17-35. Bravi S., Garassino A., 1998. “Plattenkalk” of the Lower Cretaceous (Albian) of Petina, in the Alburni Mounts (Campania, S-Italy), and its decapod crustaceans assemblage. Atti Soc. It. Sci. Nat., Museo Civ. Stor. Nat., Milano. 138/1997 (I-II), 89-118,16 fig. Bravi S., Schiattarella M., 1986. Segnalazione di livelli ittiolitici eocenici a Cyclopoma gigas Agassiz ai Monti Alburni (Appennino Campano). Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli, XCV, 255-279, 3 fig., 6 tab. Bravi S., Barone Lumaga M.R., Mickle J.E., 2010. Sagaria cilentana gen. et sp. nov. A New Angiosperm Fructification from the Middle Albian of Southern Italy. Cretaceous Research 31, 285-290 (doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2009.12.001). Bravi S., Civile D., Martino C., Barone Lumaga M.R., Nardi G., 2004. Osservazioni geologiche e paleontologiche su di un orizzonte a piante fossili nel Cenomaniano di Monte Chianello (Appennino meridionale). Boll. Soc. Geol. It., 123, 19-38, 15 fig. Bravi S., Coppa M.G., Garassino A., Patricelli R., 1999. Palaemon vesolensis n. sp. (Crustacea Decapoda) of the plattenkalk of Vesole Mount (Salerno, S-Italy). Atti Soc. It. Sci. Nat., Museo Civ. Stor. Nat., Milano. 140/1999 (II), 141-169. Budetta P., Santo A., 2000. Assetto geostrutturale e caratterizzazione geomeccanica dell’Arco Naturale di Palinuro. Quaderni di Geologia Applicata, 7 (4), 61-76. Budetta P., Galietta G., Santo A., 2000a. A methodology for the study of the relation between coastal cliff erosion and the mechanical strength of soils and rock masses. Engineering Geology, 56, 243-256. Budetta P., Santangelo N., Santo A., 2000b. Interazioni tra processi alluvionali ed insediamenti abitativi in epoca storica: il caso della Certosa di Padula. Atti Convegno GeoBen 2000, Torino 7-9 Giugno 2000, 41-48. Bull W.B., 1968. Alluvial fans. Journal of Geology, 16, 101-106.

