Supervised by Henrik Christensen

Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching Business and Social Science, Aarhus University Department of Business Communication

Authored by Adela Nicole de Pratto Master of Arts in Corporate Communication September 2013

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

ABSTRACT

The investigation of this Master’s thesis considers coaching a practice which enhances personal development, which is known to be related to unraveling and comprehending the human being. This paper uses an ontological approach to the matter, according to which individuals are not like any other being in the world, but exist in a way unique to them. Humans create experiences as they enter into relationships with everything that they come across. They relate to new situations and phenomena and interact with them pre-reflexively, making the relation part of who they are. In the first part of the paper a deeper insight is given on philosophical traditions around the particular phenomenon of language. In particular, exponents within the field of philosophy of language are introduced (as well as related notions), including continental philosophers belonging to the hermeneutic movement, Heidegger and Gadamer, advocates for theories of use of language, Wittgenstein and Searle, Habermas with his claims for an ethical discourse, the social constructionist Gergen, followed by Lakoff and Johson dealing with the more figurative aspect of language. The intent of this part of the paper is to bring forward the fact that although not all studies agree on a common definition for language, there is still a vast shared opinion that language exists in a given context and that through language one can understand and design his own structure of interpretation. The second part scrutinizes the underlying principles of coaching, including the origins and specific purpose of the practice, its mindset and the relationship between the coach and client, which is appointed to be one of the fundamental aspects for the success of coaching. This paper’s approach aims to mainly use the term “coaching” as its methodology is defined by coaching exponents like Whitmore, Flaherty, Whitworth, McDermott and Jago, and Rosinski; these authors describe coaching through terms like performance, learning, development, self-realization and potential. In the analysis, the theoretical knowledge resulting from the two fields is brought together, to ascertain how the practice of coaching is pervaded by the phenomenon of language. The analysis introduces coaching tools and techniques (the GROW model, the coaching dialogue, non-verbal communication) to provide the reader with a practical take on how coaching is applied, and, 1/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

successively, the philosophical perspectives of language are revealed in the coaching steps presented. More specifically, an attempt is made to analyze how a coach can raise a client’s awareness of a new language and help him embrace it, thereby opening possibilities for new observations, new behaviors and new actions; giving a different meaning to situations, relationships and experiences likely generates a mindset which is prone to change, to being more competent and becoming better at performing. Thereby, this paper also discusses how comprehending the phenomenon of language may open new opportunities for the practice of coaching, as well as it may provide individuals with a structure of interpretation, enabling them to consider what affects their behavior in a way that will bring out the wish to change and develop. Further development to this study may regard applying what is dealt with individually in this paper to a corporate level, reflecting upon how it might foster learning and emergent organizations. Moreover, the topic can be tackled from alternative perspectives. Examples may pertain to introducing substitute theories within the field of philosophy of language itself, or even presenting psychological aspects, including social psychology or theories concerning an individual’s path towards the primacy of whole.

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2/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

"Tell me and I'll forget. Show me and I may remember. Involve me and I'll understand" Chinese Proverb

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

Contents ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 6 1.1.

2.

1.1.1.

Academic Purpose ..................................................................................................................... 7

1.1.2.

Academic Relevance .................................................................................................................. 8

1.1.3.

Personal Objective ..................................................................................................................... 8

1.2.

Problem Statement and Research Questions.................................................................................... 9

1.3.

Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 10

1.4.

Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................................... 13

1.5.

Delimitations ................................................................................................................................... 15

Theoretical Perspectives.......................................................................................................................... 16 2.1.

Language.......................................................................................................................................... 16

2.1.1.

Introducing Philosophy of Language ....................................................................................... 16

2.1.2.

Continental Philosophy............................................................................................................ 17

2.1.3.

Theories of Language Use........................................................................................................ 23

2.1.4.

The Constructionist View......................................................................................................... 27

2.1.5.

The Reappraisal of Metaphors ................................................................................................ 29

2.2.

3.

Motivation ......................................................................................................................................... 6

Coaching .......................................................................................................................................... 30

2.2.1.

The Origin of Coaching ............................................................................................................ 30

2.2.2.

Defining Coaching .................................................................................................................... 31

2.2.3.

The purpose of Coaching ......................................................................................................... 33

2.2.4.

The Coaching Mindset ............................................................................................................. 39

2.2.5.

The Coaching Relationship ...................................................................................................... 41

2.2.6.

Emotional Intelligence ............................................................................................................. 45

Analysis – Coaching put into practice ...................................................................................................... 47 3.1.

GROWing with Coaching ................................................................................................................. 47

3.2.

The Coaching Dialogue .................................................................................................................... 53

3.2.1.

Opening up .............................................................................................................................. 56

3.2.2.

Levels of Listening.................................................................................................................... 58

3.2.3.

Appreciative Inquiry ................................................................................................................ 61

3.2.4.

Feedback .................................................................................................................................. 64

3.3.

Non-verbal Communication ............................................................................................................ 67

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

3.3.1.

Listening to non-verbal communication.................................................................................. 67

3.3.2.

Coaching the Body ................................................................................................................... 68

4.

Discussion and Further Development ..................................................................................................... 70

5.

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 79

Works Cited ..................................................................................................................................................... 82 Appendix A ...................................................................................................................................................... 88 Appendix B....................................................................................................................................................... 89 Appendix C ....................................................................................................................................................... 90 Appendix D ...................................................................................................................................................... 92 Appendix E ....................................................................................................................................................... 93

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

1. Introduction 1.1.

Motivation

Socrates (c. 469 BC – 399 BC) once said: “Let him who would move the world first move himself”. Current times suggest that the concept behind Socrates’ words is preeminent and necessary to overcome daily challenges, to endorse change and to fulfill personal as well as corporate goals. The concept of personal development takes account of a set of actions which aim to increase awareness, enhance identity, foster progress and potential, and achieve a higher quality of life. Self-development may be considered an important part of this notion, as it refers to a self-guided improvement (VandenBos, 2007), often stemming from psychological theorizations, which follows individuals in their pursuit of achievement. Yet, personal development also implies helping others in their development. This may be accomplished by backing up practices with research arguing for the importance of a framework of learning programs, tool and methods to plan, implement and assess individuals’ improvement. Coaching may be viewed as one of the practices which enhance personal development. It is considered a relatively new discipline, despite the fact that it was established in the United States over forty years ago. The reason it is still today perceived as a fresh approach lies in the fact that it is continuously being applied within different areas. Rooted in the fields of sports, it was soon carried out and investigated within neuroscience and business management. At present, coaching is regarded as a project which targets growth with the establishment of specific objectives, and which facilitates change through a self-corrective and self-generative process (Whitworth et al., 1998). Multiple past and contemporary studies reveal how coaching can be used to help people meet their goals in their private or professional life, improve their relationships with themselves, with others and with their environment. Many of these sources introduce techniques and models to assist in the application of coaching, as well as presenting effective frameworks on how to implement coaching principles and put these into practice. Despite the extensive literature, what is often ignored by texts is how deeply connected coaching is to understanding what a person is (Flaherty, 2005). It may be argued that studies on coaching have a comprehensive view on human life through the reference of psychology (Whitmore, 2009). However, little attention is paid to 6/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

how easily it is assumed that everyone shares a common understanding of what being human means (Flaherty, 2005). In this Master’s thesis, coaching is presented in a way that may introduce the relevance of comprehending some vital constitutive particulars of human beings, namely the possibility of relating to meaning and truth but most importantly to language. Topics from academic and philosophical research are introduced with the intention of providing additional concepts that can serve the practice of coaching. In particular, theory deriving from twentieth-century philosophy is scrutinized; considerations of some of the bigger philosophical minds of the period are put forth, including Heidegger, Gadamer, Wittgenstein and Habermas and are linked to more recent exponents, who most of all examine the matter of language and its use. 1.1.1. Academic Purpose

In the light of the above mentioned, the overall academic purpose of this paper is to analyze coaching through the lens of philosophy of language and related concepts. As sated previously, coaching may be considered a contemporary and actual practice applied in business settings time and again (Human Strategic Review, 2008). Furthermore, the tools it and techniques it provides makes it a rather practical and tangible method. Diversely, philosophy of language has become of less and less interest to the general public (De George, 2006), and may be rather difficult to relate to in the business world especially, due to its deep theoretical roots and the existential questions it poses. Therefore, the main goal is to combine the two fields, providing a new theoretical framework to coaching, and conversely, also proving how a subject area like philosophy of language, which generally appears abstract, can be revealed in real life through the practice of coaching. Another reason for merging the two fields regards the intention of demonstrating how concepts from the last century still have value today through activities and state-of-the-art methods used within coaching. With the order reversed, coaching may assume alternative perspectives and can be enriched, if concepts derived from philosophy of language are taken into consideration. The ultimate objective, therefore, is to provide a source of inspiration for the business environment, on both an individual and corporate level.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

1.1.2. Academic Relevance

As a thesis for a Master program in Corporate Communication, this paper aims to also bring forward the communication perspective. In particular, coaching is chosen as a practice which is known to enhance communicative skills, since the more an individual understands and is able to apply coaching tools, the more impact his communication is prone to have (Whitmore, 2009). Coaching may then be used to adapt communication so that it can make a concrete difference in the business environment, by, for instance, affecting relationships, connecting an individual with others’ thoughts and feelings, or even by forming a mutual understanding that enables effective problem solving and creative thinking. In order to do so, coaching may be applied in terms of guiding through skills (for instance, presentational skills), but most commonly it is known to operate on a behavioral level; examples include intervening in balancing the exertion of power and influence, practicing being truly present in a given situation, assuming confidence, displaying empathy, and managing change and conflict. Although not all of the above mentioned situations are brought up in this paper, it is intended to indicate how coaching may change the way these situations can be handled. By scrutinizing theory behind what role the philosophical tradition assigns to language, as well as to its use, this thesis strives to provide the reader with a new way of perceiving situations. The analysis of this paper applies this lens to coaching, with the aspiration that ultimately the study can be enforced to enhance the performance of corporate settings. 1.1.3. Personal Objective

Personally, this paper gives me the possibility to explore the thinking behind coaching, a topic which, over the last years, has triggered my interest significantly. The idea of self-development through a process of acquiring awareness and taking responsibility for our choices reassures me. Of course, responsibility may be experienced as a burden at times. Yet, the fact that coaching assists us in acknowledging realities about ourselves and the circumstances we encounter, as well as it aims to increase our responsiveness to them, generates more thought-through and less troublesome choices. Moreover, by being more aware that often a happening presents me with a choice to make, and that the responsibility which will follow is mine, allows me to feel more independent and free to maneuver the happening in my desired direction. This viewpoint may also

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

be applied to a business setting, in the creation of relationship with co-workers and the corporate environment, and thus also stimulates my professional curiosity.

I realize that truly implementing a coaching mentality may be challenging at first glance individually, and secondly corporately; modifying an already well-established mindset and ingrained behavioral patterns requires time, effort and energy. For this reason, in this paper I decide to draw upon knowledge acquired from my educational background within theory of scientific methods, as well as communication and behavioral theory to support my approbation of the practice coaching. Most importantly, by scrutinizing diverging perspectives within the field of philosophy of language, I intend to provide a theoretical basis for how language can significantly alter communication and interaction with others, and ultimately foster a compelling coachingoriented environment.

1.2.

Problem Statement and Research Questions

By taking into account the above introduction, including the academic purpose and my personal objective, it can be concluded that the main intent of this thesis is: To investigate how the practice of coaching exposes individuals to the phenomenon of language. In order to address this problem statement more deeply, in this paper, an attempt is made to answer the following key research questions:  ”What is language?”  “What is coaching, and what is its purpose?”  “In what way is coaching pervaded by language?”  “What role does language play in the practice of coaching?”  “Does language affect individuals' structure of interpretation? How?” The analysis of this thesis deals with the topics in a way that allows individuals to use distinctions presented as a way to look at their own world, from a personal point of view. However, another perspective is also presented, which consists in an explanation of how coaches approach the people they are coaching, in this paper referred to as “clients”. With that in mind, an additional research question arises:

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

 “How may understanding the phenomenon of language open up more possibilities for coaching?”

In order to answer these research questions, the following sections include a clarification of the methodology and the angle from which the findings are put forward in this thesis. Subsequently an overview of the theoretical framework is presented, specifying the theoretical areas chosen for the analysis and the discussion regarding these choices. The theoretical framework is accompanied by a deeper investigation, which serves to bring up all relevant theoretical principles necessary for the analysis. In the latter, the theories from the main two subject areas are brought together and examined in detail. Lastly, the conclusion and discussion argue for the findings, attempting to answer the research questions stated in this section, with careful attention and critical consideration.

1.3.

Methodology

The methodology applied in this paper draws inspiration from social constructionism. This tradition may also be referred to as ‘constructivism’. However, it is argued by one of the major exponents, K.J. Gergen (1985), that the latter term is often related to Piagetian theory and to a type of perceptual theory, creating confusion about its meaning. Therefore, this paper adheres to the former term. Among other social constructionists - who have contributed significantly to this theoretical orientation - are M.M. Gergen, Shotter and Sarbin. Social constructionism may be considered a movement which emerged and was influenced by several different disciplines and intellectual customs. Today, it stands as a tradition that reinforces “new” approaches (like ‘critical psychology’ and ‘discourse analysis’), which tend to offer radical and critical alternatives within the fields of social sciences, humanities and social psychology (Burr, 2001). Although there is no specific definition of ‘social constructionism’, a set of assumptions have been established to outline the main features of the movement (from Gergen, 1985). These features ought to be taken into consideration by the reader of this paper.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

The first assumption regards the importance for social constructionists to distance themselves from what may be considered as taken-for-granted knowledge (Burr, 2001). In this paper, an alternative viewpoint is introduced, in relation to how individuals may understand themselves, as well as the immediate surrounding and, in general, the world they live in. The positivist outlook is challenged, according to which conventional knowledge is objective and determined by unbiased observation (Burr, 2001). The intent of the analysis presented in the following sections is to provoke the reader to look beyond what appears in front of him, to question and reflect on it. Another conjecture of this movement is related to how ways of thinking, concepts and ideas are specific to the historical and cultural setting in which they take place; it is argued that, in order to get a true understanding, one must approach knowledge by inspecting not only the individual, but also the social, political and economic venue of the situation (Gergen, 1973). Given this specificity of knowledge, the arguments put forward in this thesis are based on the assumption that one way of thinking is not necessarily truer or superior to another. Social processes play a fundamental role in social constructionism, and they are also reckoned as central in the understanding of this paper. As a matter of fact, in the analysis, two distinguished theoretical fields are brought together to form a shared version of what may be considered constructed knowledge. Social processes and interactions of all kinds, with particular emphasis on language, are believed by social constructionists to fabricate versions of knowledge (Burr, 2001). Moreover, this interaction is accompanied by an amalgamation of knowledge and social action, generating different forms and constructions which, in this thesis, include the two theoretical areas coming together to form a negotiated understanding of the idea of language deriving from the practice of coaching. In Berger and Luckmann’s (1966) work the Social Construction of Reality, it is explained how social practices give rise to social occurrences, by taking an anti-essentialist position and rejecting the idea of pre-given content to an individual. This perspective is reflected in this paper, as the argumentations made presume that people still have a discoverable nature, with a predisposition for learning and developing. Thereby, the focus on process stands out too; key to social constructionism is process, rather than structure, consisting of the creation of knowledge through

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

something which is done when people come together (Burr, 2001). Process is a concept which appears throughout this thesis and is highly relevant in the discussion of coaching. The anti-realist nature of this paper also shines through in the assertion that the practice of coaching may be viewed upon from the philosophical perspective, a lens which few studies within this field have considered (Flaherty, 2005). In other word, the paper takes distance from the idea of ‘objective truth’ and underlines the possibility of approaching the topic from a viewpoint which might serve some interests rather than others. As mentioned above, main contributors to the social constructionist movement are Gergen and Gergen (1984, 1986) and Sarbin (1986), who argue for constructions, like stories and narratives, as key to human beings and their understandings. Related to their debate is the interest in dynamic and interpersonal relationships in the process of construction (Shotter, 1993a, 1993b). In all works, the conception of language is predominant; in this theoretical orientation language is perceived as a pre-condition of thought, as well as a form of social action (Burr, 2001). Scrutinizing this assumption about language is fundamental in reading this paper, and it anticipates the theoretical framework following this section. In fact, the theory backing up the analysis of this thesis is chosen to support the social constructionist point of view, according to which language serves to provide a framework of meaning to individuals. Further accentuated is how language may be thought of as something more than a simple expression: a form of action which gives structure and meaning. The philosophical mindsets selected to reinforce the theoretical analysis also take an ontological standpoint and, in accordance with the social constructionist view, maintain that language is unique to human beings and that “it is language which brings the person into being in the first place” (Burr, 2001, p.33). In accordance with Arbnor & Bjerke’s (1997) research in Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge, it may be argued that this paper approaches the topic from a subjectivist and relativistic understanding of reality. In fact, the ambitions for creating knowledge in this paper pertain to understand how social reality is constructed, maintained and defined. Networks of meanings arise as a result of how man sees the process of creation as a dominant part of his everyday reality (Arbnor & Bjerke, 1997).

