FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

Factors that Affect Learning In Latin American and Asian Cultures    

TESL Program Carson-Newman College Fall 2010

 

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

ABSTRACT School systems in the United States tend to reflect traditional Anglo-Saxon values and are not culturally sensitive to the values and multiple factors that affect student learning. The purpose of this paper is to educate teachers about the cultural values and factors that affect the learning of Latin American and Asian students. Furthermore, the paper presents research that shows ways students from these cultures learn best and provides suggestions for teaching to preferred learning styles.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING IN LATIN AMERICAN AND ASIAN CULTURES Minority children are placed disproportionately in special education programs with an overrepresentation of Asian students in gifted programs (Garguilo, 2009). Latin American students and American students receive different lessons in the classroom by the same instruction because the expectations and the interactions between the students and teachers promote different school cultures. Studies show that Latino students receive academically less competitive classes than other students, especially in middle school and high school (Portales, 2005). The United States encompasses a diverse population of people and immigrants from all parts of the world. While our society claims to be culturally pluralistic, our schools lack to reflect this ideal. From the facts and observations above, one observes that our public school systems are not effectively serving culturally diverse students. “Schools are shaped by cultural practices and values and reflects the norms of the society for which they have been developed” (Hollins, 2008). American schools were built on the Anglo-Saxon practices of Protestantism, capitalism, and republicanism. They reflect the American values of democracy, freedom, equality, justice, human rights, competition, and success. Competition and success are based on an individual’s achievement (Hollins, 2008). Since our schools are shaped by these practices and values, the styles of teaching and learning reflect these values. However, are these teaching and learning styles effective for enriching the education of students with opposing values such as cooperation and collectivism? “Teachers have no choice but to inquire into each student’s unique culture and learning history, to determine what instructional materials might best be used, and to determine when a student’s cultural and life experiences are compatible, or potentially incompatible, with instruction. To do less is to build emotional blocks

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING to communication in an already complicated instructional situation.” -Berliner, 1986, p. 29 (Hollins, 2008). The purpose of this paper is to inform teachers in United States school systems about the cultural values and factors that affect the learning of Latin Americans and Asians. Additionally, literature research and the results of an independent study discuss popular learning styles that might identify with each culture and its values. Some suggestions for teaching to culturally popular learning styles are provided to assist teachers in catering lessons toward Latinos and/or Asians. CULTURAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Before discussing cultural values as they relate to learning, one must be aware of some cultural factors that affect learning. Dr. Christine Bennett concluded that there are five cultural factors that might influence learning: (1) childhood socialization, (2) sociocultural tightness, (3) ecological adaptation, (4) biological effects, and (5) language (Irvine, 1995). Childhood socialization refers the common child-rearing practices of a culture. The ways in which the caretakers in a culture raise their children influences the children’s developmental skills. For example, Bennett found that African Americans might have better motor proficiency skills because African American mothers tend to have more physical contact with the babies than Euro-American mothers. Sociocultural tightness is determined by whether a culture is a high-context or low-context culture. High-context cultures regard time in a polychronic format, which means schedules are based around people and events. People in these cultures gain

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING knowledge using intuition and spiral logic. Low-context cultures see time as linear with tight schedules. Knowledge is believed to be gained through analytical reasoning. The environments of particular cultures require the people to acquire skills or to adapt in order to survive. This describes ecological adaptation. The environment may include geography or social settings. Some environments lead to skills that are beneficial. For example, Native Americans may have better perceptual skills because they have been taught to recognize their families’ herds from a distance and to interpret signs of dangerous weather and approaching predators. On the other hand, harmful environments, such as impoverished areas, create problems that can be learning deficits for children. Biological effects like genetics, brain development, and physical development impact how an individual processes information. Some scientists believe that persons from different ethnicities or cultures have specific cognitive characteristics. Scientists Pasteur and Toldson believe that Whites are more likely to be left-brain dominant and African Americans are more right-brain dominant (Irvine, 1995). Although this can be seen as stereotyping race, biological factors such as a person’s hereditable traits should be considered when perceiving a person’s learning style. Finally, a person’s language influences how a person learns, especially with a second language. “Language reflects the worldviews, the thought processes, and the lifestyles of its people” (DeCapua, 2004). The values of the culture are expressed through language, whether it be communicated nonverbally or spoken in the words of the culture’s primary language. Hence, one’s native language shapes how a person thinks and perceives knowledge.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING HISPANIC CULTURE The values of Latin America are influenced by an Ibero-Catholic culture; that is the culture established by Spanish Catholics (Harrison, 1998). The overall values of the Latin American culture are best described by the Chadwick Center on www.chadwickcenter.org. It defines eight set values: familismo, children, marianismo, machismo, personalismo, respeto, simpatia, and religion/spirituality. Familismo is the value that upholds family as the most important people group, and in some households, children are treated with a lot of love and affection. Marianismo is the emphasis on women to follow the Virgin Mary’s example in living a pure life. The women are to follow the Virgin Mary’s example in being “spiritually strong, morally superior, nurturing, and self-sacrificing” Her role is to role is to keep the house, rear the children, and serve and take orders from her husband. Machismo refers to male dominance and the role of the man to have responsibility in providing, protecting, and defending his family. Respeto means respecting others, especially higher authorities. Latinos always try to act with simpatia, or kindness, by being polite and pleasant towards others and by avoiding any conflict. Lastly, religion and spirituality sets the rules for leading life; all values are held together by their faith, which is predominantly rooted in Catholic beliefs. Childhood Socialization The values of family, personal relationships, respect, and trust and the sex-role distinctions are reflected in Hispanic families’ childhood rearing practices. The father is the head of the household, who is to be obeyed and respected. Latin American families may differ in parenting styles; some might be more authoritarian and others may be more permissive. However, most reviews describe parent-child relationships as warm and