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Calicchio G., Calcaterra D., Colella A., Langella A., Parente M., Vitale S., De Gennaro M., 2013. La Pietra di Padula. In De M. Gennaro et al. Eds: Le Pietre storiche della Campania – Dall’oblio alla riscoperta. Luciano Editore Napoli, 317-327 (ISBN 88-6026-182-3). Carucci P., 1907. La Grotta Preistorica di Pertosa (Salerno), contribuzione alla Paleontologia, Speleologia ed Idrografia. Stabilimento Tipo-Stereotipo F. Di Gennaro & A. Morano, Napoli, 223 p. (ristampa anastatica, Litografia Dottrinari, Fratte, 1985). Celico P., De Gennaro M., Ferreri M., Ghiara M.R., Stanzione D., 1982. Geochimica delle sorgenti mineralizzate della Piana di Paestum. Periodico di Mineralogia, 51, 249-274. Celico P., Pelella L., Stanzione D., Aquino S., 1994. Sull'idrogeologia e l'idrogeochimica dei Monti Alburni (SA). Atti II Convegno dei Giovani Ricercatori di Geologia Applicata, Viterbo, 28-31 Ottobre, Geologica Romana, 30, 687-697. Cinque A., 2006. Note illustrative della Carta Geologica d’Italia 1:50.000, Foglio 486Foce Sele. Servizio Geologico d’Italia, Roma. A.T.I. - S.EL.CA. srl - L.A.C. srl - SystemCart srl, 144 p. Cinque A., Rosskopf C., Barra D., Campajola L., Paolillo G., Romano P., 1995. Nuovi dati stratigrafici e cronologici sull’evoluzione recente della piana del fiume Alento. Il Quaternario, 8 (2), 323-338. Damiano N., Del Vecchio U., Mitrano T., Ruocco M., 2007. Il Sistema Cozzetta-Orsivacca nell’area del Bussento. Atti I Convegno Regionale di Speleologia: Campania Speleologica, Oliveto Citra (SA) 1-3 Giugno 2007, 161-170. D’Avenia D., Greco N., Muscio G.N., 2001. Il Fenomeno Carsico, Le Grotte di Camerota, Salvaguardia e valorizzazione del patrimonio ipogeo. Ministero dell’Ambiente, Parco Nazionale del Cilento Vallo di Diano e Alburni, Comune di Camerota, Layout Comunicazione d’Impresa - Salerno, 15 p. Davide B., 1958. Evoluzione idrografica del medio Bussento quale agente genetico del complesso ipogeo. Studia Spelaeologica, 3, 35-59. De Pippo T., Guida D., Valente A., 2008. Morphological evolution of a slope-over-wall profile in Southern Italy. BSG Annual Conference, University of Exeter 2-4 July 2008. Del Prete S., 2008. Grotta di Castelcivita (Cp 2). L’Appennino Meridionale - Volume Speciale 50 anni di storia del Gruppo Speleologico del CAI Napoli, 2/2008, 224-233. Del Vecchio U., 2005. Grotte Costiere di Marina di Camerota. L’Appennino Meridionale - Periodico Sezione CAI di Napoli, A II, F I, 45-57. Del Vecchio U., Lala A., Mitrano T., 2005. Il Monte Bulgheria e i monti di Sapri. In N. Russo, S. Del Prete, I. Giulivo and A. Santo Eds: Grotte e speleologia della Campania, Sellino Editore Avellino, 489-514. Del Vecchio U., Mitrano T., Ruocco M., 2011. Recenti esplorazioni al corso sotterraneo del fiume Bussento. Atti II Convegno Regionale di Speleologia: Campania Speleologica, Caselle in Pittari (SA) 2-6 Giugno 2011, 21-29. Di Nocera S., Nardella A., Rodriquez A., 1973. Geomorfologia della Grotta di Castelcivita. Atti Incontri Internazionali di Speleologia, Salerno 20-23 Luglio 1972, Tipografia Meridionale, Napoli, 89-100. Di Nocera S., Piciocchi A., Rodriquez A., 1972. La Grotta dell’Ausino. Genesi, morfologia e primo contributo di preistoria. Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli, 81, 83-116. Esposito C., Filocamo F., Marciano R., Romano P., Santangelo N., Santo A., 2003a. Genesi, evoluzione e paleogeografia delle grotte costiere di Marina di Camerota (Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano, Italia Meridionale). Thalassia Salentina, Suppl. Vol. 26 , 165-174. Esposito C., Filocamo F., Marciano R., Romano P., Santangelo N., Scarciglia F., Tuccimei P., 2003b. Late Quaternary shorelines in Southern Cilento (Mt. Bulgheria): morphostratigraphy and chronology. Il Quaternario, 16 (1), 3-14.