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

Similar to many studies which argue for reality as a social construction, the technique used to create knowledge in this paper is a hermeneutic diagnosis. Hermeneuticists (or interpreters) claim that there is a fundamental difference between explaining nature and understanding and interpreting culture, and that the latter may never appear as objective knowledge (Arbnor & Bjerke, 1997). As a basis for this paper, an exploration and interpretation of literary texts from philosophers and authors is conducted. In particular, in scrutinizing the phenomenon of language, it is intended to observe the individual and subjective source (including text and author), as a starting point in order to comprehend the underlying discourse. As common for hermeneutic techniques, the process of understanding in this paper involves grasping facts as “life manifestations” of the concerning individual, which may then be generalized, as constructed forms for individual human actions (Arbnor & Bjerke, 1997).

1.4.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical section of this thesis pertains to two main subject areas, namely language and coaching. Language is treated from a philosophical point of view and the research field of philosophy of language is presented. In this paper, language is first dealt with by scrutinizing thoughts of exponents belonging to continental philosophy, namely Heidegger (1889) and Gadamer (1900). Although other philosophers are known to belong to this subject area, these two names appear as significant supporters of the importance of language. Their approach is ontological and is known as belonging to the field of hermeneutics, a paradigm consisting of theory of interpretation which played a crucial role in the twentieth century. Due to the complexity of thoughts and the multiplicity of studies behind Heidegger and Gadamer’s works, in this paper, additional space is used, with the intent of providing clarification and a comprehensive overview of the topic. There are several lines of thoughts, each of which offers a substantial body of literature in the definition of linguistic meaning. However, due to the vastness of the topic, the most relevant and striking for the analysis of this thesis are chosen. In particular, theories of language use are brought up, through the delineation of the “late” Wittgenstein (1889), Searle (1932) and Habermas (1929). These consider language as part of human behavior and observe the relation between meaning and use, as well as the intention of the speaker. 13/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

Thereafter, the first part of the theoretical section indicates the path of language towards a social constructionist view, represented by Gergen (1935), who provides a gateway to a generative discourse created in so-called relational processes (Gergen et al., 2008). Lastly, the paper concludes this part with the progression of the concept of language towards considerations by Lakoff and Johson (1980), who argue how language may provide what is possible to be, feel and do (Flaherty, 2005), and offer an alternative and modern twist to how figurative language may be used and understood. The second part of the theory examines in depth what is meant by coaching and what are its underlying principles. A coach may be considered a partner who, through a creative and thoughtprovoking process, inspires his client to maximize his personal and professional potential (Whitmore, 1996). Coaching may seem a broad and sometimes even vague concept. This is due to its numerous definitions, which are also often intertwined with ideas of mentoring, counseling, therapy, training and various styles of management and training. Moreover, multiple structures, models and methodologies can be applied to various areas of coaching. Some of these include life coaching, business coaching, executive coaching, career coaching, personal coaching, health coaching and sports coaching. Therefore, the theoretical indication of this paper serves to specify the typology of coaching and tools which accompany it. In explaining the purpose of coaching, the intent is to provide the reader with the key principles which belong to this practice. In particular, literature is introduced, to support how coaching may assist in presenting the client with new opportunities, as well as removing the obstacles which hinder these, guiding the client in his discovery and clarification of the goals he wants to achieve, and making sure that the solutions and strategies to follow emerge from the client himself. Despite the choice in this paper of using the pronoun “he” for both coach and client, it is important to acknowledge that many coaches and clients will, of course, be female. The methodology behind coaching is presented in accordance with the way exponents like Whitmore (2009), Flaherty (2005), Whitworth et al. (1998), Rosinski (2003) and McDermott & Jago (2006) deal with the topic, who put major focus on terms including ‘performance’, ‘development’, ‘selfrealization’ and ‘potential’.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

The theoretical part on coaching reveals the underlying mindset, which consists in maintaining a realistic but optimistic view on a situation, on the process or even on the individual himself. This appreciative approach includes questions based on discovery, on proactivity in the management of personal challenges and opportunities, and on constructive comments and feedback aimed at obtaining positive reactions (Orem et al., 2007). To conclude, the coaching relationship is defined, as it is often contended, by the connection between coach and client remainings not only the beginning point of coaching, but also its foundation (Flaherty, 2005); it is a crucial stage to emphasize, since it may often be neglected, and when it is ignored, it most certainly may represent the cause for lack of success (Flaherty, 2005).

1.5.

Delimitations

In this paper, language is approached solely from a philosophical perspective, even though it is acknowledged that this phenomenon has been and may still be scrutinized by linguistic and pure sociological studies. Besides hints from Gergen’s psychological background (which may arise in the theoretical section on the social constructionist view), the psychological aspect is not dealt with either. Moreover, it may be argued that considering research within the field of social psychology can contribute to the findings of this paper. However, it is believed that it may broaden the topic extensively, and thereby mislead the reader; since it is studied by experiments, using statistics, its intent of explaining and predicting is very different from the one put forward in these sections. Therefore, similar to the linguistic, sociological and psychological perspectives, this approach does not represent the main focus of this paper. Secondly, the relevance of philosophy of language is supported in this paper. However, it is important to note that not all theories belonging to this field are brought up in the analysis. Examples include truth-conditional theories, verificationist theories and Chomsky’s syntactic theory. The intent behind this choice is not to disregard the dismissed theories, but rather to recognize the relevance towards the topic of the selected ones. In regards to coaching, instead, it is intended to approach coaching from an individual perspective. In detail, the methods and technique introduced are aimed at assisting the individual in his personal development. It is also argued in the paper, that the practice may be applied to team and group settings, as well as addressed to organizations and other business environments. However, 15/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

what remains is the assumption that coaching is to firstly be applied as a way to accomplish selfmastery, and that coaching for group- or business settings may produce most effective results when the individual level has already been tackled.

2. Theoretical Perspectives 2.1.

Language

Language is generally defined as “a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols” (Nordquist, 2013). However, studies within several fields have been working on building on its definition as a tool for communication. The study of language and linguistics started developing over two thousand years ago, since the birth of the first grammatical descriptions. Today, not only does this science scrutinize several aspects within language, but it is also conducted within a multitude of subdisciplines, all of which contribute to its development by approaching it from different theoretical angles. Yet, the three traditional levels, which most scholarly disciplines are known to refer to, are syntax, semantics and phonetics. Respectively, these discuss the formal structure, the relation to meaning and the sound of language (The Gale Group, 2010). Related is also the subfield of linguistic pragmatics, which puts emphasis on the use of language and on how its context contributes to its meaning (MerriamWebster, 2013). Taking all these aspects into consideration is the subject field of philosophy of language. 2.1.1. Introducing Philosophy of Language

Philosophy of language started gaining importance in the last century, and it developed as a form of self-consciousness of language, a phenomenon which earlier had almost been taken for granted. This stream line of thinking is known to go beyond a superficial attention towards words, and rather focuses on existential issues. In fact, according to this line of philosophy, language becomes fundamental to humanity, and to understanding human life. For instance, it is alleged that language provides human beings with abstract thinking and that it shapes the way they relate to the world (Boroditsky, 2009). It does so by allowing them to conceptualize and deal with different aspects of reality (Boroditsky, 2009).

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

There seems to be an inclination to consider words transparent and that these are simply applied as they are. Yet, it is argued that forms of human experiences and social relations would not be possible without the existence of language (HotWord, 2011). As a matter of fact, from an ontological perspective, language is what differentiates human beings from any other form of life (Human Coach, 2011). By way of explanation, words become part of human experiences, which cannot occur without linguistic classifications. Philosophy of language poses transcendental questions, which concern topics like the relationship between words and reality, the nature of meaning, how language may be used socially, and how it relates to truth and the world (Routledge, 2013). 2.1.2. Continental Philosophy

Continental philosophy generally adheres to streams of philosophy of the twentieth century, including phenomenology, existentialism, Heideggerian ontology and hermeneutics. In these disciplines, philosophy of language is considered crucial in the discovery of logic, in its Greek sense as “Logos”, meaning discourse or dialectic (Routledge, 2013). This paper firstly examines the hermeneutic movement, which, in the nineteen hundreds, went through a restatement on both an existential and an ontological level. Early hermeneutics, in fact, that considered a traditional discipline for a correct interpretation of texts, and has little to do with the 'hermeneutic philosophy' that today is regarded as one of the most influential currents of contemporary thought. Underlying the definition of 'hermeneutic philosophy' is what has developed the legacy of a more mature reflection of some of the most important exponents of the time, namely Martin Heidegger (1989) and Hans-Georg Gadamer (1990). As a matter of fact, it is the latter philosopher, who, in the Preface of his Truth and Method (1960), a text which may be considered the main reference of the contemporary hermeneutic philosophy, states that his work is intended to represent a radical change of perspective from the traditional hermeneutics (translation Bompiani, 1960/1983, p.XLIV), as it does not address issues related to the interpretative methodology of science, nor does it contribute to the extraction of meaning of a text. Rather, it intends to “raise a philosophical problem in regards to man’s whole life experience, as well as to his practice of life "(translation Bompiani, 1960/1983, p.8). This breakthrough is much more radical than the one experienced at the end of the eighteenth century by Schleiermacher 17/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

(see Appendix A); not only does it investigate philosophical issues related to understanding and communication, but it aims to grasp the concept of understanding and communication as key dimensions to human existence. In this existential and ontological redefinition of hermeneutics, the conception of language is crucial. 2.1.2.1.

Language and Being

Martin Heidegger’s (1889) hermeneutic approach has developed the renowned concept of Dasein (literally “being-the-there”), according to which "language is the house of being”, characterized by being and pervaded by being (Heidegger, 1982). This formula constitutes the sum of the philosopher’s shift of focus known as “the turn” (die Kehre). By defining the language "house of being", Heidegger does not intend to fall back into the metaphysical scheme, in which human beings have no ability to act upon the phenomenon of language; instead, emphasis is put on how language may be considered home to the individual, as a place in which he resides (Heidegger, 1982). The linguistic structuring of the idea of existence, previously admitted by the author in his book Being and Time (1927), is now developed by identifying a decisive element in language, namely a privileged expression of a universal truth of being. The linguistic dimension then coincides with the structure of reality, a reality which is interpreted from a hermeneutic perspective. Heidegger considers language an ineffable and mysterious reality, which helps one to get a glimpse of the Lichtung, or the illumination of an elusive truth of being. However, for the philosopher, language does not refer to an “Absolute” (Heidegger, 1982). Rather, it represents a mystery given by its enigmatic depth; language “is” not, but it “happens”, and thus it also becomes a mystery that human beings encounter in their daily life and that they make use of in their experiences. Moreover, he defines language as “the clearing-concealing advent of being itself” (Heidegger, 1982, p.249) and argues that other beings, like animals, do not stand out in the clearing of being like humans do. In fact, “because plants and animals are lodged in their respective environments but are never placed freely into the clearing of being which alone is ‘world,’ they lack language” (Heidegger, 1982, p.248). Language is generally considered to be a tool for expression, and its importance may often be connected to the fact that human beings speak. For Heidegger, it is not the human being who 18/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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makes use of language, but rather language uses the human being (cited in Kockelmans, 1972). In describing what language is, he resorts to a screening tautology, but that ceases to be such, if viewed upon from his particular perspective, and instead becomes a very eloquent definition: “Language is language. Language speaks. If we allow ourselves to fall into the abyss evoked by this statement, we will not fall into the void. We will fall into a height, the altitude of which opens a depth. The two make up the space and substance of a place where we can make ourselves at ease and find the home for the real essence of human kind” (translation Caracciolo & Perotti, 1971/1973, p. 27). It is the human being’s job to listen to the voice of speech, not as something that has an end in itself, but as the voice of being which manifests itself in language. Also, reflection on language is considered by Heidegger as a necessary way to achieve a genuine relationship with the so-called Lichtung, the moment of “clearing” in which anything or any idea and new knowledge can show itself and become unconcealed (Gonzales, 2009). In the essay collection “On the Way to Language” (Unterwegs zur Sprache, 1971), a new conception emerges that considers language an active force rather than a passive object of human initiation, as a voice that speaks rather than a silent listener to other people's words. Language is described as something that is at the source, which everything stems from (Lyon, 2006). The original character of language is also linked to its ability to create ever new words and expressions. However, it is important for Heidegger to mention that language is also much more than pure expression; it may be regarded as a dimension which opens the doors to truth, to a multiplicity of meanings, exposing a deep sense of being (cited in Kockelmans, 1972). Heidegger often uses the term die Sage, in the sense of “the saying”, and he sustains that it does not operate through meaning (bedeuten), but by pointing out (zeigen), or showing and (Heidegger, 1982). Only the meaning then lies within the words. “The saying”, instead, represents a fundamental concept which opens discussions, and allows the infinite experience of language to activate the truth of being; it embodies an epic song of being, which one must listen to and understand. According to the philosopher, best at this are great poets and thinkers (see Appendix B). Listening is also brought up in “On the Way to Language” (1971), which presents Heidegger’s concern on how in modern times language tends to decay; human beings then need to get away 19/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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from a person’s metaphysics, and instead start embracing the ability to listen and absorb silence, in order to truly embark on the road of a pure linguistic experience (Philipse, 1998). The expression “on the way to language”, therefore, signifies a far from linear path to reach linguistic resources, which are often considered to belong to everyone and somehow also inherent to the specificity of human beings. Actually, Heidegger does not regard language as a possession which is naturally acquired at birth; instead, according to the philosopher, it does not belong to the human being, and it is up to the individual to be open and start listening to it. Language thus implies a relationship of listening and responding, as well as an open platform for dialogue (Gespräch), which by Heidegger signifies the mode in which language happens authentically (translation Amoroso, 1993). In other words, dialogue is not only one of the ways in which language takes place, but it is also the condition that makes the linguistic dimension essential (Ibid.). Additionally, the Heideggerian philosophy asserts that instead of thinking that individuals participate in a dialogue, human beings listen to one another and become the dialogue (Heidegger, 1982). In other words, Heidegger seems to go against the existing hermeneutic thinking, and proposes a different form of interpretation, focusing on observing language not to specify or make terms explicit, but enable the unsaid of a word to come to light and thus make it more powerful. 2.1.2.2.