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING nurturing (Julian, 1994). In fact, Hispanic parents generally nurture their children longer than Anglo-Saxon Americans. Children in the deeply rooted Anglo-Saxon value-based American school systems are expected to be self-reliant and independent by the fourth or fifth grade. However, Hispanic parents do not rear their children to be self-reliant until about the sixth or seventh grade (Portales, 2005). The results from a survey conducted by Julian, McKenry, and McKelvey show that Hispanic parents are more concerned with their children obeying, getting along with others, and exhibiting self-control rather than performing well in school and demonstrating creativity (1994). This data reflects the belief that socialization is more important than “independent success” as defined by traditional Anglo-Saxon standards. Additionally, Hispanic parents are less likely than Anglo parents to encourage selfdependence and analytic skills (Irvine, 1995). Sociocultural Tightness Hispanic parents do no encourage analytic skills because Hispanic culture is a high-context culture. They believe that knowledge is gained through spiral logic and intuition. Time is viewed in relation to events, and schedules are loose. Present time has a higher importance than future time, and Latinos focus more on meeting present needs rather than long-term goals. Activities move at a relaxed pace without time constraints (Enriquez). Latinos tend to discourse in a higher context by expressing what they want to say without many details or talking around the main point. The message is implied and is to be understood through nonverbal behaviors and the understanding of cultural knowledge, values, and background (DeCapua, 2004). High context communication is especially

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING used in confrontation; they try their best to maintain kindness (simpatia) and friendship while confronting another about a certain argumentative matter. Ecological Adaptation Many social environment factors place young Latin Americans at risk for not receiving a good education or dropping out of school. According to the World Bank’s report from 2005, 8.2% of Latin Americans live on $1.25 a day and 17.1% live on $2 per day. This extreme poverty hinders the learning of Latino students. Most Latin American youth claim that they leave school because they have to get a job to help support themselves and their family. A number of students also report that they do not have enough money to buy school supplies or to pay for transportation. Latin American countries lack schools that provide quality education to students. A high percentage of Mexican females (40%) drop out of school because they do not feel like they are getting a good education. Students from other countries, like Honduras and Peru, state that schools are not equipping them with the necessary skills to obtain a good job (Cunningham, 2008). Biological Factors In addition to environmental factors, many biological factors can affect the learning and intelligence of Latinos. Since most Latin American countries are underdeveloped and have high poverty rates, children probably do not receive the proper nutrition and medical attention that they need. Furthermore, the mothers may not receive prenatal care and good nutrition that can cause low birth rates or other problems that can lead to mental retardation (Dunlap, 1997).

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Language Spanish is the official language in most Latin American countries. It originated in Spain from the Vulgar Latin language. The language was introduced to the Americas during the Spanish conquest that began in the 1400s (Accredited Language Services). Like English, it is one of the romance languages that uses the Roman alphabet. Spanish is syllable-stressed, and the intonation is similar to that of English (Avery, 2005). Although many Latin Americans speak Spanish, Latinos from different countries speak different dialects that are influenced by indigenous languages. Hundreds of these languages are still spoken today. In fact, some who speak indigenous languages speak solely the tribal language and no Spanish at all. However, many of these languages do not have written literature and are endangered of becoming extinct (The Archive of Indigenous Languages of Latin America). ASIAN CULTURE China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, Hong-Kong, and Singapore are countries identified with having “Confucian heritage cultures” (Mariani). Confucianism believes that there’s a continuous, life-long learning process of becoming human and realizing one’s full human potential. Although it defines learning as “learning for the sake of the self,” it emphasizes community with the individual being the center of relationships (Wei-ming). A person relates to another with respect to age, seniority, rank and family background, so authority figures, including teachers, and elders are highly respected (Mariani). The main values of Confucian cultures include family over the individual, self-control to achieve goals, and cultural appreciation (Julian, 1994).