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Ferranti L., Antonioli F., Mauz B., Amorosi A., Dai Pra G., Mastronuzzi G., Monaco C., Orru P., Pappalardo M., Radtke U., Renda P., Romano P., Sansò P., Verrubi V., 2006. Markers of the last interglacial sea level high stand along the coast of Italy: Tectonic implications. Quaternary International, 145, 30-54. Forti P., 1985. Le mineralizzazioni della Grotta di Calafetente. Mondo Sotterraneo, n.s. IX (1-2), 43-50. Gambassini P. (Editore), 1997. Il Paleolitico di Castelcivita - culture e ambiente. Electa Editore Neaples, 160 p. Gambassini P., Ronchitelli A., 1998. Linee di sviluppo dei complessi del Paleolitico inferiore-medio nel Cilento. Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche, XLIX, 357-377. Iaccarino G., Guida D., Basso C., 1988. Caratteristiche idrogeologiche della struttura carbonatica di Morigerati (Cilento meridionale). Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 41, 1065-1077. Inguscio S., 2010. Specie troglobie in Campania. Atti del 48° Corso di III livello di Biospeleologia, 9-11 aprile 2010, Pertosa (SA), Società Speleologica Italiana, Comm. Naz. Scuole di Speleologia Coord. Regionale Campania, Fondazione MIdA, Gruppo Speleo Alpinistico Vallo di Diano, 41-50. Lambeck K., Bard E., 2000. Sea-level change along the French Mediterranean coast since the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 175, 203-222. Laureti L., 1960. Nuovi contributi alla conoscenza del corso sotterraneo del Bussento (Cilento). Boll. Soc. Geogr. It., v. 11-12, 1-15. Mauro A., Schiattarella M., 1988. L’Unità Silentina di base: assetto strutturale, metamorfismo e significato tettonico nel quadro geologico dell’Appennino meridionale. Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 41, 1201-1213. Mitrano T., 2012. Geositi No 94-96 Grotte Costiere di Camerota. In A. Aloia e G. Guida Eds: I Geositi - la voce della natura del Geoparco. Parco Nazionale del Cilento Vallo di Diano e Alburni, 159-169. Mostardini F. & Merlini S. 1988 – Appennino centro–meridionale. Sezioni geologiche e proposta di modello strutturale. Mem.Soc. Geol. It., 35, 177-202. Nicotera V., De Riso R., 1969. Idrogeologia del Vallo di Diano. Memorie e Note dell'Istituto di Geologia Applicata dell’Università di Napoli Federico II, 11, 75 p. Parenzan P., 1957. Storia delle esplorazioni dell’inghiottitoio del fiume Bussento in provincia di Salerno. Studia Spelaeologica, 2, 33-81. Piciocchi A., 1972. Nuovo contributo alla conoscenza del Paleolitico nella grotta di Castelcivita (Salerno). Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli, 81, 369-374. Piciocchi A., 1973. Statuette zoomorfe nello strato epigravettiano della Grotta dell’Ausino nella provincia di Salerno (Campania-Italia). Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli, 82, 307-314. Romano P., 1992. La distribuzione del Pleistocene marino lungo le coste della Campania: stato delle conoscenze e prospettive di ricerca. Studi Geologici Camerti, Volume Speciale 1992/1, 265-269. Russo N., Del Prete S., Giulivo I., Santo A. (Editori), 2005. Grotte e speleologia della Campania. Sellino Editore Avellino, 623 p. Santangelo N., 1991. Evoluzione stratigrafica, geomorfologica e neotettonica di alcuni bacini lacustri del confine Campano Lucano (Italia Meridionale). PHD thesis, III cycle, Department of Earth Sciences University of Naples Federico II. Tipolitografica sud Napoli, 107 p. Santangelo N., Santo A., 1997. Endokarst processes in the Alburni mountains (Campania, southern Italy): evolution of the ponors and hydrogeological implications. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, 41 (2), 229-246. Santangelo N, Daunis-I-Estadella J., Di Crescenzo G., Di Donato V., Faillace P.I., MartínFernández J.A., Romano P., Santo A., Scorpio V., 2012. Topographic predictors of suscep-

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tibility to alluvial fan flooding, Southern Apennines. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 37, 803-817. Santangelo N., Santo A., Di Crescenzo G., Foscari G., Liuzza V., Sciarrotta S., Scorpio V., 2011. Flood susceptibility assessment in a highly urbanized alluvial fan: the case study of Sala Consilina (southern Italy). Natural Hazard and Earth System Science, 11, 27652780. Santangelo N., Santo A., Faillace P., 2006. Valutazione della pericolosità alluvionale delle conoidi del Vallo di Diano (Salerno, Italia meridionale). Il Quaternario, 19, 3-17. Santangelo N., Santo A., Guida D., Lanzara R., Siervo V., 2005. The geosites of the Cilento-Vallo di Diano National Park (Campania region, southern Italy). Il Quaternario - Italian Journal of Quaternary Sciences, 18, 101-112. Santo A., 1993. Idrogeologia dell’area carsica di Castelcivita (Monti Alburni - SA). Geologia Applicata e Idrogeologia, 28, 663-673. Sgrosso I., Bonardi G., Amore F.O., Ascione A., Castellano M.C., De Vita P., Di Donato V., Morabito A., Parente M., Pescatore E., Putignano M.L., Sandulli R., Schiattarella M., Tescione M., 2010. Foglio 504-Sala Consilina della Carta Geologica d’Italia alla scala 1:50.000, con Note Illustrative. ISPRA - Servizio Geologico d’Italia, Stampa S.EL.CA. Firenze. Valente A., Aloia A., Guida D., Monaco M., Peduto F., 2012. Erosione e processi di instabilità della costa: il caso studio della spiaggia di Cala del Cefalo (Geoparco del Cilento e Vallo di Diano, Italia meridionale). Atti del Quarto Simposio Internazionale: Il monitoraggio costiero mediterraneo: problematiche e tecniche di misura, Livorno 12-14 giugno 2012, 123-124. Villani F., Pierdominici S., 2010. Late Quaternary tectonics of the Vallo di Diano basin (Southern Apennines, Italy). Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 3167-3183. Vitale S., Ciarcia S., Mazzoli S., Zeghloul M.N., 2011. Tectonic evolution of the Liguride’s accretionary wedge in the Cilento area, southern Italy: a record of early Apennine geodynamics. Journal of Geodynamics, 51 (1), 25-36.