Language as a Vehicle for Interpretation

The concept of dialogue and importance of listening to the unsaid behind everything which is explicitly said is re-evoked in the philosophy of the Heidegger scholar Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900 – 2002). Yet, Gadamer brings up the notion of game as a prelinguistic dialogue, which regards the learning of a language as a game of mutual engagement between an adult and child (Barthold, 2012). According to the philosopher, the game is to be played seriously to the point that the individuals almost lose themselves in it, and every play becomes a “being-played” (Hogan, 2000). The same goes for language: human beings do not play with language, it is the language, the dialogue, which plays with them (Hogan, 2000). For Gadamer the game is structurally similar to the dialogue. This game phenomenology applied to language resembles Wittgenstein’s thoughts, which are brought up in more detail in the next section.

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Gadamer also speaks about language as a ritual game. The game represents the common thread that guides the hermeneutics of Gadamer from art to festivals, to rituals and to language. On this point, the difference between the concepts of Mitsamt and Miteinander; being “together-with” and being “with-one-another” is also introduced (Di Cesare, 2013). These differ logically. However, ontologically, one is interwoven with the other. The difference lies in the principle of reciprocity. According to the philosopher, the ritual game, still being linguistic, is played by being “togetherwith” others in the community, whereas the language game, still being a ritual, is played by being “with-one-another” (Di Cesare, 2013). Mitsamt thus means adherence to the community, and Miteinander may be considered an invitation to speak in the mutual community of dialogue. In the latter, the other person is more valued, and since language considers the others, language is more present (Di Cesare, 2013). According to Gadamer’s thinking, language should not only be seen as a verbal language. In a broader sense, it should be understood as any form of communication, not only speech, but also all the gestures that come into play in establishing linguistic relationships with others (Lawn, 2004). The intimate link between language and writing already indicates the limits of language, since the fact that language may be transcribed and put into words denotes a self-limitation of language. Among the limitations of language Gadamer also mentions the limit of the unspoken and the unspeakable (Wierciński, 2011). To this end, the philosopher brings up the practice of utterance and how this form of talk, which only represents one aspect within the rich variety of linguistic expressions, entails preferring a particular abstraction used in the building of doctrinal systems (Wierciński, 2011). It is then the game which allows an individual to build a bridge between the form of communication, which is not yet semantically articulated, and verbal communication; the game is a kind of pre-linguistic dialogue and provides human being with freedom (Gadamer, 1997/2007). In reflecting on the limitations, Gadamer puts forward what he considers a crucial problem inherent to the edge of the language; even if a speaker tries to find the right word in each moment, he may have still have the awareness that he might have not grasped the word completely. The intention behind words and expressions may often go beyond what, in a

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language, reaches the other person. It may be then argued that the unfulfilled need of finding the right word constitutes the true essence of language (Arthos, 2009). A dialogue, from Gadamer’s perspective, may be considered an agreement between two people about language. The limit of language, according to the philosopher, takes place in the discursiveness of words, of what individuals say, think and communicate (Gadamer, 1997/2007). Language does not completely exist in what is said, but in a dialogue, or a unity of meaning that is built from words (Wort) and responses (Antwort); only in a dialogue does language acquire its full roundness (Gadamer, 1997/2007). According to Gadamer, the world is not as an object, the world exists as a horizon, and understanding means understanding oneself in the world. The word horizon evokes the living experience that most human beings are aware of: an infinite distance which may open up new possibilities (Regan, 2012). In this sense, the world becomes an unlimited space in which human beings can seek their direction. However, neither the world, nor human beings are thought of as given entities by the philosopher. Yet, humans are granted a sense of freedom. This freedom, according to Gadamer, underlines individuals’ own propensity to pursue knowledge, control and use the world around us, entailing the fact that they have a choice and responsibility for their decisions (Barthold, 2010). Gadamer argues that understanding the world includes understanding each other, and understanding each other means also understanding the other; it is the individual’s task to stop believing that, just because he is given the ability to think he is also destined to place himself above others (Regan, 2012). Employing the true effectiveness of language to understand each other may thus help taking distance from the sense of self-centeredness. In other words, effort is to be put so that the individual makes sure he is comprehensible to himself and to others, and then others are able to give feedback and confirmation. According to Gadamer, this process is part of an authentic dialogue (Dallmayr, 1993). Moreover, in listening to others, an individual increases his sense of solidarity, a crucial element when differences in languages need to be minimized and a mutual organization is desired. According to Gadamer, the “one-with-another” relationship is cultivated in the true language, and especially in the dialogue. Being “one-with-another” does not consist in one person talking and 22/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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holding a monologue, and only later the second person may start talking too. Rather, in a dialogue, each word is believed to seek an answer, as each word may be considered a question. Therefore, each possible answer may represent a meeting or a convergence, and ultimately an effort to agree (Di Cesare, 2013).

To conclude, in the game phenomenology Gadamer acts between two main points of view of Heidegger and Wittegenstein; according to Wittgenstein the game is played by speakers who, by having rules and working with words, know how to make grammatical moves within the game of language (Biletzki & Matar, 2009). Gadamer, instead, believes the speakers’ outlook is always exceeded by the games outlook, through the conversation which is taking place. A distance of thought from Heidegger is also clear. Wittgenstein assigns the domain to the speaking subject, whereas according to Heidegger, the domain goes to language (Heidegger, 1982). Gadamer assumes an in-between stand, which reflects an intermediate role of the game that accentuates the dialogue’s active process (Schihalejev, 2011). 2.1.3. Theories of Language Use

Theories of language use start arising with the later Wittgenstein, who works on developing theories which can be applied to the perception of "meaning as use" in language, as well as of how language assumes a more communitarian view. Another exponent prevalent within this stream of thought is John Langshaw Austin (1911 – 1960), who, similarly to Wittgenstein, criticizes the treatment of language as an abstract referential system (Potter, 2001). Indeed, both philosophers focus on how language may be used actively. However, Austin’s main intention regards providing a more systematic and methodical account of language (Potter, 2001), and introduces a theory on so-called speech acts. This latter theory is put into practice by Searle, who synthesizes ideas from Austin, and in his work provides what he considers a set of rules of language. In the following sections of this paper, a more detailed account of Wittgenstein and Searle is made. Moreover, a short explanation of contributions of Habermas and Apel is presented, which include a new reflection on communicative ethics within the use of language. 2.1.3.1.

Language-Games

The fame and importance of Ludwig Wittgenstein's (1889–1951) thoughts are related to a reflection that revolves around language. Scholars trace the reflection back to the linguistic turn of 23/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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the twentieth century’s philosophy, carried out by two works, which have become some of the most influential ones for the contemporary thinking, namely the Logical-Philosophical Treatise or Tractatus (1921) and the Philosophical Investigations (1953). Interesting for this paper’s purpose is the later Wittgenstein and his Philosophical Investigations; in his work, the Austrian-British philosopher criticizes his early Tractatus and referential philosophy, leading to a new philosophical stream of thoughts, which become crucial for later research and studies (Bogen, 1972). According to his critique, language does not function as a nomenclature, and words are not a set of labels that one can appoint to objects they refer to (Anscombe, 1986). The language used by human beings is rather a heterogeneous interweaving of activities which include a broad range of practices, named by Wittgenstein language-games, which may be made of both linguistic and non-linguistic elements. Language-games include, for instance, commanding and executing the order, reporting an event and speculating on it, coming up a story and reading it, making a joke, asking, thanking, cursing, etc. (Anscombe, 1986). Meaning, therefore, often corresponds to its use within a particular context (Blair, 2006). As introduced briefly in the previous section, according to Wittgenstein, language-games have a methodological function: they are primitive language activities that the philosopher has to imagine, with the purpose of providing essential comparisons that shed light, through similarities and dissimilarities, on the state of language (Anscombe, 1986). Concurrently, imagining a language means imagining a form of life, in which the development of conventional linguistic practices, governed by shared rules, is always conditioned by non-linguistic behaviors. These behaviors are called by Wittgenstein primitive reactions and they are considered to be fundamental for the evolution of complex linguistic concepts (Malcolm, 1993). If there were no bodily expressions of emotions and affectivity, for example primitive reactions of pain, parents would not be able to teach language-games to their children. According to the philosopher, language-games linked, in this case, with the concept of pain, are necessary to the children so that they can substitute primitive expressions like screaming and crying (Fogelin, 1995). Even the notions within the psychological sphere are formed and develop in a collective and social context, within primitive or complex practices (Blair, 2006). It is possible to follow their development by imagining intermediate members, or ways of interactions which are more basic 24/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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than language, but which also distinguish themselves from primitive animal concepts. In his Philosophical Investigations (1953/1997), Wittgenstein asserts: “One of the principal sources of our incomprehension is that we don’t embrace the use of our words with our look. Our grammar lacks a panoramic quality. The panoramic representation gives us this comprehension which consists, exactly, in the fact that we ‘see connections’. This gives us the need for intermediate members.” (p.56). It is important to understand why Wittgenstein introduces the concept of intermediate members and mentally experiments to imagine alternative forms of life, which are linked to the human form of life by a grid of similarities and differences: the objective is to obtain a “perspicuous representation” (übersichtliche Darstellung), an “overview” (Übersicht) on the complex interweaving of activities which make up language, in other words, a way to eliminate misunderstandings and pitfalls to which language presents (Baker & hacker, 2005). Wittgenstein writes: A main source of our failure to understand is that we do not command a clear view of the use of our words– Our grammar is lacking in this sort of perspicuity. A perspicuous representation produces just that understanding which consists in 'seeing connexions'. Hence the importance of finding and inventing intermediate cases. The concept of a perspicuous representation is of fundamental significance for us. It earmarks the form of account we give, the way we look at things. (Is this a “Weltanschauung”?). Philosophical Investigations, sect. 122 2.1.3.2.

Speech Acts

American philosopher John Searle (1932) has been, and still is today, among the major representatives of analytical philosophy. Searle is best known for his pragmatic approach to the issue of meaning, characterized by linguistic communication and the theory of illocutionary or speech acts (Searle, 1971). According to this theory, important verbal expressions constitute behaviors and, as such, are never separated from aspects which are closely linked to relationship between individuals (Searle, 1971). Particular emphasis is put on so-called “speech acts'', or assertions used to express and simultaneously engage in actions like promising, commanding, 25/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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requesting, etc. (Searle, 1971). With this type of analysis, which may be considered a systematization of Wittgenstein’s indications, Searle establishes a deep connection between theory of meaning and theory of human action, on which he also bases the communicative and pragmatic resources belonging to language (Vanderveken, 2002). Indeed, in his philosophy, the shift from object to subject is evident; focus is put on the person speaking, as it is believed that words do not exist autonomously, but instead they are generated by human beings in actual situations for a specific purpose (Searle, 1969). Meaning may then be justly comprehended, if the intentions of the language user are also understood (Searle, 1969). Moreover, Searle’s interest extends to identifying what type of behavior can be regarded as true linguistic behavior, and to how it may be related to language in the world (Nuyts, 2003). Identifying how people relate to each other, while communicating and performing acts, becomes key to understanding how language relates to the world (Nuyts, 2003). This viewpoint displays Searle’s strong relation to the later Wittgenstein, who was the first to give this direction to philosophy of language, which considers language a form of human behavior and life. Yet, Searle builds his work on the general theorizing in the matter that Wittgenstein resisted in making. More recently, by expanding his interest in mental aspects (such as intentions, beliefs, desires, expectations, etc.), Searle devotes his research to the notion of intentionality (Searle, 1983). The philosopher places this concept at the center of his semantic and epistemological reflections; he confirms the unifying character of mental phenomena, including perception, and admits their biological origin, as he reckons mental phenomena are considered to be caused by brain processes and actualized within the brain structure (Searle, 1983). 2.1.3.3.

Ethics Discourse

Jürgen Habermas (1929) is known to have constructed a comprehensive framework of social theory drawing on the linguistic philosophy of Wittgenstein and speech act theories of Austin and Searle. In his studies, the philosopher focuses on the issue of communication among human beings, mainly under the influence of the linguistic turn and the hermeneutic theory of language. With this new interest, the author abandons the previous studies on the individual as a solitary and self-sufficient entity, which interacts with the environment. Habermas’ "new" reflection puts forward a public sphere, that is linguistically structured in a linguistic community, in which each

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individual’s consciousness is shaped (Calhoun, 1992). This "breakthrough" occurs most evidently during the writing of the Theory of Communicative Action (1985), which gives birth to a pragmatic theory of language, interested in the relationship between language and those who use it. Habermas is notorious for having established a fruitful dialogue with Karl-Otto Apel (1922); the two authors are convinced that anyone who participates in a rational discussion implicitly ascertains the following universal claims of validity: justice (Richtigkeit), truth (Wahrheit), authenticity (Wahrhaftigkeit) and understanding (Verständlichkeit). The former entails a respect which each person dialoguing must have towards the rules of argumentative situation (Habermas, 1985). For example, one must listen to others’ argumentations or even withdraw his own argumentations, if these have been proven to be incorrect. “Truth” regards conducting a dialogue which formulates appropriate existential statements (Habermas, 1985). According to the third criterion, “authenticity”, each person in dialogue must be sincere and convinced of his assertions (Habermas, 1985). Finally, the latter regards speaking while adhering to meaning and grammatical rules (Habermas, 1985). If even one of these four claims is not met, it is impossible to reach agreement between the parties involved (Steuerman, 2000). Of course, these claims imply that the communication takes place between free individuals, without any restrictions or particular interest, and solely based on the best reasoning skills. All of these claims give birth to a real "ethical discourse" (Diskursethik), and when all claims are satisfied, Habermas argues that an ideal speech situation is created, in which all individuals dialoguing are considered equal (Rehg, 1997). 2.1.4. The Constructionist View