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

Childhood Socialization Traditional Asian families teach children to be committed, dutiful, and selfsacrificial to elders. The oldest son usually receives the family inheritance; therefore, sex-roles are a key factor in childhood rearing practices as well. Some researchers have found that the value systems of some Asian families are similar to those of Middle Class Anglo-Saxon Americans. These families value hard work, conformation, and cohesion within the family. However, other researchers, Lin and Fu, say that Chinese parents are more controlling of their children than Caucasian parents, and they push their children harder to achieve and to become independent (Julian, 1994). Social-cultural Tightness Like Latin Americans, Asians typically live in a high-context culture. Therefore, Asians do not directly communicate by completely expressing themselves with words rather they equally rely on gestures, body language, eye contact, pitch, intonation, word stress, and the use of silence to communicate messages. It is considered impolite to ask very direct questions or give direct answers (Carteret, 2009). Asians value politeness and maintaining “face.” Face can be best described as reflecting one’s pride, dignity, honor, and self-esteem while maintaining group harmony and togetherness. Loss of face results in shame and embarrassment for the individual and the group as a whole (DeCapua, 2004). Being in a high-context culture, Asians follow a polychronic time format and view time as something that cannot be controlled. Time is not seen as linear, rather many

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING events may be happening at one time. Asians might show up late for appointments or meetings. On the other hand, the Japanese have a reputation for being very punctual (Carteret, 2009). Ecological Adaptation The natural environment of native countries may have an effect on the cultural values of Asian students. Some of the geographical regions, like the high mountains and large seas in and around China and Japan, can influence cultural tightness. These surroundings isolate the cultures from other cultures around them and reduce any outside influence on cultural values and beliefs. These cultures have certain rules and expectations of what is normal, and there are consequences for cultural deviation (Triandis, 2002). Confucian Asia consists of some of the world’s leading countries in terms of academics (Adams, 2002). The high quality of academia may be related to the countries’ economic statuses. Japan is quickly becoming the most economically advanced country in the world. China has been a rapidly developing economy since the 1980s. Other newly industrialized countries like South Korea and Taiwan continue to positively develop (Lee, 2005). High economic growth leads to more job opportunities and greater incomes for the head of the household. Since the family patriarchs receive good incomes, they are able to support their families without other members of the household entering the workforce (Morris, 2006). Therefore, in contrast to most Hispanic families, most Asian youth do not drop out of school to help support their families.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Developing economies create more competitive jobs. For example, college graduates in the Republic of China have to heavily compete to get good jobs upon graduation. Hence, many Asians stay in school for long periods of time to receive the training and skills they believe they need for the work force (Morris, 2006). Biological Factors Research has shown that East Asians have higher IQs than people from other parts of the world. The data from survey conducted in 1991 by Lynn shows that East Asians have an average IQ of 103 followed by European and American Caucasians with IQs of 100. While IQ tests may be culturally biased, Jensen suggests that intelligence is heritable, and therefore, Asians are naturally apt to learn. However, some environmentalists suggest that other factors may contribute to high intelligence such as the quality of education and nutrition (Irvine, 1995). Language Chinese is the most popular spoken and written language in the world. Its writing system is the oldest manuscript. Chinese characters have influenced the spoken and written languages of other Confucian languages such as Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese (Eastasianculture.com). Different variations of Chinese are spoken throughout China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore. Chinese is a tonal language, which means the change in pitch can change the meaning of a word (Avery, 1992).  

In some East Asian languages, there exist specific words that describe attitudes

toward education. For instance, the Japanese have a word, seishin, that describes the attitude that helps one tackle a task. Gambaru, another Japanese word, refers to the positive thought that motivates one to persevere in order to gain positive intrinsic