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Glossary artificial tracer: non-toxic substances that may be released and detected in groundwater to determine some hydrogeological parameters of the aquifer. backshore: the upper zone of a beach or shoreline, bounded by the high-water line of mean spring tides and the upper limit of shore-zone process. basin: a large, bowl-shaped depression in the surface of the land or ocean floor. biodiversity: it is the degree of variation of life forms within a given species, ecosystem, biome, or planet. brackish water: is a water with a salinity greater than normal fresh water and lower than the seawater; it may result from mixing of both. carbonate platform: is a sedimentary body built up in shallow water by autochthonous calcareous deposits of biological or chemical origin. Platform growth is due by coral communities, whose skeletons build up the reef, and by other organisms, which determine carbonate precipitation through their metabolism. Currently carbonate platform can be observed in coralline atolls or reefs in tropical latitudes. carbonate sediment: sedimentary rock that contains at least 50% of calcium carbonate; origin is organogenic and, more rarely, chemical; it is the typical rock in which they occur the karst. cleavage: the propriety of some minerals to break along planes related to the molecular structure of the mineral and parallel to actual or possible crystal faces. Cleavage is defined by the quality of the break (excellent, good, etc) and its direction in the mineral, i.e. the name of the crystal form it parallels. cliff: in geography and geology is a significant vertical, or near vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms due to the processes of erosion and weathering that produce them. dimension stones: are intact volumes of rock, which are quarried by trimming, cutting or drilling, to specific sizes or shapes and used as a construction materials. dune: a mound or ridge of unconsolidated, usually sand-sized, sedimentary particles formed by the action of a fluid medium, which may be wind or water. fold: a band or buckle in any pre-existing structure in a rock as a result of deformation. Folds are best displayed by structures that were formerly approximately planar, such as layering or bedding in sedimentary and igneous rocks, or foliation, schistosity and cleavage in metamorphic rocks. foreshore: zone of a shore or beach that is regularly covered with tidal water.

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fossil cave: cave or part of it that is no longer covered by water.

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groundwater: is water which, filling pores and fractures of soils and rocks, forms a saturated zone into the subsoil and flows by gravity toward springs, rivers or the coast line. hazard: probability of occurrence within a specified period of time and within a given area of a potentially damaging phenomenon (e.g. landslide, alluvial, seismic etc). hydrogeological unit: a geological body, constituted of soils and/or rocks with similar permeability, in which the groundwater circulation is unitary and well identifiable. hydrological budget: computation based on the continuity mass equation applied to the components of the hydrological cycle (i.e. precipitations, evapotranspiration, runoff, groundwater). karst system: character set defining a unit of karst drainage from the area of sinks up to the emergency, including all underground conduits and fissures in which the water circulates. limestone: rock composed primarily of calcareous sediments consisting of calcium carbonate (caco3), mainly as calcite. Organic limestones consist of shell remnants or of calcite deposits precipitated by certain algae, e.g. coral limestone, crinoidal limestone, chalk. marine isotope stages (mis): marine oxygen-isotope stages, or oxygen isotope stages (ois), are alternating warm and cool periods in the earth's paleoclimate, deduced from oxygen isotope data reflecting changes in temperature derived from data from deep sea core samples. metamorphism: the processes that produce structural and mineralogical changes in any type of rock in response to physical and chemical conditions differing from those under which the rocks originally formed. oceanic crust: the part of the earth’s surface that underlies the ocean basis. It varies in thickness from about 5 to 10 kilometers. oligotypic: a fauna living into a strongly stressed environment, composed by very few welladapted taxa but with a very high number of individuals. paleogeography: the reconstruction of physical geography at a specified time in the geological past; it includes the distribution of land and seas, depth of the seas, geomorphology of the land and climatic belts. plattenkalk: a very finely grained limestone chemically precipitated in a stratified water column under conditions where bioturbation does not occur. The lack of bioturbation contributes to the creation of platy, thinly bedded, finely laminated, undisturbed limestones where exceptionally detailed fossils or imprints of organisms occur. The Solnhofen plattenkalk in Bavaria is a famous example where complete skeletons of large marine vertebrates and impressions of soft-bodied animals have been found. phreatic cave: gallery filled by water flowing in pressure greater the atmospheric one; it has generally circular or elliptical section and it is free of fine sediments. progradation: the forward or outward building from a shoreline of a sedimentary rock unit,