Kenneth J. Gergen (1935) is considered one of the main representatives of the social constructionist movement. Despite his psychological background, Gergen’s viewpoint stands out as highly interesting for the analysis of this paper, as he introduces social constructionism as a movement that gathers reflections and contributions already discussed by phenomenological hermeneutics (mentioned above in this paper) and by the overall philosophy of language, with the intent of integrating them into a new paradigm of knowledge (Robbins et al., 2012). This paradigm is then carried out by those scholars who wish to be bold, break the barriers of common sense by coming up with new forms of theories of interpretation and intelligibility (Gergen, 1999). Social constructionism emphasizes how meanings are generated by people in the circumstances they find themselves in, negotiating and continuously building new definitions of reality (Gergen, 1999). 27/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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Many of the characteristics belonging to the social constructionist paradigm have been mentioned in the “methodology” section of this paper. Therefore, following are the main thoughts, to provide the reader with a more complete overview of what Gergen sustained in relation to this movement. According to Gergen, individuals live through narrative identities which are reproduced while having conversations, creating thus a social interdependence (Gergen, 1995). Therefore, language and social relationships become clue in anticipating experiences; knowledge and meanings associated with knowledge are conceived as scatterings, as neither do they reside in people nor in their cultural setting, but in the coming together of individuals who engage in a shared action (Gergen, 1995). As a matter of fact, Gergen puts major focus on describing how human beings “live in worlds of meaning” and that they understand and appreciate the world and themselves in ways that emerge from their personal history and the culture they share (Gergen in Dole, 2011). The worlds of meaning are considered intimately related to action; actions most often depend on what individuals interpret as real, reasonable and satisfactory (Watkins et al., 2011). Therefore, it may be argued that without meaning, very little would be worth doing (Gergen in Dole, 2011). According to Gergen, language and social relationships then become clues in the construction of constantly new worlds of meaning. In fact, he argues that human beings are not owned or determined by the past, and that they are able to abandon or dissolve the dysfunctional ways of living by coming together and cooperatively creating alternative ones (cited in Watkins et al., 2011). When the worlds of meaning meet, it is possible to generate creative solutions; new ways of relating, new realities and new opportunities may surface (cited in Watkins et al., 2011). Moreover, when the worlds of meaning come in conflict, they may lead to individual estrangement and hostility, thus discouraging the relationships and their inspired potential. Therefore, taking care of those creative relationships as well as of language stands out as crucial to minimize the potential for destruction or damage (Gergen in Dole, 2011). To conclude, the focus on language in Gergen’s work is due to the fact that it is believed to be conceived in a social discourse, not as an investigative tool but as a powerful manufacturer of reality (Gergen, 1999). Language takes form through actions; it reflects intentions, choices and values, as well as it occurs in social contexts (Gergen, 1995). These contexts are determined by 28/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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time and place, and they organize symbolic acts, which serve to convey a sense of credibility to the discourse. To conclude, Gergen asserts that language primarily serves a communal function and that it is utilized in community settings, in order to satisfy the needs of that community. When language is used in this way, knowledge is produced in the form of a social consensus (Gergen, 1995). 2.1.5. The Reappraisal of Metaphors

In "Metaphors We Live By" (1980), linguist George Lakoff (1941) and philosopher Mark Johnson (1949) come together to single out those blank spaces in everyday language that are unknowingly ‘soaked’ by metaphors. The authors are considered the main contributors to research within the subject topic of metaphors; they argue that many of the concepts are used to express emotions are either abstract or unclear (Knowles & Moon, 2006). Therefore, to understand them, metaphors are needed. The authors define the essence of a metaphor as understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another, and support the idea that metaphors may be not only more basic than abstract concepts, but also more genuine in their definition of experiences (Stern, 2000). The experiences mentioned can be linked to body perceptions as well as individuals’ interaction with the surrounding physical environment (Marks, 2003). For the two American scholars, the metaphor is not a mere phenomenon for poetic embellishment and, therefore, neither is it a prerogative of literature; it is the mechanism which pervades communication in a massive way (Klein, 2012). According to Lakoff and Johnson, the meaning of something is based on the kinds of experiences people have lived, or even may not have lived. Therefore, it is argued that true meaning may not always be communicated properly. Nevertheless, by accessing genuine experiences, and conceptualizing them, through the use of metaphors, it is made easier to communicate non-shared experiences (Knowles & Moon, 2006). The metaphor is a moment for everyday language, but in particular, it represents the mode through which human beings give structure to their concepts, and thus also to reality (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Also, it may be considered the cognitive event occurring before language (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). For Lakoff and Johnson, metaphors are more than just a question of language and words; daily life is impregnated by metaphors, not only in language but also in thought and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). The two authors argue that human thought processes are largely 29/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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metaphorically structured, and that by studying metaphors, it is possible to gain knowledge of how they affect and are affected by actions (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). This idea seems to recap Wittgenstein’s thought, which emphasized the importance of how language may frame the possibility of truly understanding a phenomenon (Wittgenstein, 1997). Therefore, Lakoff and Johnson put forward how the metaphor, instead, is recognized as something which enlivens and invigorates language, as well as thoughts, and actions; using multiple metaphors, and replacing new metaphors with outdated ones, allows one to capture new aspects of reality yet to be noticed (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). The metaphor then is viewed by the authors like a sense, such as sight or touch, which allows individuals to perceive the world (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). New metaphors have the power to create a new reality, enabling human beings to discover things they previously were unaware of (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). When a new metaphor penetrates into the conceptual system upon which actions are based, it ultimately alters the beliefs and actions belonging to that system (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

2.2.

Coaching

2.2.1. The Origin of Coaching

Despite its ancient essence in Western traditions, the practice of coaching as it is understood today developed in the 1970s, a period in which trainers for athletes started applying coaching principles outside the sports’ arena. Timothy Gallwey was one of these; he presented a drastic reevaluation of what really could achieve enhanced performance. In training his athletes, he emphasized the concept that a person’s worst enemy is his mind (Gallwey, 1997). Today, Gallwey is known as the “father” of coaching, suggesting that the best way for an individual to succeed consists in going beyond his fear of being judged and evaluated, and mentally picturing himself as a champion; Gallwey then advocates that the rest will unravel by itself (Gallwey, 1997). Gallwey’s work, mostly recognized by his first book The Inner Game of Tennis, has been a major inspiration for current coaching authors, like John Whitmore (2009) and Myles Downey (1999). Moreover, financial consultant Thomas J. Leonard picked up the term “coach” in the 1980s, putting it to use to establish financial planning, and, in general also a way of planning life. The concept was later developed further and in 1992 became the foundation for the establishment of

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the Coach University. Since then, several coaching schools have been inaugurated, with the intent of fostering leadership- , career- and life coaching, as well as personal development. Since the late 1980s, there seems to have been an ever-increasing interest for the practice of coaching. However, with the development of numerable schools with high academic recognition, some cultural variations may appear in coaching. An example includes a North American trend of integrating the practice with a training of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (see Appendix C), which gives major attention to staying focused, the value of change and understanding the structure of individuals’ subjective experiences. The interrelation between the two practices gave birth to The European NLP Coaching Programme in 1999. Despite the many contributions and exponents within the field of coaching, whether applied as sports performance (as by Gallwey), financial planning (as by Leonard) or accounting (as by Whitworth), coaching stands out as a practice which has a shared focus on results, the devotion for performance enhancement, along with spiritual aspirations (McDermott & Jago, 2006). 2.2.2. Defining Coaching

Today the term “coaching” may be used in a rather broad and sometimes even blurred way. Therefore, the International Coach Federation (or ICF) puts effort in supporting and maintaining its ethical, as well as professional standards (International Coach Federation, 2013). The organization evaluates and rates coaching schools around the world and establishes coaching conferences aimed at diffusing and progressing in the development of new related knowledge (International Coach Federation, 2013). Since many working within coaching are consultants and therapists, this practice is often brought up in relation to subject areas including behavioral therapy and organizational psychology (The Coaching & Mentoring Network, 2013). These fields are known to put focus on issues like taking responsibility, actively seeking meaning, communication and collaboration and the application of tools and techniques which enhance personal development. Therapy, in particular, takes into consideration the importance of healing emotional wounds from the past (Rosinski, 2003). Coaching rather aims at removing barriers, but still covers and brings together the other features.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

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Further arguments are made on coaching’s close affiliation with mentoring and consulting (Whitmore, 2009). Nevertheless, in these approaches, clients are often given advice and expert recommendations; coaching, instead, is known to guide individuals through their personal experience and discover their own solutions which are most right for them (McDermott & Jago, 2006). This aspect of coaching will be dealt with in more detail in the upcoming sections. As mentioned in the introduction, coaching is applied as a form of helping within different fields, including the professional, sport, social, family, political and spiritual dimension. However, in this paper, most references are assumed to be associated with life- and executive coaching. Some examples of what the former of the two may comprise are maintaining a stable progress towards personal objectives and develop a deeper level of trust in relationships, whereas the latter may concern assisting managers in achieving clearness in their thinking or bringing out talent of their teams (McDermott & Jago, 2006). This paper aims to scrutinize the term “coaching” as its methodology is defined by Whitmore, Flaherty, Whitworth, McDermott & Jago, Rosinski and Downey. These authors describe coaching through terms like performance, learning, development, self-realization and potential. Following are some of their definitions: Coaching is unlocking a person’s potential to maximize their own performance (Whitmore, 2009). Coaching is the art of facilitating the performance, learning and development of another (Downey, 1999). Coaching is a pragmatic humanism. […] Coaching is also a method to enhance performance and a leadership style that gets results (Rosinski, 2003). Flaherty (2005) also underlines how this type of coaching is crucial in a contemporary society, where the environment is constantly confronted with change and there is a growing need for innovation; the necessity for cooperation in multicultural settings and the requirement for businesses to reinvent themselves call for a more effective communication and a less strict “command-for-control structure in organizations” (p.2). Thereby, Flaherty regards coaching as a practice, the products of which are long-term excellent performance, self-correction and selfgeneration (Flaherty, 2005) 32/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

A separate, yet relevant, approach towards coaching is represented by authors like Kinlaw et al. (2008) and Schein (1999), according to whom coaching represents an integrated term for all ways an individual’s potential can be released, as a grouping of guidance, tutoring, consultation and counseling. In fact, in these regards, the latter introduces the concept of process consultation, which he defines as “the establishment of an effective helping relationship […], which serves to help individuals help themselves” (Schein, 1999, p. 1). 2.2.3. The purpose of Coaching

According to Whitmore, coaching is not just a simple practice, it is “a way of being” (2009, p. 19). In other words, tools and techniques deriving from coaching may serve to help an individual change his way of relating to others, of comprehending himself, of treating others and of managing in general (Whitmore, 2009). The true ambition underlying coaching regards enabling the individual to not only apply the practices, but also, in the long-run, assure that he makes these his own (Whitmore, 2009). The real benefits of coaching thus shine through when the individual feels empowered and aware of his influence, as well as freed from the idea that he always needs to have the answer to everything (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Moreover, his self-reliance becomes evident as his curiosity increases and the process of discovery is seen as a way to unleash the power of change (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Therefore, it may be argued that self-correction and self-generation are ultimate goals of coaching, as they illustrate the moment in which all skills learnt throughout the process are made personal by the client and integrated into his daily routine (Flaherty, 2005). The coach’s presence serves to makes sure that the client has consolidated all his achievements attained during the coaching period and turned them into a new normative pattern of behavior (Flaherty, 2005). Moreover, the individual’s ability of self-monitoring and need for inquiring may ensure his constant personal development. In the long-run, once the individual has become self-sufficient, he may start applying the acquired coaching skills to his business setting or organization (Whitmore, 2009). The above mentioned benefits are made possible due to some key elements, which characterize and give rise to the purpose of coaching. These features are scrutinized in the following paragraphs.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2.2.3.1.

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Create Opportunities

Crucial to the practice of coaching is its ability of releasing the individual’s potential (Whitmore, 2009). In order to do so, however, the individual needs to be brought to an awareness of his opportunities. These opportunities may become more visible once the client is lifted above the problem, rather than getting absorbed in its details, and assumes the role of someone who has a clear overview of the situation, including the possible directions he might be able to divert the problem in (Gjerde, 2003). The overseeing observation serves to convey clarity in his thoughts, thus, also enabling him to come up with solutions, which would normally not belong to his mindset. Thinking “outside the box” and stimulating creativity is often argued for among coaching literature (Downey, 1999), especially when it is the client who generates new ideas, since he consequently might find himself more engaged in the solution and, more motivated to work to fulfill it (Flaherty, 2005). Studies have proven that optimism helps us bring out more of our potential (Goleman, 1996). Coaching plays a key role in terms of building the individual’s self-belief and developing confidence that he can find the will and possibilities of achieving his goals within himself. In the process, the coach then serves as a partner, who supports and believes in the client, providing positive thoughts and clarity when needed (Whitmore, 2009). Furthermore, in assisting the client in breaking down and elucidating his thoughts, the coach may also facilitate him in putting words and expressions on his actions and decisions, thus enforcing his consciousness and awareness of his importance in the process (Rogers, 2008). Through the process of coaching, the client has the chance of taking distance from well-ingrained mental models and behavioral patterns; the fact that he is presented with a ‘fresh’ reality of new options and directions enables him to recognize that he always faces a choice (McDermott & Jago, 2006). The freedom of having a choice, which comes along with responsibility, induces the individual to go beyond his feelings and acting spontaneously. This is what authors like Whitworth reckon as coaching’s “power of conscious choice, awareness and responsibility” (Laura Whitworth Prison Project, 2013). This does not mean that the client is to put aside his feelings; in fact, studies assert that, by listening to our feelings, we give our rational thoughts an important correction (Goleman, 1996). Therefore, in coaching, feelings are often used as a way of finding useful information which can guide the client in his intentions. Subsequently, by combining what 34/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

emotions dictate with the reasoning which arises from the situation, the individual may be introduced to a wider range of choices, that might not have been acknowledged otherwise (Gjerde, 2003). 2.2.3.2.

Stimulate Own Answers

Once the client is able to find proper words and expressions to his thoughts and combine these with his feelings, he is believed to become the key, and only one for coaching, source of information (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Indeed, this approach relies on the fact that the client is the only person who can overcome barriers, take actions and make a change (Flaherty, 2005); coaching ensures that the client himself is responsible for his own life and the path he chooses to reach his goals. Therefore, the client’s responsibility is strongly argued for as a crucial principle for coaching, which is also significant throughout the whole process (Flaherty, 2005). However, that does not exclude the fact that the coach is an important presence in the process too, as it is his duty to enable the client to find an inner motivation and meaning, as well as a positive attitude towards reaching the wished goals (Kinlaw et al., 2008). Among the characteristics depicted by Flaherty (2005) a coach has a strong commitment and energizing force, thus almost become a source of inspiration to the client. Yet, being considered resourceful, the client is encouraged to find the answers within himself, along with solutions to his problems and intention of learning and developing. The main reason for this is the idea underlying the practice of coaching that the client knows best what is good for him and what he wants to achieve (Flaherty, 2005), thereby coaching harnesses the unconscious knowledge within the client, boosting his resourcefulness (McDermott & Jago, 2006). According to Schein (1999), “it is the client who owns the problem and the solution” (p. 22). In identifying the problem, and especially in owning it, the individual might be faced with existential questions which denote a quest for truth and meaning. Flaherty (2005) pinpoints the element of humanity, which often arise when the client is deeply involved in the coaching process. The coach then helps the client address these questions, also proving that the client may not only enjoy having to take responsibility, but also understands his own contribution towards himself, others and the surrounding environment, thus perceiving his true meaning (Gjerde, 2003).

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2013

A common topic which is frequently affiliated to coaching is change; Whitmore (2009) speaks about the fear of change and of the unknown. The practice of coaching is accompanied by a process of change, which may not always occur spontaneously and without hurdles. The coach, thus, has the role to make sure that the client is focused on his inner motivation, rather than projecting his securities on the outer environment and others. The individual motivation to accomplish desired goals may be considered as personal choices the client makes himself; he may be able to draw upon his values and inner source of energy, without feeling that burdened by others’ choices for him. Whitmore (2009) refers to this as a chosen responsibility, as opposed to an imposed one. 2.2.3.3.