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING rewards. The Chinese also have a term pronounced hae-xue-xin that may be defined as “one’s desire to learn.” In a study conducted by Jin Li, this Chinese term was understood and recognized by 92 percent of Chinese students ages 10-18 (Li, 2001). LEARNING STYLES According to research, Hispanics tend to be field dependent learners. This means that in the classroom, they usually prefer group learning activities opposed to individual exercises, and they freely share objects and information with each other. They are extrinsically motivated and are sensitive to others’ praise and remarks. They prefer visual representations and remember content as it relates to people and the social context. In addition, they learn by doing (Irvine, 1995). Since Asians highly value collectivism and cooperation yet still hold an individual outlook, Asians are probably more field dependent learners but can be field independent as well. For example, Chinese children spend a lot of time memorizing and copying new words and short stories. This kind of memorizing requires individual practice and shows intrinsic motivation. However, Asian students are still perceived to be dependent upon the teacher (Mariani). Research has shown that most students from Asian countries are also visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic learners (Reid, 1987). Learning Styles Survey An additional independent study was conducted to determine whether the above research regarding Latino and Asian cultural learning preferences was accurate. To conduct this study, 13 Latin Americans and 9 Asians took a learning style preference questionnaire designed by Joy Reid (Appendix 1). The questionnaire included 30 statements with which the students had to strongly agree, agree, be undecided, disagree,

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING or strongly disagree. Each item was numerically scored and identified with one of six learning styles: visual, tactile, auditory, kinesthetic, group, and individual. The questionnaires were taken individually by each individual either on paper or on the computer. Each item accumulates points for its distinctive category. If the responder marks strongly agree, the item receives five points; agree, four points; undecided, three points; disagree, two points; and strongly disagree, one point. Each learning style category has five items. After scoring all five items in a learning style category, the items are added up and multiplied by two in order to calculate the total score for the learning style. The maximum score that a learning style can receive is 50. Scores of 38-50 indicate a major learning style preference; 25-37 a minor learning style preference; and 0-24 a negligible learning style (Reid, 1984). The Latin American subjects included 4 males and 9 females. Three males and four females are from Mexico, two females are from Guatemala, one female is from Honduras, one male is from Nicaragua, one female is from Uruguay, and one female is from Argentina. All of them are Spanish speaking. A couple of Mexican females speak indigenous languages such as Tarascan and Ztosil. The ages range from 12-25 with the majority being in middle school and high school and a few with high school diplomas or some college education. The Asian subjects included 5 males and 5 females. Two males and one female are from Korea, one male and one female are from China, one male and two females are from Taiwan, and one male and one female are from Japan. The subjects from China and Taiwan speak Chinese; one Taiwanese female speaks Taiwanese. All of the Koreans

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING speak Korean, and the Japanese speak Japanese. The ages range from 19-26, and all are college undergraduate or graduate students.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

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Figure 1. Overall Collected Data from Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire Country  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Nicaragua  Honduras  Guatemala  Guatemala  Argentina 

Gender  F  F  F  F  M  M  M  M  F  F  F  F 

Language  Spanish/ Ztosil  Spanish/Tarascan  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish 

Uruguay     

F     

Spanish     

Country  South Korea  South Korea  South Korea  China  China  Taiwan  Taiwan  Taiwan  Japan  Japan     

Gender  M  M  F  M  F  M  F  F  M  F     

Language  Korean  Korean  Korean  Chinese  Chinese  Chinese  Chinese/ Taiwanese  Chinese  Japanese  Japanese     

Age  16  16  11  15  16  16  21  25  12  15  14  24 

Grade 10 11 6 9 10 10 College Jr. HS Diploma 6 9 8 College Fr.

21  College So.     Average

Age  19 26 26 25 22 21 26 26 23 24

Grade Level 2 ELI Level 2 ELI Graduate Graduate Graduate College Jr. Graduate Graduate College Jr. College Sr. Average

Visual 46 40 38 38 42 46 26 36 38 44 40 36

Tactile 36 34 36 36 44 24 26 40 38 46 24 36

30

28

38

34

Visual 42 42 44 36 28 36 36 48 34 34

Tactile 38 34 36 42 38 34 38 40 28 42

38

37

Auditory Kinesthetic  Group 38  38  44 42  40  38 40  34  36 44  42  38 42  50  44 30  36  34 46  30  30 38  40  36 36  42  22 46  42  44 30  32  18 38  38  18 32    39 

Individual 44 32 26 34 34 46 34 30 50 46 50 46

34    38 

24

40

33

39

Auditory  Kinesthetic  40  32 36  36 30  24 44  48 36  44 42  34 30  40 24  44 40  32 34  34   36  37

Group 40 42 26 40 30 30 34 22 14 20

Individual 24 28 24 38 36 34 37 22 50 42

30

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Results By comparing the overall data of Latin American and Asian groups, one can tell that there isn’t a large discrepancy among the average learning styles of Latin Americans and Asians respectively. Latin Americans equally prefer visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and individual learning styles as major learning styles with scores of 38 and 39. Asians

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

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prefer the visual learning style with a score of 38. Both groups chose group learning as their least preferred learning style. Figure 2. Disaggregated Data of Latin American Learning-Styles by Country/Region Country  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico  Mexico 