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such as the advance of a delta. quarry: is a type of open-pit mine from which rock or minerals are extracted. regression: the retreat of the sea from land areas. ripple marks: small-scale ridges and troughs formed by the flow of wind or water over loose sand-grade sediment. rock fall: refers to quantities of rock falling freely from a cliff face. A rockfall is a fragment of rock (a block) detached by sliding, toppling, or falling, that falls along a vertical or sub-vertical cliff, proceeds down slope by bouncing and flying along ballistic trajectories or by rolling on talus or debris slopes. sea level high stand: interval where sea level lies above the continental shelf edge. shale: a fine-grained fissile sedimentary rock formed by the compaction of clay or silt. It is the most abundant of all sedimentary rocks. shoreline: the line along which water of a sea or lake meets the shore or beach. It marks the position of the water level at any given time and on marine margins varies between high-tide and low-tide shoreline positions. speleology: interdisciplinary and applied science dedicated to the exploration and study of natural and artificial cavities as well as to understanding phenomena which are observed. speleothem: any one of the variously shaped mineral deposits formed in a cave by the action of water. Almost all speleothems are made of calcium carbonate crystals in the form of calcite. stalactite: conical or cylindrical mineral deposits, usually calcite, that hang from ceilings of limestone caves and range in length from a fraction of a centimeter to several meters. stalagmite: is a type of speleothem that rises from the floor of a limestone cave due to the dripping of mineralized solutions and the deposition of calcium carbonate. susceptibility: the likelihood of a dangerous event occurring in an area on the basis of local terrain conditions, i.e. an estimate of “where” the events are likely to occur. Susceptibility does not consider the temporal probability of the event (when or how frequently hazards may occur). tectonic uplift: can be defined as the portion of the total geologic uplift of the mean earth surface that is not attributable to an isostatic response to unloading. The word “uplift” refers to displacement contrary to the direction of the gravity vector, and displacement is only defined when the object being displaced and the frame of reference are specified.

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terrace: is a step-like landform. A terrace consists of a flat or gently sloping geomorphic surface, called a tread, which is typically bounded one side by a steeper ascending slope, which is called a "riser" or "scarp." The tread and the steeper descending slope (riser or scarp) together constitute the terrace.

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thrust fault: is a type of fault, or break in the earth's crust across which there has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks above younger. Thrust faults are the result of compressional forces. transgression (marine): is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground, resulting in flooding. Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water (or decreasing in capacity). Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies, severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load. travertine: a chemical rock formed by precipitation of calcium carbonate at the mouth of mineral or hot springs. Travertine often has a typical fibrous texture due to chemical precipitation around leaves and twigs of plants, whose casts remain after the decomposition of the organic matter. uplift rate: the uplift velocity in a determined time span. wave-cut platform: a gently sloping rock ledge that extends from high-tide level at a steep cliff base to below the low-tide level. It develops as a result of wave abrasion at the sea-cliff base, which causes overhanging rocks to fall. weathering process: destructive natural processes by which rocks are altered with little or no transport of the fragmented or altered material.

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