Eliminate Obstacles

The dynamic relationship between the coach and the client, gives the latter not only the possibility to be listened to, but also the chance of working with someone to whom he can present an idea and receive a reaction. The interchange may increase the client’s awareness and, once, again, clarify his thoughts and intentions. This clarity encompasses grasping challenges, and the coaching aims to convert them to major areas for learning, addressing alternatives for the client’s course of action (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Among Schein’s principles for creating a helping relationship, the professor mentions “always staying in touch with the current reality” (1999, p.6), taking into consideration all factors that influence the situation, the surrounding environment and people, as well as the individual himself (Schein, 1999). Staying grounded may then be regarded as fundamental when identifying barriers. Schein does not exclude the client’s expectations, perceptions and psychological needs. This perception is also supported by Gallwey’s (1997) thought, mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, referencing to a person’s mind being the worst enemy. Therefore, since barriers may include unconscious thoughts, coaching serves to makes sure that the negative considerations do not hinder the client’s decision-making process. Often, this is accomplished by working together with the client to create alternatives and broaden his perspectives (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Although coaching does not aim to dig into a person’s unconsciousness as much as therapy tends to do, unconscious thoughts are taken into consideration and are used to test the individual’s attitude and ability to challenge himself. By doing so, the client may learn to identify with his 36/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

thoughts, rather than be ‘commanded’ by them (Whitmore, 2009). This claim might be supported by McDermott and Jago (2006), who bring up the concept and importance of dealing with interference. According to the two authors, frequently, there may be interpersonal, intra-psychic or organizational interference (see Appendix D); these can take different behavioral forms, ranging from being very evident and clear-cut, to subtly and implicit. However, regardless of their form, they often implicate the presence of emotions like hostility, self-doubt and anxiety, which translate into patterns of limiting beliefs, perfectionism and manipulation (McDermott & Jago, 2006). The coach is then to battle this type of barrier through his relationship with his client and the creation of “a self-reinforcing system” (McDermott & Jago, 2006, p.156). Flaherty (2005) also touches upon related topics, and in particular investigates the coach’s role when the client is stuck and the importance of his commitment to guide the latter through “a developmental breakthrough” (p. 170). 2.2.3.4.

Give Support and Attention

During periods of stress, interruption and disturbance very likely bring up a range of feelings, from neglected and abandoned, to irritated and inferior or even worthless. In coaching, it is aimed to gain the opposite effect; the coach agrees to fully commit and pay complete attention to the client during the coaching sessions. Whitmore (2009) argues that stressful situations “are a good reason for increasing responsibility, [since they often lead to] a lack of personal control” (p.31). The coach’s presence, then, may often reduce the level of stress and enhance the trust between himself and the client’s perspectives (McDermott & Jago, 2006). In moments of stress, studies have brought up the concept of social support. Particularly, in House’s Work stress and Social Support (1981) four main functions of social support are introduced: emotional support (which consists in displaying affection, concern and love towards one another), informational support (a psychological help which convey the information a person needs to help him solve his problem), instrumental support (an aid, which includes active interventions) and appraisal support (displaying admiration, consideration and appreciation). These functions are closely related to the support a coach provides; his engaged and active presence communicates acknowledgement of how the client really is and of his advancement towards the established goals (McDermott & Jago, 2006).

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2013

Moreover, the client’s progression may be facilitated by the coach’s attention and belief in the coaching process. However, championing the client may not simply entail encouragement, but also reminding him of the steps needed to be taken in reaching a specific goal (McDermott & Jago, 2006). It is important that steps relate to the client’s own agenda, with short-term and long-term objectives, since owning each step serves to increase the client’s motivation (Whitmore, 2009). For situations in which the client feels demotivated, the coach is to step in to keep him on track, remind him that he is not living up to his full potential, and illustrating setbacks as challenges which can open the doors to new possibilities for action (McDermott & Jago, 2006). In assessing the progress, the coach remains mindful of how far and fast he is helping his client move forward (McDermott & Jago, 2006), making sure that the latter does not fall into old habits, and maintains focus on details until “he starts wandering to more interesting things” (Whitmore, 2009, p.47). 2.2.3.5.

Generate Results

Texts reveal how a coach challenges his client to stay centered and focused on his agenda and ultimate purpose, with the intent of boosting results, which may include spiritual awakenings, increased flexibility in life, improved performance, and, on a professional level, enhanced leadership and collaboration skills (Hudson, 1999). Through coaching, the client becomes more capable of performing and more aware of his opportunities, since the barriers are recognized and minimized with the coach’s assistance (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Coaching binds the client to his motivation and inner strengths (McDermott & Jago, 2006), which assist him in the learning process of setting goals, assessing the reality , taking responsibility and inducing action (Whitmore, 2009). Indeed, the process of generating results is tightly related to the creation of awareness, which is also key to coaching (Whitmore, 2009); by integrating and evaluating the multiple sources of information, which are mostly discovered within himself, the client may invoke inquiry for greater understanding and gain the necessary insight to achieve the agreed-upon outcomes (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Furthermore, by helping the client design and plan action, the coach brings up perspectives and development goals, enabling not only a recognition of early successes, but also a more accountable management of the client’s progress (McDermott & Jago, 2006).

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

Once again, creativity becomes an important element in this process, as it is used by coaching to combat fear, negative judgment and confusion and to establish fresh outlooks and shifts in the client’s viewpoints, so that he may find new possibilities for action (McDermott & Jago, 2006). 2.2.4. The Coaching Mindset

In the previous sections, the term process has appeared several times. In the practice of coaching, this concept is frequently used to denote the individual’s path towards his desired goals and accomplishments. Whitworth et al. (1998) compares coaching to dancing, an activity in which two people engage and move together graciously, adapting to each other’s moves. Similarly, coach and client follow each other’s steps and movements, maintaining focus and dancing towards the set of objectives they have set (Whitworth et al., 1998). Edgar Schein (1999) puts emphasis on the concept of process and defines it as “how things are done [between people], rather than what is done” (p.146). This definition is also supported by McDermott and Jago (2006), who explain how coaching distances itself from content, and rather operates on logical levels, which most often involve some form of change. Coaching can be applied correspondingly; in the communication between the coach and his client, for instance, the process may consist in setting boundaries or developing patterns in relationships (Schein, 1999). The presence of both parties then becomes necessary to the relationship, since the former of the two has the role to master the communication, whereas the latter serves as the main source of information to the process (Gjerde, 2003). Coaching is a process that coach and client create together (Gjerde, 2003); coaching sessions are thus never planned completely and the content of the conversations may vary from time to time, depending on what the client has his thoughts on in that specific moment. Therefore, if the coach were to come up with a scrupulous plan, he might risk losing contact with the client, and may eventually end up not staying true to the client’s wishes (Gjerde, 2003). The client’s desires and intentions always stay in the foreground of coaching; it is crucial that in the process of coaching, the coach does not become an overbearing influence, or a form of power structure that the client needs to adhere to. The coach’s main role is solely to inspire the client to find his own standpoint and understanding (Whitmore, 2009). By standing up for his own view, the client slowly starts embracing the feeling of freedom and taking the needed space for his 39/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

contemplation, until he enhances self-master disciplines and practices (Whitworth et al., 1998). The individual’s self-discipline is crucial in the process, as it entails the fact the he is taking responsibility for his choices and thereby can truly comprehend that he is working to reach his own goal. As a matter of fact, studies argue that all actions are preceded by thoughts (Corporate Coach Group, 2012); beliefs affect the way individuals experience things and situation, and thus their expectations of themselves define how they deal with different situations. This understanding is known as the self-fulfilling prophecy, according to which, “for every action, nature will return [as] a reaction, either positive or negative” (Corporate Coach Group, 2012). Coaching embraces this mindset and aims to use it positively, in regards to how the client thinks of himself, as well as how the coach looks at him. Coaching has a main interest in defining what reality is, and, more specifically, how the client’s perception of reality affects his goals and his chances of fulfilling them (Flaherty, 2005). Closely related, is the quest for truth, which is challenged by the practice of coaching; for a coach, what is “true” is usually a vague notion, as it is believed that, in a bigger scale, no formula, procedure or authority can truly solve human concerns or ensure positive outcomes (Flaherty, 2005). Therefore, observation and gaining insight to the client’s mindset becomes the only way to identify the reality specific to the coaching process. Yet, during the sessions, the client is presented with new perspectives, with the hope of challenging him to acknowledge new realities; the ultimate goal is then to convey a feeling of freedom to the client, enabling him to accept the power in his choices and the responsibilities that come along with these (Gjerde, 2003). Flaherty (2005) pinpoints how, in coaching, human beings are seen as a whole, “and no part is dispensable without changing the whole” (p.24). The ontological perspective dealt with in this paper brings up the existential and humanistic philosophy behind coaching, and how the client is guided towards his potentiality and solutions. Flaherty (2005) scrutinizes humanity in coaching by correlating human beings with the possibility of relating and raising an optimistic view which concerns the individual’s capability of progressing and simultaneously influence his surrounding, including his relationships (Flaherty, 2005). The emphasis on the client’s free will and his creativity are set free with the coach’s guidance, making it possible for him to discover concealed resources and answers. This optimistic view is key in coaching, and it is put into practice in the following

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

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analysis of this paper, which recognizes the importance of providing productive clarifications (when the client finds himself in challenging situations), of bringing forward the positive attitude and pride of what he is accomplishing, of increasing his ability to find solutions, and finally acknowledging and celebrating his accomplishments. 2.2.5. The Coaching Relationship

According to Bohart and Greenberg (1997), a good alliance between a therapist and client is an important prerequisite for success. Flaherty (2005) builds on this conception, and asserts that coaching will never occur unless a partnership exists. A partnership entails a cooperation in which work is considered a positive effort by both sides to obtain results and reach the established goals (Flaherty, 2005). Therefore, often coaches invest all time and work needed from the very beginning, in order to build a successful relationship. Building on Bohart and Greenberg’s recognition of a working alliance, it is possible to assert that in the coaching relationship both parties need to clarify the expectations they have for one another, they are to be aware of their roles in the relationship, feel engaged and genuinely interested in achieving results (Gjerde, 2003). As a consequence to this reasoning, the very first session is key to the whole coaching process. During this particular session, the client is asked a set of questions and the coach engages in authentic listening, indicating an unconditional acceptance of the client (Rogers, 2008). In this way, not only is the client offered the opportunity of learning that he can be valued as a whole, but a relationship of mutual trust and respect is established between the two, enabling the client to speak freely about the issue and the coach to uncover the client’s agenda and make it explicit (Rogers, 2008). In this phase, emphasis is often put on making sure that the client fully understands coaching ethics, standards and ability, including ICF Ethical Guidelines and the distinction between the practice of coaching and other disciplines like psychotherapy, consulting etc. (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Expectations are also clarified through the establishment of a coaching agreement, which entails a clear understanding and acceptance of what is appropriate or inappropriate in the coaching relationship, as well as the specific parameters concerning scheduling, fees and logistics. The agreement may thus serve to introduce and decide upon the coaching method which is to be 41/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

applied in the given case, and the needs of the prospective client (McDermott & Jago, 2006). A final step in the meeting entails setting a clear agenda for the client, including short-term, as well as long-term objectives. In defining what a helping relationship is, Schein (1999) also analyses its psychodynamics, and “what psychological conditions must be met for the exchange [of giving and receiving] to occur successfully” (p. 30). According to the professor, expectations are clarified through an explicit and implicit psychological contract (see Appendix E), which, among other things, serves to identify what psychological forces operate at the moment the client asks for the coach’s help (Schein, 1999). Therefore, early attention must be given to a possible initial imbalance of the relationship, as there may be a form of dependency and subordination, and to the establishment of an implicit status negotiation and role definition between the coach and his client (Schein, 1999). A coaching relationship can be formal, through a contract including a set schedule of the sessions in a given period of time (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Its durability may be unlimited or simply used during meetings related to a specific project. In formal agreements, particular attention is given to psychological contracts and ethical standards, as the ones mentioned above. This usually occurs in executive and business coaching. Alternatively, the coaching process is decided informally, where the coach exploits his coaching abilities, without formally expressing it during a meeting. In these cases, coaching skills are used without the process taking place necessarily being labeled as coaching (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Nevertheless, in both of these cases, expectations are still to be defined in the building of the coaching relationship (Schein, 1999). Another important condition, which needs to be presented in the very beginning, is that throughout the process, confidentiality is maintained, and that the conversation taking place during the coaching sessions is not to be discussed elsewhere (Gjerde, 2003). Confidentiality is crucial to build a relationship which feels both safe and challenging for the client; the client feels that he is being treated fairly and with respect, yet challenged and pushed to “give” more of himself and manage by himself, without the constant support of the coach (Gjerde, 2003). Flaherty (2005), Downey (1999), Whitworth et al. (1998) and other advocates exhaustively support the importance of specific characteristics in the establishment of the coaching relationship.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

Trust is the one attribute which is mostly argued for in the literature of coaching. Flaherty (2005) expresses how the trust must be mutual, so that the client feels that he is interacting with someone who is trustworthy, whereas the coach must believe that the client is creative, resourceful and whole, as well as that he has the ability to find his own answers. Moreover, the coach also must trust the fact that the client will provide him with constant and honest feedback. However, a true level of honesty may only be achieved where there is a safe supportive environment (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Confidentiality, thus, plays an important role, as well as a continuous demonstration of personal integrity (McDermott & Jago, 2006). McDermott and Jago (2006) combine the element of trust with intimacy, which is accompanied by a genuine concern for the other parties’ welfare and a willingness to approach sensitive and ‘new areas’. This standpoint is encouraged by Whitmore (2009), who among the qualities of a coach lists the ability of being perceptive. Since feelings are not always displayed by words, being perceptive and attentive is key in coaching (Whitmore, 2009). Flaherty (2005) strongly suggests not neglecting body language as a mean to express emotions. Therefore, it is the coach’s role to also pick up nonverbal communication, and try to create the right ambience for the client to feel comfortable enough and start trusting him (Flaherty, 2005). In the practice of coaching, co-creating the relationship also relates to assuring that the client believes in the coach’s intention and the only purpose of the process is to generate and actualize his potential; providing ongoing support and guidance throughout his progression is known to build a strong amount of trust (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Of course, this may develop over a longer period of time. However, through constant feedback and honest communication, it is believed that the level of trust matures rapidly (Gjerde, 2003). Conclusively, when both parties feel that they are being true to one another, progress occurs with fewer difficulties and challenges that can boost the client’s results are brought in naturally (Gjerde, 2003). “Like trust, many people say that respect has to be earned” (Flaherty, 2005). Indeed, respect is a second feature which characterizes the coaching relationship. Among others, Downey (1999), expresses how respect too needs to be mutual. The concept entails the acceptance of the other person for what he is and what he presents himself to be (Flaherty, 2005). In co-creating the relationship, respect for perceptions, learning styles and personal beings are fundamental for both 43/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

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coach and client (McDermott & Jago, 2006); examples of actions to be taken to achieve this include the coach’s aim to show his curiosity about the client and his problem, and the client’s recognition of the coach’s professional expertise. There is no customary type of coaching relationship, since the people involved may vary, as may their needs. In establishing an authentic relationship, it can be argued that a high level of courage is needed (Life Coach Academy, 2004); experimenting new thoughts, behavioral patterns and learning techniques requires audacity from both the client and the coach. Additionally, tapping into emotion and maintaining honesty throughout the conversations can be challenging, as it may consist in going outside the individual comfort zone (Life Coach Academy, 2004). Although going beyond one’s own habitual patterns is highly relevant for coaching, this should only occur when the client feels ready for it. Therefore, if the coach is skilled, he may choose the best way to reach out to his client in the moment that he believes can become the most effective one (McDermott & Jago, 2006). The coach’s courage comes out when he is open to not knowing and willing to take risks, as he may then rely on his determination and belief in himself to work on reassuring the client and boost his confidence (McDermott & Jago, 2006). In different circumstances, bravery is needed by the client especially in between the coaching sessions. In moments where the coach is not present, extra effort is to be put by the client, so that the true value of coaching can surface (Gjerde, 2003); thoughts are put into actions and the individual can start finding ways on his own, thereby embracing the self-generative purpose of coaching (Flaherty, 2005). A final important element, which may be considered the conclusive one in building up the coaching relationship, concerns mutual acceptance. In regards to mutual acceptance, Schein (1999) expresses the importance of “going with the flow” and attempting to maintain stability through the maintenance of the relationship (p.9). However, this may be possible only once mutual helping between the coach and client has been established. Reaching a point in the relationship where most layers of consciousness are shared with trust is achieved in time, after a series of mutual tests and assessments (Schein, 1999). Moreover, a true commitment from both parties is needed. In fact, client and coach need to be prepared, committed and mentally present during the coaching sessions. In cases of skepticism and caution of the client, the coach engages in maintaining focus and oversees the agenda (McDermott & Jago, 2006). The client may then