Gender  F  F  F  F  M  M  M 

Language  Spanish/ Ztosil  Spanish/Tarascan  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish 

Age 

  Nicaragua 

  M 

  Spanish 

 

Honduras  Guatemala  Guatemala  Argentina 

F  F  F  F 

Spanish  Spanish  Spanish  Spanish 

Uruguay 

F 

Spanish 

 

 

 

 

Grade 16  10 16  11 11  6 15  9 16  10 16  10 21  College  Jr.  Average 25  HS  Diploma  12  6 15  9 14  8 24  College  Fr.  21  College  So.  Average

Visual 46 40 38 38 42 46 26

Tactile 36 34 36 36 44 24 26

Auditory 38 42 40 44 42 30 46

Kinesthetic  Group 38  44 40  38 34  36 42  38 50  44 36  34 30  30

39 36

34 40

40 38

39  40 

38 36

36 30

38 44 40 36

38 46 24 36

36 46 30 38

42  42  32  38 

22 44 18 18

50 46 50 46

30

28

32

34 

24

40

37

35

37

38 

27

44

The above table displays the data from the Latin Americans that has been disaggregated by country into two categories: Mexicans and Central/South Americans. According to the data, Mexicans prefer visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and group learning. Central and South Americans prefer kinesthetic and individual learning. The biggest difference between the groups is that Mexicans highly prefer group learning and somewhat prefer individual learning, while Central/South Americans highly prefer individual learning and are negligible to group learning.

Individual 44 32 26 34 34 46 34

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

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Figure 3. Disaggregated Data of Asian Learning-Styles by Country Country  South  Korea  South  Korea  South  Korea    China  China    Taiwan 

Gender  M 

Language  Korean 

M 

Korean 

F 

Korean  

  F  F    M 

  Chinese  Chinese    Chinese 

Taiwan  Taiwan    Japan 

F  F    M 

Chinese/Taiwanese  Chinese    Japanese 

Japan 

F 

Japanese 

 

 

 

Age  Grade 19  Level 2  ELI  26  Level 2  ELI  26  Graduate   22  25    21  26  26    23  24   

Average Graduate Graduate Average College  Jr.  Graduate Graduate Average College  Jr.  College  Sr.  Average

Visual 42

Tactile 38

Auditory 40

Kinesthetic  Group 32  40

42

34

36

36 

42

28

44

36

30

24 

26

24

43 28 36 32 36

36 38 42 40 34

35 36 44 40 42

31  44  48  46  34 

36 30 40 35 30

25 36 38 37 34

36 48 40 34

38 40 37 28

30 24 32 40

40  44  39  32 

34 22 29 14

37 22 31 50

34

42

34

34 

20

42

34

35

37

33 

17

46

Figure 3 shows the scores of Asian learning styles that have been disaggregated by country. Koreans mostly prefer visual learning and least prefer individual learning. On the other hand, Chinese students most prefer tactile, auditory, and kinesthetic learning and least prefer visual learning. Taiwanese students mostly prefer visual and kinesthetic learning and least prefer group learning. Finally, Japanese students highly prefer individual learning and least prefer group learning. Discussion

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING The results of this survey support research’s claim that Hispanics prefer visual and kinesthetic learning styles. Hispanics also benefit from auditory learning probably because it involves interpersonal communication. However, the data does not support the claim that Latin Americans are field dependent learners. Most Mexicans are field dependent learners, but the Central and South Americans are not. This result may have a couple of explanations. First of all, the Central and South Americans are the minorities within the Hispanic culture group and may not have others to identify with from their home country. Hispanics tend to be collectivistic and collaborative, but they tend to mingle more with their fellow countrymen and maintain boundaries between other Latin American countries. Secondly, the split of independent and group learners may solely reflect personal preference without any respect to a cultural norm. Latinos as a whole least prefer the tactile learning style. In fact, only three Latino individuals had this category as a major learning style. However, it is interesting to note that the indigenous/Spanish speakers ranked tactile learning as their least preferred styles. Tactile learning may not be favored among these students because they probably do not know how to write in their native language. The low quality of education in Latin American countries may affect one’s literacy levels and ability to write in Spanish or an indigenous language. To write in English would be even more challenging without any background knowledge of letter formation or written form. Nevertheless, as with group learning, tactile learning may only be an individual preference that reflects one’s personality.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