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respond by staying true to himself and to the process (Gjerde, 2003). This cooperation serves to facilitate learning and to keep the two “dancing” towards the client’s goals. 2.2.6. Emotional Intelligence

The concept of emotional Intelligence (EI) often appears in relation to transpersonal coaching, or coaching dealing with states or areas of consciousness beyond the limits of personal identity (Whitmore, 2009). However, in this paper, it is argued that Emotional Intelligence is perceived to be one of the foundation stones for good coaching, and is therefore introduced as a key general characteristic for the practice. Emotional intelligence has been defined as the ability to understand and manage one’s emotions as well as those of others, and use these emotions to make important decisions in life (Goleman, 2012). It is believed that owning this "sensitivity" allows individuals to face the daily routine in the most effective way, without being caught in the grip of emotional seizures, which may sometimes cause them to lose grasp of reality (Ryback, 2012). Being emotionally intelligent, therefore, may help to better manage relations with oneself and with others. Emotional intelligence can be of great help in personal as well as professional settings. It is not considered a substitute for traditional intelligence, as it does not replace specific technical skills. However, it can provide a set of skills that, when learned, support people in their understanding and managing emotions (Goleman, 2012); by being aware of his emotions, an individual can integrate these with his rational thoughts, thereby increasing his overall knowledge of himself and his skills (Ryback, 2012). Furthermore, by managing emotions like anxiety and stress, he may eventually turn them into positive energy for himself and others (Stough et al., 2009). Despite limited penetration in the business world in the 1970s, and its general influence of the trend toward personal development, it was not until Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional Intelligence (1995) that EI truly became desirable to the point of necessity in business (Whitmore, 2009). Goleman’s research asserts that EI is twice as important as mental activity (IQ) for success, since the emotional attitude is a meta-skill which determines how well people use their abilities, including intellectual ones, and thereby facilitates the expression of all other types of intelligence (Goleman, 2012). Goleman distinguishes five domains to define EI’s structure: self-awareness, selfregulation, internal motivation, empathy and social skills. 45/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

characteristics a coach needs to embrace, and, within the coaching process, may also convey to his client (cited in Whitmore, 2009). Within each domain are subsets of emotional skills, which are not innate talents, but rather capabilities which are acquired if trained and developed (Goleman, 2012). In detail, self-awareness refers to an individual’s ability to recognize his own emotions and use them to guide him in his decisions (Goleman, 2012). It is subdivided into emotional awareness (the ability to recognize one’s own emotions and their effect), accurate self-assessment (the ability to recognize their limitations and their strengths) and self-confidence (care for one’s skills and values, and ability to remain true to one’s decisions, despite of outside pressures and uncertainties). Self-regulation, instead, consists in managing one’s own emotions, and includes skills like selfcontrol (ability to control negative emotions, displaying positive ones in difficult situations), reliability (ability to be reliable and honest), conscientiousness (ability to be responsible and to fulfill one’s obligations), adaptability (ability to adapt to the circumstances) and innovation, or the ability to be open to new ideas and information (Goleman, 2012).

Internal motivation includes being able to seek to achieve one’s goals. More specifically, it entails striving towards realization (tendency to increase one’s potential and performance), effort (ability to integrate a group’s values and goals), taking initiative (the ability to take advantage of opportunities and overcome obstacles) and optimism, or the ability to not become discouraged in challenging situations (Goleman, 2012).

Empathy relates to the individual’s ability to understand the emotions of others and to establish a good emotional connection with them (Goleman, 2012). Empathy is known to be associated with the understanding of others (ability to understand the emotions of others), being supportive (ability to meet the needs of others), encouraging the development of others (the ability to identify developmental needs of others and to enhance their skills), promotion of diversity (considering diversity an opportunity, rather than an obstacle), political awareness, or the ability to understand power relations, social networks and emotional currents inside and outside the group the individual belongs to (Goleman, 2012).

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Lastly, social skills are crucial to establish positive interpersonal relationships, by managing one’s emotions (Goleman, 2012). They include social influence (the ability to use proper persuasion strategies), communication (ability to communicate in a simple and clear manner), leadership (ability to lead the group, through the involvement of others, towards common goals and ideals), change advocacy (being a change agent), conflict management (the ability to negotiate and resolve conflicts, through liberal and fair discussion), relationship development (establishing and maintaining satisfactory interpersonal relationships), collaboration (ability to cooperate for a common goal, by establishing a fine balance between the concentration required for the task and attention towards relationships), teamwork or participating with enthusiasm and team spirit, in the work towards a common goal (Goleman, 2012).

3. Analysis – Coaching put into practice In this analysis section, coaching tools and techniques are introduced, with the attempt of providing practical indication of how notions of language discussed in the theoretical perspective shine through in coaching. In this paper, the choice has been made of introducing these techniques and models only in the analysis, to prevent the reader from having to reiterate the theoretical perspective and thereby bring clarity in the discussion.

3.1.

GROWing with Coaching

In the theoretical section of this paper, emphasis has been put on identifying coaching’s focus on results, its devotion for performance enhancement as well as spiritual aspirations. In relation to these areas, techniques and methods within coaching are identified. One of the most common coaching tool is named by studies as the GROW model (Whitmore, 2009; Downey, 1999). Thoughts behind the model include the importance of wording and how it may relate to meaning and give purpose. This strong correlation is also a key topic brought up by philosophers and thinkers introduced in the theoretical section of this paper, the studies of whom have scrutinize the prominence of language this last century. GROW is an acronym that outlines the main steps involved in the coaching process. Different coaching authors have different conceptions of what each letter exactly stands for. Yet, it can be argued, that generally the model entails the developing and learning process, which, as mentioned 47/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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previously, are known to be one of the end goals within coaching. In the following paragraph, Whitmore’s (2009) explication of the GROW model is represented. According to Whitmore, the steps to be taken are: G: Setting the Goal (of the session, for example), considering the short- and long-term perspective R: Verifying the Reality, i.e. facts and all data needed to analyze the situation O: Checking out the Options and alternative strategies of action W: Deciding What to do, When to do it, Who should do it, and the Will to do it This sequence presumes that dealing with all four points respectively, which usually occurs when an individual faces a new problem for the very first time. Often, however, coaching is also adopted when an activity needs to be refined, and when a situation has been discussed and is already taking place. In this case, the session may begin and end with any of the points indicated above (Whitmore, 2009). One might think that setting goals before even analyzing the situation can seem bizarre. However, Whitmore argues that targets only based on existing facts may be negative, as they tend to be limited in providing a single answer to a determined situation and thus the individual may risk obtaining much less than what is actually possible (Whitmore, 2009). Therefore, it is believed within coaching that, setting objectives, before ascertaining what the circumstances of reality are, may increase the inspirations and contribute to genuine inner motivation (Whitmore, 2009; Downey, 1999). In establishing the end goal to achieve in the coaching process, performance objectives are identified. These serve to monitor individual’s progress in achieving the final aspiration (Whitmore, 2009). Through coaching, the individual is assisted in setting goals which are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Agreed, Realistic, Time phased), PURE (Positively stated, Understood, Relevant, Ethical) and CLEAR (Challenging, Legal, Environmentally sound, Appropriate, Recorded) (Whitmore, 2009, p.62). By having to apply these characteristics to his goals, the individual may be brought to ponder upon his attitude towards to them. In a similar way, it may be argued that Habermas’ pragmatic theory of language shines through, which, as previously stated in this paper, 48/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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describes how the individual’s consciousness is shaped in a linguistically structured community. According to this mindset, in setting the goals, a close relationship is established between them and the individual himself, who is encouraged to make moral and ethical considerations, in order to then be able to create a valid discourse. When assessing reality, the individual strives to be objective, still aware, though, that an absolute objectivity does not exist, as human beings are known to have their filters, prejudices and visions of the world (Whitmore, 2009). As mentioned earlier in this paper, what is “true” is usually a vague notion. Therefore, in the process, the coach tries to gain insight to the client’s mindset, in order to truly identify the reality. In the long-run, this is also to be done by the client, through a process of self-discovery and self-awareness. Assessing reality, thus, entails actively seeking meaning in coaching, as much as it does in philosophy of language. Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in coaching, since, in order to raise self-awareness, the individual needs to tap into his emotions. The presence of a coach, in fact, serves to assist the client in identifying his underlying concerns, fixed ways of perceiving himself and the world, as well as how interrelated factors like thoughts, emotions, body and background may affect his behavioral patterns (McDermott & Jago, 2006). It may be argued that, in the same way, Wittgenstein’s language-games come into play; the linguistic and non-linguistic elements, which form language-games, make it possible for the individual to access language through the interweaving of activities and broad range of practices. According to this line of thinking, meaning corresponds to its use within the particular context, and the individual’s background and all his circumstances thus become key for the individual to reach meaning. Recalling Goleman’s (1996) statement, coaching helps the individual listen to his feelings, and gives his rational thoughts an important correction; by reflecting, exploring, pausing, being silent, wondering and allowing himself to ‘not know’, the client is lead towards a wider range of choices and, in these choices, may discover new strengths and major areas for growth (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Self-awareness then becomes crucial for the individual’s ability to accurately evaluate the multiple sources of information and in his inquiry for greater understanding of his issue. It has until now been argued that it is the individual himself who is the major source of information in the practice of coaching, and that his perception is crucial to identifying reality. 49/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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However, in order to get as close as possible to the objectivity mentioned earlier, the individual (coach as well as client) recurs to a selection of descriptive terms without connotations of judgments, which have the potential of distorting reality or perception. The terminology used in normal conversations and in many business interactions generally lean towards the left end of the figure below, while in the practice of coaching dialogue is aimed to lean towards the right and descriptive axis (Whitmore, 2009).

(from Whitmore, 2009, “Communication Envelope”, Nicholas Brealey, p. 68)

In the theoretical perspective of this paper, Gadamer is introduced in relation to the edge of language. In fact, the philosopher asserts that, even if an individual puts effort in trying to find the right word for each moment, he may still acknowledge that he might not have expressed himself completely, and that the intention behind his words may go beyond what, in a language, reaches others. In coaching this thought is recalled, and the coach’s presence then serves to help the client articulate what is going on as much as possible. Especially in cases of discursive or confused dialogues, this may be helpful to distinguish between trivial and significant issues, or situational and recurring behaviors (McDermott & Jago, 2006). At times, it may even occur that the client gets too close to the content of his issue, and the coach gets sucked in with him too. In other moments, an individual may wish to avoid difficult topics and ‘strong’ feelings, or become resistant in dealing with issues of belief and identity (McDermott & Jago, 2006). In these situations, Wittgenstein may argue that his so-called language-games may 50/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

come to be useful, if not necessary, to substitute those primitive expressions which accompany these difficulties. Similarly, coaching serves to nail the issue, by articulating it, while inviting a positive and thoughtful response from the client. By using and providing the client with a definite means of expression, the coach is able to bottom-line and bring forward what is ‘real’ and contains the essential, providing clarity to the client and enabling him to stay grounded (McDermott & Jago, 2006). The need for clarity is repeatedly expressed by Searle, who, as mentioned previously, does not believe words exists autonomously, and thereby puts major focus on the individual who generates them in an actual situation, for a specific purpose. Furthermore, Searle’s conception of intentionality may be brought up in this regard; intentionality entails a person’s intentions, beliefs, desires and expectations, and, just like what is assumed behind coaching, according to the philosopher, meaning is only comprehended when intentions of the language user are clear. To sum up, in this phase, the coach stays loyal to the truth of the client’s experience, in order to provide a challenging yet secure environment, defined as fundamental earlier in this paper. Coaching then helps the individual find proper words and expressions to his thoughts and combines these with his feelings, so that he can start exploring his alternative paths. Heidegger’s philosophy strongly resembles this passage. In fact, in his ontological reasoning, Heidegger emphasizes that the individual’s job is to listen to the voice of speech as a voice of being, which manifests itself in language. As mentioned in the theoretical section, according to the philosopher, this reflection of language is crucial to reach a moment of ‘clearing’ (so-called Lichtung) in which any new knowledge can reveal itself. As a matter of fact, the next step in the GROW process entails scrutinizing the options for action. Once again, the link to Searle’s line of thinking is evident, when, in describing speech acts, he puts forward the importance and correlations of assertions to express a thought properly with an immediate engagement in action. In this phase coaching serves not to select the one and only right option, but rather to display the vast range of options the individual is present with; as argued in the theory of this paper, limiting negative assumptions which may restrict creative solutions are avoided. Again, if observed from the hermeneutic philosophy, coaching’s revealing a multitude of alternatives may be regarded as a 51/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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2013

dimension which opens doors to a multiplicity of meanings and expose a deep sense of truth and being (Heidegger, 1982). From a slightly altered perspective, Gadamer demonstartes how this process evokes the attribute of the world as “horizon”, the infinite distance which opens up new possibilities to the individual. At this point, the philosopher may also pinpoint the individual’s freedom to pursue knowledge. Finding patterns and structures is part of this process, as a coaching’s matter of experimenting and of working with the way the individual naturally thinks and behaves (McDermott & Jago, 2006). From Lakoff and Johnson’s perspective, it is possible to contend that this represents the moment in which the individual appeals to the metaphors of his everyday language, as the mode to structure his concepts and thus also reality. As mentioned earlier, in coaching, structuring lifts the individual above his issue, providing him with an overview, and enabling him to access his sense of creativity and stimulating an inventive mindset (Gjerde, 2003). Once options have been sorted, the individual may move towards the phase which aims to transform a discussion to a decision and a proper transition to action (Whitmore, 2009). Action embodies an essential element in the constructionist view, represented by Gergen in this paper, supporting the close interrelation between worlds of meaning an action. In fact, according to Gergen’s standpoint, the individual living in different worlds of meaning takes action depending on what he interprets as being real and appropriate. Even in coaching, the action plan set up for the client relies on the individual’s maintenance of choice and ownership of each step. The client is held accountable and responsible (Rosinski, 2003). Moreover, it is made sure that the individual is able to find strength and inner willingness to engage himself in the process (Whitmore, 2009). At this final stage, examples of questions which may be posed to ensure the individual’s motivation are: What will you do? When will you do it? What obstacles may you encounter? Who is to be aware of your action? 52/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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Which help will you need? These questions build on bringing clarity to the individual, as they define the issue by assigning it an action- and time frame. Moreover, in trying to answer the questions, the individual is induced to consider his surrounding environment and reality, including the resources and creative positive alliances he may need to establish (Whitmore, 2009). Moreover, commitment to action is confirmed and the individual is encouraged to manage his progress and accountability (Whitmore, 2009). To conclude, in his book The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People (2004), Stephen R. Covey asserts: “Each part of your life- today’s behavior, tomorrow’s behavior, next week’s behavior – can be examined in the context of the whole, of what really matters most to you. By keeping that end in mind, you can make certain that whatever you do in a particular day does not violate the criteria you have defined as supremely important, and that each day of your life contributes in a meaningful way to the vision you have of your life as a whole” (p. 98) The intent of coaching to acknowledge realities, increase the client’s responsiveness to them, and generate a creative mindset which encourages him to take action, encourages the individual to deal with transcendental issues regarding his identity, his values, aspiration and motivations. Throughout the coaching process described in the GROW model, language may be considered a key element for the individual to identify his reality, put his thoughts and feeling into words and relate these to ‘his truth’, which will drive him in accomplishing his goals.

3.2.

The Coaching Dialogue

Edgar Schein is one of the exponents who put most emphasis on the distinction of a dialogue. The dialogue which is strived to be achieved within the practice of coaching often refers to a type of conversation based on the assumption that each individual comes with tacit assumptions and different semantic definitions, that derive from their respective cultural learning, language, and psychological makeup (Schein, 1999). Thereby, it is also assumed that mutual understanding may in most cases be an illusion (Schein, 1999). In coaching, the dialogue represents one of the moments in which one is brought to explore the complexities of thinking and language (Schein, 1999). This underlying thought is closely related to 53/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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contemplations within philosophy of language. For instance, Heidegger pinpoints the importance of an individual’s effort in listening and responding to language, since this latter, according to the philosopher, is not acquired to at birth. The open platform of the dialogue (or Gespräch), as mentioned previously in this paper, for Heidegger becomes the true mode in which language occurs authentically. The authentic activity of language within the dialogue is valued in the practice of coaching, which underlines how the dialogue may be considered a prerequisite for any type of helping relationship. In fact, Schein (1999) insists on specifying that “real help can only be delivered when both [coach] and client are using a common set of assumptions and have developed some common language” p. 203. When the coach and client are involved in the process of building their relationship, it may be claimed they are simultaneously engaged in achieving a conversational level that both individuals experience as a dialogue, rather than a discussion or a debate (Whitworth et al., 1998). Within coaching, dialogue is thought of as “good communication” (Schein, 1999), and a conversation during which the individuals have understood each other and exchanged their respective opinions in a meaningful way. In other words, coaches argue that through a dialogue, it is possible to build a common understanding and see the hidden meanings of words in the communication taking place (Schein, 1999). By observing this reflection from Searle’s viewpoint and his argumentation for speech acts, one may conclude that dialogue becomes key to understanding how language relates to the world, as, within its coaching process, it helps identify how coach and client relate to each other (while communicating and performing acts). In order to understand others, studies on coaching express the importance of self-analysis and self-awareness. This process includes understanding and listening to one’s own assumptions, as well as fragmenting one’s world into categories in order to reach a higher consciousness and grasp the individual through process (McDermott & Jago, 2006). It has been argued that these categories are taught in early life, through the language human beings learn (Schein, 1999). By going through a self-analysis, the individual is thus placed in the center of attention. As mentioned in the theoretical section of this paper, the individual’s resourcefulness and chosen responsibility (as Whitmore defines it) is accentuated, as he becomes aware of his contribution to his own process, to others and the surrounding environment. Similarly, in his philosophy, Gadamer emphasizes 54/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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how, in a dialogue and in being, the individual is highly valued by being “with-one-another”, and thereby language is also most present. By becoming more conscious of how his thought process works, the individual is believed to acknowledge more the inherently complexity of communication and mutual understanding (Schein, 1999). Consequently, through the establishment of the coaching relationship, the individual is intended to build enough common understanding of himself as well as to the other, until the collective thought process (for instance between coach and client) prevails over the individual thought process. As a result, coaching assists in reaching a general higher level of consciousness and shared set of meaning (Schein, 1999). Once more, recalling Gadamer’s thoughts, creating the “one-with-another” relationship cultivated in the true language, and especially in the dialogue, means allowing words to seek their answers and thereby posing meetings (named by the philosopher convergence), which represent individuals’ ultimate effort to agree. In this regard, Gadamer’s standpoint may be considered interesting, when it is asserted that it is the dialogue that takes over and plays with human beings. Previously specified is how, according to the practice of coaching, one of the ultimate goals entails creating a natural flow of conversation, which enables the individuals involved to come together and think generatively and creatively. In the long-run, the coaching dialogue is considered a way of reaching a high level of communication, which facilitates elements like progress, learning and change. Building a common experience that allows individuals to learn collectively, accelerates decision making and assists in the process of implementing the decisions the way the individuals plan through coaching (Schein, 1999). Furthermore, when dialogue persists, and the coaching relationship exists as described in the theoretical background, both coach and client (as well as others involved) become objects of learning, and the collective excitement of developing may give rise to ideas and perspectives which would not have been thought of individually. Many characteristics assigned to the dialogue by coaching theories can be claimed to be comparable to the constructionist view; Gergen states the possibility of generating new solutions, ways of thinking and opportunities when worlds of meaning meet. The importance of taking care of creative relationships and the deriving language is also put forward, as estrangement and hostility may discourage their inspired potential to arise. Moreover, the focus on learning and 55/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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development in coaching transpires in Gergen’s thoughts, when the psychologist and professor claims that individuals are involved in negotiation, and thereby continuously create meaning and build new definitions of reality. In building these realities through the coaching dialogue, it may be argued that coach and client engage in an interaction based on Habermas’ claims of validity; they engage in mutual respect, put forward sincere and convinced assertions, while adhering to meaning, with the main intent of reaching a shared understanding and agreement. The following sections deal with methods and fundamental concepts, which a big part of the coaching literature argues, contribute to the coaching dialogue (Whitmore, 2009; McDermott & Jago, 2006; Flaherty, 2005; Gjerde, 2003; Schein 1999). 3.2.1. Opening up

One pre-requisite to achieving what is considered a real dialogue from a coaching perspective, is the individual’s ability to open up to the process, to himself and to the coach. As discussed earlier, however, opening up most often occurs neither immediately nor automatically. Coaching literature explores the influence of habits, defined as “conditions present in every human being that can account for the consistency in [their] response to life” (Flaherty, 2005, p.62). Coaching then involves a process which may stimulate that self-analysis which enables the individual’s ability to observe and select appropriate action. Nevertheless, problems may persist when an attempt is made continuously to undo habits and introduce new ones (Whitmore, 2009). Moreover, social identity and the expectations of others, which tend to become accustomed through repetitive behavior, may induce individuals to respond to situations in anticipated ways; problems may arise, as the social environment may question or display negative judgment towards change, when expected behaviors are not lived up to (Flaherty, 2005). A private component is also invoked, which includes what an individual tells himself, and which may give meaning to his situation within the boundaries of his narratives (Flaherty, 2005). These difficulties met at times in the process of a dialogue are also emphasized by the hermeneutic philosophy. According to Heidegger, in fact, even though linguistic resources are considered to belong to everyone, the path to reach these is always far from linear and may take place over a longer period of time.

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From a coaching perspective, breaking habits is seen as reeducation of the nervous system, and of changing behaviors, responses and reactions, to occur in real time and not during the individual’s reflection (Flaherty, 2005). In order to do so, the individual is brought through a stage of experimentation, which consists in identifying a process which has revealed a positive outcome and repeating it until it has habituated the individual both mentally and physically (Flaherty, 2005). This habituation, almost as naturalization, may be associated with Gadamer’s perception on how a game of dialogue is to be played so fervently, that in the end individuals almost seem to lose themselves in it, and every play becomes a “being-played”. From a different perspective, it may be argued that, in illustrating their understanding, Lakoff and Johnson also bring up the need to break old habits; by asserting how language (and life in general) is permeated with metaphors, and that by using metaphors and replacing outdated with new ones, an individual is persuaded to capture new aspects of reality, he might not have been aware of. As a matter of fact, the authors sustain how metaphors may include senses and behaviors which enable human beings to perceive the world. Dialogue may only be created when the individual is ready to receive coaching and when coaching is built on a coaching relationship, with the true partnership and characteristics presented in the theoretical section. Once the individual is ready, he may start to let go of old symbols of his security and start the learning process and adoption of the new behaviors (Whitmore, 2009). Studies sustain that coaching is actually a natural skill, and if the opening is present within the individual, he might not even have to be taught too many coaching tools and techniques (Whitmore, 2009). Nevertheless, since this is often not the case, work is put in by the coach on removing blocks, until potential emerges. In going through this part of coaching, an individual learns that from the moment he lets go of his need to control, he will gain control. Once again, recalling Gadamer, one might claim that this represents the moments a kind of pre-linguistic dialogue is created and the individual is finally provided with freedom. As described earlier in this paper, within coaching it is believed that human beings are creative, resourceful and whole. Curiosity is key to the experimentation phase in coaching and contributes to these attributes in taking action, including wondering what the individual is capable of achieving, how he can develop and how far he can go (Gjerde, 2003). This type of curiosity also 57/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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entails never taking anything for granted and staying open to the unknown, with the hope of discovering new opportunities. Along with maintaining a curious attitude, and in forming an effective dialogue, other coaching tools and techniques are introduced in the following paragraphs, namely active listening, powerful questions, feedback, and understanding body language. 3.2.2. Levels of Listening

The theme of listening is a red thread in the development of civilizations; there is no part of the world, where no philosophical texts strongly emphasize the importance of listening. In particular, philosophy of language is known to specify how, over time, the dialogue has characterized the development of human beings. The theoretical perspective of this paper intends to demonstrate how Heidegger and Gadamer are two of the philosophers who have mostly contributed to the study of this particular field in its strong relation to language. It is interesting to note that Heidegger especially is referred to in literature within coaching, in regards to how he alleged that human beings participate in a dialogue, and as soon as they start listening to one another, they become the dialogue. Several coaching exponents have similarly brought up the necessity of listening in the establishment of relationships and development of a dialogue (Schein, 1999; Whitmore, 2009, McDermott & Jago, 2006). In times where individuals are overwhelmed by noise and disturbances, coaching approaches the activity of listening as taking a calm moment for reflection, discovery and self-analysis, with the intent of substituting the need for socializing with taking the time and space for the individual to reach clarity and open up to new opportunities . In establishing the coaching relationship, daily exercising and major effort is put in to developing the ability of listening, until it becomes habitual and almost automatic. The underlying reason for this regards the fact that within coaching, authentic listening is considered the basis of effective communication, and the best way to decipher emotions, as well as understanding one’s relationship to others. As a matter of fact, through listening, individuals may increase their chances of success; being listened to and engaging in listening enables them to better explore a greater number of possibilities, and thereby also creating a greater number of possible solutions (Flaherty, 2005). 58/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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It may be argued that active listening presupposes a voluntary effort of the coach to listen not only with the ears but with his whole being, where the whole individual is involved; in this regard, Whitworth et al. (1998) defines three forms of listening and describes them in three levels, to illustrate the importance of the active listening occurring in coaching. The first level regards internal listening and it encompasses the process of self-awareness already explained previously in this paper. By getting to know himself and increasing his ability to listen to his needs, the individual increases his understanding of his difficulties, with the premise that he takes responsibility for these too. Taking responsibility then includes accepting what is happening, in order to eventually be able to overcome it. This type of listening may thus help the individual filter the information and resources available to him and focus on his primary needs and goals (Whitworth et al., 1998). Recalling Heidegger’s determination of “the saying”, and how it operates by showing, it is possible to argue that the display this type of listening offers may serve to open discussions, enabling the infinite experience of language to activate the truth of being. By learning to listen to what is shown, thus, the individual embodies “the epic song of being” and starts to reach a higher understanding of what is in front of him. The second level is referred to as focused listening, which entails a deep attention towards the other; the individual engages his whole self in listening to what the other person is saying, allowing him to express himself at his own pace, without interfering with repetitive or interrupting questions. Moreover, this listening is characterized by a genuine interest to enrich one’s knowledge and learning potential, as it is believed that only when the other person feels unconditionally accepted (a conditioned argued for in the theoretical part of this paper), expression is freed and a coaching dialogue is created. Heidegger’s thoughts behind language build on this idea, in arguing for the power of listening and the importance of absorbing its silence, in order to embark the road of a pure linguistic experience and eventually open the doors to truth. This level includes a true perception, through words and gestures, of the other’s experience and feelings (Whitworth et al., 1998). In his philosophy, Gadamer raises the similar issue of listening and the importance of the unspoken as a moment for the individual to remove himself from his self-centeredness and start the process of understanding the other. Emotional intelligence, described in previous sections, plays a crucial role in coaching, as it enables the individual to 59/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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become completely available to the other, by trying to look at the situation from his perspective and abstaining from judgment (Whitworth et al., 1998). The evasion from judgment is previously displayed by Whitmore’s Communication Envelope Model in the section on GROWing in coaching. Gadamer supports this idea in stating that there would be an ideal coexistence among human beings, if everyone were to remove their own interests and prejudices. Moreover, by applying this type of listening, the individual learns to become careful, to be present, to respond and pay attention to the entire communication of the speaker. In other words, it may be asserted that he learns to listen with his heart, opening the way to understanding and empathy. Once again, recalling Gadamer, one can claim that this type of listening represents a necessary art to dispose oneself to true understanding, as it is regarded the route in which the word has reached the other person in his comprehension. Also, the philosopher could argue that the speech taking place may become a dialogue, as it is brought forward through many silent answers; even in this case, the involved individuals get closer to one another through a sense of reciprocity. This link between listening and understanding, according to Gadamer, denotes one’s true opening towards another person’s dimension.

Lastly, global listening, takes the activity to another level, by including an attention of the individual towards not only words, but also body language and senses. At this level of listening, coach and client ‘dance together in the moment’, with a higher awareness and intuition, as well as a focus on what is happening in the current situation (Whitworth et al., 1998). The individual is able to assume a non-defensive and accepting role of everything that is being said, and welcomes the unexpected by viewing it as a chance for development. In a dialogue, therefore, a relationship is considered to be created, in which individuals are brought together to truly understand each other’s viewpoint. From a hermeneutical perspective, this may signify the moment in which a real agreement has been reached and thus the dialogue may come to an end. This sense of agreement may also be viewed upon from a social constructionist viewpoint, according to which, instead, new worlds of meaning would be created.