Looking at the data as a whole, it appears that overall Asians do not have a specific preference in the way that they learn. However, the disaggregated Asian scores indicate major differences among the Asian countries. Koreans have a strong preference for visual learning and are the most field dependent learners than any other group. On the opposite spectrum, the Japanese do not like group learning, but work best as individuals. They enjoy auditory learning over visual learning. The Chinese prefer auditory over visual learning as well, but learn best through kinesthetic learning. Chinese students rank high in tactile learning, which may relate to the copying and memorizing text. Like the Koreans, Taiwanese students prefer visual learning. They are also very similar to Chinese learners in that they benefit from kinesthetic learning. Comparable to Japanese students, Taiwanese students also least prefer working in groups. However, Taiwanese students differ from all three groups in that they have a low rank for auditory learning. This may be due to the fact that the Taiwanese speak not only Chinese but Taiwanese as well. Having to audibly discern between two similar languages may be difficult, but training one’s ear to hear a completely different language adds a different level of difficulty that could create some barriers to learning. TEACHING SUGGESTIONS Considering that Hispanics learn best kinesthetically, visually, and audibly, a variety of activities should be included when teaching. Total physical response activities incorporate all three of these learning styles and are especially beneficial for ESL

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING beginners. Modeling also encompasses kinesthetic, visual, and auditory learning styles. Teachers should give visual concrete examples that can be verbally explained and easily mimicked. In reflecting on the high-context Hispanic culture, educators should try to avoid abstract representations because Hispanic students do not typically think analytically. Additionally, teachers should not assign long-term projects that require students to think of time as linear. Short-term assignments would be favorable to longterm projects since Latin American thinking is generally not future oriented. Although our research has shown that not all Hispanic students are field dependent learners, some collaborative activities along with individual activities would benefit the group as a whole. Informal class discussions can be beneficial for all students to work together to gain understanding. However, debating would cause friction among the group, and Hispanics do not want to lose their group unity and lessen Hispanic values of respect and kindness (Irvine, 1995). Hispanic students are extrinsically motivated by family and the teacher-student relationships. Therefore, personal rewards such as verbal praise, pats, and hugs would encourage a student to continue learning. The teacher should ensure a positive school environment to optimize learning for all students. When teaching Asian students, teachers should also include a variety of visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic activities. Therefore, lectures, visual presentations, hands-on activities, and TPR activities would also stimulate learning. In addition, since Asians practice so much memorization, audio-linguistic methods that use memorization, drills, and practice might be helpful with these learners.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Korean and Chinese students would benefit from cooperative group activities and projects. Since Taiwanese and Japanese students prefer individual learning, individual worksheets, activities, projects, and assignments would suffice. However, teachers should be careful to not single out a student in the classroom. There’s a Japanese proverb that says, “The nail that sticks up gets hammered down”. Focusing on the individual rather than the group as a whole is looked down upon by this culture (Mariani). CONCLUSION In conclusion, the values of each culture affect the way a student from a culture learns. One learns about the world and how to behave according to the rules and values of one’s culture. The learner applies these rules in the same way in the classroom. It is important for a teacher to be aware of these values and what kind of learners they create. While taking into consideration the differences in cultural values is good, a teacher must be careful to not overgeneralize or stereotype a student based on the cultural norm of his/her ethnicity. Rather the teacher should get to know the student as an individual to understand his or her background that can affect learning. Teachers should also individually assess students to find out what ways he or she learns best. By knowing the ways students learn best, a teacher can effectively plan lessons to promote optimal learning for all students in the classroom.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING REFERENCES

AILLA: The Indigenous Languages of Latin America. (n.d.). The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from The Archive of Indigenous Languages of Latin America. Adams, D., & Chapman, D. (2004). The Quality of Education: Dimensions and Strategies (Education in Developing Asia). Manila: Asian Development Bank. Adaptation Guidelines- Cultural Values Priority Area. (n.d.). Chadwick Center. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://www.chadwickcenter.org/Documents/WALS/Adaptation%20Guidelines. Avery, P., & Ehrlich, S. (1992). Teaching American English Pronunciation . New York: Oxford University Press, USA. Carteret, M. (n.d.). Cultural Values of Asian Patients & Families - Cultural Values of Asian Patients and Families. Cross-cultural Communications In Health Care Home; dimensionsofculture.com;dimensions of culture. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from http://www.dimensionsofculture.com/home/cultural_values_of_asian_patients_fa milies. Cunningham, W., Mcginnis, L., Tesliuc, C., Verdu, R. G., & Verner, D. (2008). Youth at Risk in Latin America and the Caribbean: Understanding the Causes, Realizing the Potential. New York: World Bank Publications. Decapua, A., & Wintergerst, A. C. (2004). Crossing Cultures in the Language Classroom. Kalamazoo: Univ Of Michigan Press. Dunlap, L. (n.d.). Possible Causes for Developmental Delays | Education.com. Education.com | An Education & Child Development Site for Parents | Parenting & Educational Resource. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from http://www.education.com/reference/article/possible-causes-developmentaldelays/ . East Asian Culture | Learn East Asian Languages. (n.d.). East Asian Culture | Learn East Asian Languages. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from http://www.eastasianculture.com/. Enriquez, L. (n.d.). HOW THE STUDENTS' CULTURE EFFECTS THEIR BEHAVIOR. Literacynet.org. Retrieved July 22, 2010, from http://literacynet.org/lp/hperspectives/culteffect.html. Gargiulo, R. M. (2008). R. M. Gargiulo's Special Education in Contemporary Society 3rd(third) edition (Special Education in Contemporary Society: An Introduction

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING to Exceptionality [Paperback])(2008) (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Harrison, L. E. (1998). The Pan-American Dream: Do Latin America's Cultural Values Discourage True Partnership with the United States and Canada?. Oxford: Westview Press. Hollins, E. R. (2008). Culture in School Learning: Revealing the Deep Meaning (2 ed.). New York: Routledge. Irvine, J. J., & York, D. E. (1995). Learning Styles and Culturally Diverse Students: A Literature Review. Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education (pp. 484497). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Julian, T. W., McKenry, P. C., & McKelvey, M. W. (1994). Cultural Variations in Parenting. Family Relations, 43(1), 30-37. Retrieved September 26, 2010, from the JSTOR database. Lee, J. (n.d.). Asiatic Values in East Asian Higher Education:From a Standpoint of Globalization. Globalization. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from http://globalization.icaap.org/content/v5.1/lee.html. Li, J. (2001). Chinese Conceptualization of Learning. Ethos, 29(2), 111-137. Retrieved November 1, 2010, from the JSTOR database. Mariani, L. (n.d.). Learning styles across cultures. Tante Vie Per Imparare. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from http://www.learningpaths.org/papers. Morris, E. (2006). Globalization and its effects on youth employment trends in Asia. Retrieved November 3, 2010 from http://www.pfcmc.com/esa/socdev/unyin/workshops/regm_asia_ilo_elizabeth_mo rris_paper.pdf. Portales, M., & Portales, R. (2005). Quality Education for Latinos and Latinas: Print and Oral Skills for All Students, K-College. Austin: University of Texas Press. Poverty | Data. (n.d.). Data | The World Bank. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from http://data.worldbank.org/topic/. Reid, J. (1984). Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire. Retrieved October 28, 2010 from http://lookingahead.heinle.com/filing/l-styles.htm. Reid, J. (1987). The Learning Style Preferences of ESL Students. TESOL Quarterly, 21(1), 87-11. Retrieved July 22, 2010 from the JSTOR database.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Spanish- Language Information & Resources. (n.d.). Accredited Language Services. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from www.alsintl.com/resources/languages. Triandis, H. C., & Suh, E. M. (2002). Cultural Influences on Personality. Annual Review Psychology, 53, 133-160. Retrieved November 2, 2010, from http://web.yonsei.ac.kr/suh/file/Cultural%20influences%20on%20personality.pdf. Wei-Ming, T. (n.d.). CORE VALUES IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT. Trinity University | Welcome. Retrieved July 22, 2010, from http://www.trinity.edu/rnadeau/FYS/Tu%20Wei-ming.htm.

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING APPENDIX 1

Name: Country: Language: Age: Level of Education: For how many years have you been studying English?

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

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Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire

Directions People learn in many different ways. For example, some people learn primarily with their eyes (visual learners) or with the ears (auditory learners); some people prefer to learn by experience and/or by "hands-on" tasks (kinesthetic or tactile learners); some people learn better when they work alone while others prefer to learn in groups. This questionnaire has been designed to help you identify the way(s) you learn best--the way(s) you prefer to learn. Read each statement on the following pages. Please respond to the statements AS THEY APPLY TO YOUR STUDY OF ENGLISH. Decide whether you agree or disagree with each statement. For example, if you strongly agree, mark:

SA

A

U

D

SD

Strongly agree

Agree

Undecided

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

X

Please respond to each statement quickly, without too much thought. Try not to change your responses after you choose them. Please answer all the questions. Please use a pen to mark your choices. Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire SA Strongly agree X

A Agree

U Undecided

D Disagree

SD Strongly Disagree

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

Item 1. When the teacher tells me the instructions I understand better. 2. I prefer to learn by doing something in class. 3. I get more work done when I work with others. 4. I learn more when I study with a group. 5. In class, I learn best when I work with others. 6. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the chalkboard. 7. When someone tells me how to do something in class, I learn it better. 8. When I do things in class, I learn better. 9. I remember things I have heard in class better than things I have read. 10. When I read instructions, I remember them better. 11. I learn more when I can make a model of something. 12. I understand better when I read instructions. 13. When I study alone, I remember things better. 14. I learn more when I make something for a class project. 15. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments. 16. I learn better when I make drawings as I study. 17. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture. 18. When I work alone, I learn better.

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SA

A

U

D

SD

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

19. I understand things better in class when I participate in roleplaying. 20. I learn better in class when I listen to someone. 21. I enjoy working on an assignment with two or three classmates. 22. When I build something, I remember what I have learned better. 23. I prefer to study with others. 24. I learn better by reading than by listening to someone. 25. I enjoy making something for a class project. 26. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities. 27. In class, I work better when I work alone. 28. I prefer working on projects by myself. 29. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures. 30. I prefer to work by myself

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

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Self-Scoring Sheet Instructions There are 5 questions for each learning category in this questionnaire. The questions are grouped below according to each learning style. Each question you answer has a numerical value.

SA

A

U

D

SD

Strongly agree

Agree

Undecided

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

4

3

5

2

1

Fill in the blanks below with the numerical value of each answer. For example, if answered Strongly Agree (SA) for question 6 (a visual question), write a number 5 (SA) on the blank next to question 6 below. Visual 6=5 When you have completed all the numerical values for Visual, add the numbers. Multiply the answer by 2, and put the total in the appropriate blank. Follow the process for each of the learning style categories. When you are finished, look at the scale at the bottom of the page; it will help you determine your major learning style preference(s), your minor learning style preference(s), and those learning style(s) that are negligible. If you need help, please ask your teacher.

Visual Question 6 10

Score

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

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12 24 29 Total Score = Total x 2

Tactile Question

Score

11 14 16 22 25 Total Score = Total x 2

Auditory Question 1 7 9

Score

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

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17 20 Total Score = Total x 2

Group Question

Score

3 4 5 21 23 Total Score = Total x 2

Kinesthetic Question 2 8 15 19 26

Score

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

33

Total Score = Total x 2

Individual Question

Score

13 18 27 28 30 Total Score = Total x 2

Major learning Style Preference

38-50

Minor Learning Style Preference

25-37

Negligible

0-24

Explanation of Learning Style Preferences Students learn in many different ways. The questionnaire you completed and scored showed which ways you prefer to learn English. In many cases, students' learning style preferences show how well students learn material in different situations. The explanations of major learning style preferences below describe the characteristics of those learners. The descriptions will give you some information about ways in which you learn best.

Visual Major Learning Style Preference

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING You learn well from seeing words in books, on the chalkboard, and in workbooks. You remember and understand information and instructions better if you read them. You don't need as much oral explanation as an auditory learner, and you can often learn alone, with a book. You should take notes of lectures and oral directions if you want to remember the information.

Auditory Major Learning Style Preference You learn from hearing words spoken and from oral explanations. You may remember information by reading aloud or moving your lips as you read, especially when you are learning new material. You benefit from hearing audio tapes, lectures, and class discussions. You benefit from making tapes to listen to, by teaching other students, and by conversing with your teacher.

Kinesthetic Major Learning Style Preference You learn best by experience, by being involved physically in classroom experiences. You remember information well when you actively participate in activities, field trips, and role-playing in the classroom. A combination of stimuli--for example, an audiotape combined with an activity--will help you understand new material.

Tactile Major Learning Style Preference You learn best when you have the opportunity to do "hands-on" experiences with materials. That is, working on experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models, and touching and working with materials provide you with the most successful learning situation. Writing notes or instructions can help you remember information, and physical involvement in class related activities may help you understand new information.

Group Major Learning Style Preference You learn more easily when you study with at least one other student, and you will be more successful completing work well when you work with others. You value group interaction and class work with other students, and you remember information better when you work with two or three classmates. The stimulation you receive from group work helps you learn and understand new information.

Individual Major Learning Style Preference You learn best when you work alone. You think better when you study alone, and you remember information you learn by yourself. You understand new material best when you learn it alone, and you make better progress in learning when you work by yourself.

Minor Learning Styles

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING In most cases, minor learning styles indicate areas where you can function well as a learner. Usually a very successful learner can learn in several different ways.

Negligible Learning Styles Often, a negligible score indicates that you may have difficulty learning in that way. One solution may be to direct your learning to your stronger styles. Another solution might be to try to work on some of the skills to strengthen your learning style in the negligible area. This explanation was adapted from the C.I.T.E. Learning Styles Instrument, Murdoch Teacher Center, Wichita, Kansas 67208. Copyright 1984, by

If you wish to use this questionnaire, contact

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