To conclude, from a coaching perspective, within the activity of listening, meaning is given to language by filtering words, beliefs, knowledge and experience. As a matter of fact, it is assumed

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that the individuals involved in the dialogue may not give the same meaning to a word or expression, and that meaning, instead, is to be found within the individuals, not within words (Flaherty, 2005). This conception may be, one more time, brought back to the hermeneutic philosophers’ interest in the language of metaphysics. Gadamer’s particular interest is noticeable, in stressing that language is always only the language that individuals speak with one another in their daily life; the philosophy concerning the nature of being then lies not within the language, but within what is thought in a language. 3.2.3. Appreciative Inquiry

The traditional problem-solution approach assumes that a counseling or training begins with an analysis of the situation, which often includes a series of interviews with the individual(s) involved. The purpose of this interview is to bring forth the essential problems of the situation to be considered, which most often provides the individual with a list of things which are in error or simply not working as wished. In this case, on top of the list, the results entail the creation of a climate of skepticism and sometimes even frustration; the focus on the problems exacerbates the level of discomfort and, in many cases, the reaction of the client may be defiant and opposed to the person supposed to help provide new solutions (Schein, 1999). The practice of coaching encourages the individual to take distance from this mindset, and introduces methods, which within the literature of coaching are often referred to as Appreciative Inquiry (AI). According to the process behind AI, developed by Cooperrider and Srivastva in 1986, the client already owns the resources and knowledge necessary to come up with a solution. The individual’s resourcefulness within coaching has been emphasized throughout this paper. In the application of these methods, the coach is addressed towards activation and the facilitation of communication mechanisms. Only if the latter of these persists, a climate of trust and synergy is created and solutions may be found. Appreciative Inquiry is presented as one of the coaching tools, as it embraces the power of questions in coaching, as well as the appreciative and positive language used to frame the situation (Orem et al., 2007) and champion the client (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Through AI, an individual is thus not only brought to focus on the solution, rather than on the problem, but also on paying attention to his own vision, his resources, and the tasks and 61/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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objectives which may lead to the accomplishment of his vision. The underlying reason for this is that it is believed within coaching that better results are achieved if the individual gets involved in thinking about what he wants, instead of what binds him: it may be asserted that desire and envisioning of best-case scenarios are not totally abstract entities separated from reality (Rosinski, 2003). A similar concept was expressed earlier in this paper, in regards to the so-called selffulfilling prophecy. Moreover, often the individual is aware of this by reminiscing past experiences, and he may achieve more effective solutions if he decides to use the positive past events fruitfully and suppress the negative ones which have led to disruptive behaviors (Orem et al., 2007). This idea may be regarded as comparable to the social constructionist argument on how human beings view the world, discussed earlier in this paper; the moment of interaction created by following AI methods enables individuals to come together, interact and construct new meanings. Also, according to this stream of thinking, as the social and psychic worlds present in this process are considered subjective, the interaction creates reality solely from the human communication and language taking place. Through coaching and its AI, therefore, once the individual has understood that his language creates his reality, he can start using it as a promoter for his personal (as well as professional) change. It may be claimed that, bottom-line assumptions to this principle, therefore, are that what the individual concentrates on becomes his reality, and that the language he uses builds his reality (Orem et al., 2007). In practice, by adopting these methods, the individual goes through four main phases. Within each of these a subset of tools and methods may be applied, with the main intent of overcoming the limitations of traditional behavioral patterns, raising curiosity through effective questions and boosting the learning environment necessary to coaching. It can be argued that questioning, thus, becomes a key speech act in this process; in this regard, in fact, Searle may pinpoint how focus is put on the individuals, who, by answering the questions, reproduce words and through them, generate meaning. The first phase, discovery, begins with investigating moments and stories of success (Cooperrider et al., 2003). Questions involved in this phase may be: “What gives life to you now?” (from a transcendental perspective), “What works well when...?” or “In all this, what do you consider to be the best thing?”.

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The second phase is defined as dream, and it induces the individual to base himself on the positive aspects discovered in the first phase to envision ‘what might be’ (Cooperrider et al., 2003). In this phase the individual considers questions like “what could be accomplished, if I am to build on what works well?” and “in what way can I develop what works well?”. Next is the third phase, called design, during which the individual starts creating the ideal, or ‘what should be’ (Cooperrider et al., 2003). The new vision then starts to take concrete forms and objectives are defined to determine positive and attainable goals (similar to the ones described earlier in this paper for the GROW model). In this phase, an example of guiding questions may be “what are the efforts needed in order to fulfill my dream?” Finally, the fourth phase, destiny, induces the individual to ponder on the implementation of the project, by answering “what exactly has to be done in order to implement my dream?”, and thus identifying with whom, what, when, how, and how soon the process is to take place. It is important to state that AI is often applied in group settings, with the intent of generative a wider range of ideas and perspectives. In organizational environments, four-day AI summits may take place, aimed to cover one phase each day. Nevertheless, this method may very well be applied interpersonally between coach and client, who are still able to create the generative and learning process necessary to coaching. By observing the activity taking place in the four AI phases, and recalling the theoretical perspective of this paper, it is possible to conclude that Wittgenstein’s standpoint may support Searle’s focus on the speaker in the use of language. Yet, the philosopher may build on this view with his theory of language-games and emphasize the individual’s engagement in working with words and moves within the game of language. As mentioned previously, Gadamer’s philosophy can sometimes be correlated to Wittgenstein’s. In this case, in fact, he may argue that the stance of the game tends to take over the speaker, despite the latter’s prominence in the process. This perspective may be considerable challenged by Heidegger who, instead, is known to claim that the domain goes to language.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

3.2.4. Feedback

In the creation of a coaching dialogue, feedback is a fundamental element to support the growth and process of change in the individual (Whitmore, 2009; Rosinski, 2003; Schein, 1999). Feedback may be given both at an individual and organizational level, and can thus involve anyone, from coworkers to management, from parents to teachers. In coaching, feedback mainly represents the very important stage in which coach and client agree on an appropriate action plan, to reach the end goal and achieve success (Whitmore, 2009). As mentioned in the theoretical section of this paper, Gadamer is one of the philosophers who emphasizes the role of feedback in the confirmation of language and the creation of a pure authentic dialogue. Closely correlated to feedback, according to Gadamer, is listening, as together, these activities serve to build the “one-with-another” relationship and thereby foster true language. In coaching, feedback is used to improve the individual’s level of motivation, including working on his sense of self-efficacy (i.e. the inner conviction of being able to do something) and reinforcing positive behaviors, and rewarding the client for his efforts and progression. Therefore, positive feedback improves the individual’s belief in his capabilities, as it enhances his personal success (Whitmore, 2009). Through feedback the coach also helps to increase the individual’s level of awareness (Flaherty, 2005). Working with his awareness is crucial, because it allows the client to understand what actions are needed to reach his target most effectively. Moreover, the individual is encouraged to make decisions and is supported in his process to become self-generative, which, as argued by this paper, is considered to be the ultimate goal in coaching. Feedback is one of the main elements of coaching which helps the individual address and overcome issues and obstacles (Whitmore, 2009). The process of feedback is an open two-way communication between coach and client that involves the active listening and the aptitude to open up mentioned above in this paper. The main intention for this is to set forth a constant exchange of useful information, which may serve to correct or adjust the action plan, as well as improve the individual’s use of his potential. In scrutinizing the role of language, Wittgenstein speaks about how a similar exchange of information may include “seeing connexions”, enabling 64/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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2013

individuals to get a better grip of the situation. Indeed, the philosopher mentions how all complex activities, which make up language, need to be seen with an “overview”, that an individual is able to get by eliminating misunderstandings though the use of so-called “intermediate members”. Therefore, seeing connexions may help the individual overcome the complexity of language, remove pitfalls language tends to present, and start shaping his “worldview”, or the way he looks and makes sense of the world. Feedback may also be used to correct errors in the coaching process. Adopting the individual’s potential, establishing his objectives, structuring his plan, assessing obstacles are all activities promoted by the relationship between coach and client as part of the co-creation of their coaching process. Therefore, paying attention to feedback is considered fundamental, in order to ensure the maintenance of a productive cooperation, based on a supporting and helping relationship (Schein, 1999). In this regard, Lakoff and Johnson’s metaphors may turn out to be useful to give structure and co-create the process. As a matter of fact, the scholars may argue that metaphors are used as a mean to understand and experience one thing in terms of another. The underlying reason for this is that it is believed that the individual is not always able to identify seemingly unclear concepts or express abstract emotions. Therefore, through metaphors, both client and coach may succeed in accessing genuine experiences and conceptualizing them; in the long-run, this process can serve to clarify non-shared experiences and thereby facilitate their communication. In more practical terms, one of the main tools used within coaching for fostering feedback may be seen in the image below:

(from Rosinski, 2003, adapted by Luft, “The Johari Window”, Hum. Rel. Tr. News 5, 1961, p. 6-7)

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The matrix defined as Johari Window takes its name from the researchers Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, who structured the model in the 1960s to study the social interactions. In particular, the matrix is used within coaching as a tool to detect how an individual’s personality is expressed, and secondly to observe the relationship between him and others (Rosinski, 2003; Schein, 1999). In detail, Rosinski’s (2003) adaptation of the window covers the following four areas: arena, blind spot, mask and potential. The former area (arena) contains the facts and emotions that the individual deliberately shows, and which he is able to speak about casually; it may express both strengths and weaknesses, and represents the topics and ideas he chooses to share with others. The blind spot, represents things that others observe of him, but that are unknown to the individual himself. Again, it might contain both positive and negative feedback, and it tends to affect the way others relate to him, as well as how much at ease he is able to find himself in certain situations. The third area, mask, represents the private aspects that the individual is aware of, but keeps hidden from others. Lastly, the area named potential, contains aspects which are totally unknown to both the individual and others, as they are believed to be buried in the subconscious and are revealed on occasions which are particularly emotional. The model can be applied to also represent the non-verbal communication (which is discussed in the upcoming section); the public arena, in this case, may be shown through voluntary gestures, clothing, or with socialization. The hidden and unconscious spheres, instead, may be revealed through posture, tone of voice and involuntary movements. The Johari Window is utilized to understand and change the dynamics of the groups, the relationship of coach and client or even in the process of self-analysis. The interactions between the four boxes determine the types of relationships that can be created among individuals, or even as part of an inner conflict (Schein, 1999). Examples include shifting to open socialization and free exchange of information, confiding or venting, as well as displaying empathy.

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

As synergy grows in the relationship, most topics move to the public arena, and interpersonal communication becomes smoother. Automatically, the other areas of the matrix decrease in size. The coach may intervene by assessing the graphical difference of the matrix before and after a coaching session or period. To sum up, the Johari Window is used by coaching to identify and work on relationships and the communication taking place between the people involved. From a social constructionist point of view, it may be argued that this tool is crucial, as it scrutinizes how language and the social relationships get in on the act of anticipating experiences, as well as creating new knowledge. Moreover, new worlds and meaning are formed constantly in the endurance of feedback, which brings individuals together in what Gergen and other social constructionists would call “shared action”.

3.3.

Non-verbal Communication

The topic of non-verbal communication is a vast one and worthy of many volumes on its own. However, in this paper, the main intent is to lay out a few principles in this regard, to support its prevalence in the practice of coaching as well as in the philosophical considerations of language, and suggest some methods through which it is introduced within coaching. 3.3.1. Listening to non-verbal communication

As mentioned earlier in this paper, many messages are communicated without being verbalized. Therefore, in coaching an important skill is to be able to listen to non-verbal signals. Careful observation will reveal how much information can be conveyed through facial expression, for instance. Listening to the individual’s emotional tone is another ability that allows recognizing feelings which are not expressed verbally; the tone of voice may provide clues in how to deal with the individual in difficult situations, in which he might not spontaneously express his feelings and thoughts (Flaherty, 2005). In the communication process, non-verbal aspects are largely unconscious and less susceptible to being manipulated or masked by the individual. In coaching, both coach and client engage in the listening introduced previously. Yet, a good listener is also believed to listen to more than simply words; this includes listening to the intensity, the rhythm and tone of the voice, as well as to the subtle variations the other is transmitting. Often, it may be easy to forget about the importance of non-verbal behavior and the influence this 67/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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may have on others; in a dynamic communication, in fact, it is possible to influence others and establish a positive or negative climate without even uttering a word (Flaherty, 2005). As mentioned earlier, in imagining a language, among others, Wittgenstein also imagines forms of life, including non-linguistic behaviors which the philosopher calls primitive reactions. Primitive reactions become clues in the definition of language, since he claims that these are expressed by bodily expressions of emotions, and translated by so-called language-games. Nonverbal signals make it more difficult for the individual to hide what he is feeling; he may be able to carefully select his terms and expressions in order to create a façade, thinking of having covered his emotions, while, instead, they are being expressed unconsciously through his voice or gestures (Schein, 1999). Therefore, aspects behind this type of communication serve to better understand the interaction and the quality of interaction taking place between coach and client (Whitmore, 2009). In Searle’s studies, the philosopher and professor builds on this concept, by identifying how important verbal expressions constitute behaviors and, as such, are never separated from aspects which are closely linked to relationship between individuals. Moreover, it is important to keep in mind that individuals tend to interpret and filter what they hear through their own background and experience.

Therefore, by applying the empathic listening and

emotional intelligence suggested by the practice of coaching, coach and client are able to access better quality information (Gjerde, 2003). 3.3.2. Coaching the Body

One of the major exponents who emphasizes the centrality of the body in the process of coaching is Flaherty. Since it is believed that the body is a container and expresser of personal habits, reactions and knowledge, it plays a crucial role in determining how individuals act, what they perceive is possible to achieve and how they relate to others (Flaherty, 2005). Moreover, it is argued that habits are embedded in the body (more particularly, in the neuromuscular system), and that, thereby, subconscious behavioral patterns, based on the individuals’ background and history, navigate in it, making it also interwoven with language and all its forms (Flaherty, 2005). Gadamer’s considerations on language may be considered closely related to these assumptions, as he recognizes the phenomenon as something which should not be seen solely as a verbal language; rather, he argues that it should be understood as any form of communication, including all those gestures that come into play in establishing linguistic relationships with others. In 68/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

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particular, the philosopher keenly argues for this point in his discussion on semantic structure and the limits of language. In these regards, a pragmatic approach used within coaching is training the individual on becoming a keen observer of his own body. Once the individual becomes aware of how his body reacts, the coach may be able to start working with him to shift his spontaneous responses and open a new horizon of possible ones (Flaherty, 2005). This procedure is, however, not always automatic, nor often accomplished in the short-term; the individual will need to enter a process of discovery of the body, which includes exploring how open it feels, how the energy is moving around, what intuitions emerge and the overall state of the body, and replace this with his world of ideas and emotions (Flaherty, 2005). It may occur that the individual is resilient to the process in the beginning, and wants to retreat to his body numbness. However, once he starts building competence to stay present and settle in his body, his racing mind may diminish, and he may be able to absorb more input from his everyday world. Among the methods suggested within coaching are body scans and controlling the breathing. These methods are used to positively affect the nervous system and stay in touch with the current moment, rather than getting lost in past memories or future expectations (Flaherty, 2005). Being fully immersed and living the moment is brought up in Lakoff and Johnson’s contemplations of metaphors. Indeed, he defines these as moments for everyday language, and, in particular, as representations of the mode through which human beings give structure to their concepts, and thus also to reality. Part of this process also entails teaching the client to respect his body’s promptings, in order to reach the right body-mind state, which will enable him to think clearly and react and engage appropriately in all types of situations (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Once the individual starts acting on his impulses and perhaps even change his physical state to refresh his mind, it becomes easier for him to monitor and respond to his own signals and needs. Consequently, in the long-run, the coach helps the client manage his state appropriately and thereby get the most out of the coaching process, as well as of life (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Through coaching, the individual is then able to get into conditions of alert and speculative attentiveness, which enables him to focus his mind on his self-awareness and state of inquiry, discussed by this paper as key points to stimulate a dialogue and what has been argued for as true 69/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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language. In order to reach this, the individual may be induced to ask himself the question: “what state do I need to be in to be at my most resourceful?”. Often, the answer is found in the combination of maintaining the logical and strategic left-brain processing available, and integrating it with the right-brain capacity to feel, imagine and create (McDermott & Jago, 2006). By entering the coaching “body-mind” state, the individual is believed to pick up all connections and implications (McDermott & Jago, 2006) that philosophers of language have articulated as being key to the understanding of meaning. Moreover, he may take the overview needed in order to shift from an awareness of how he is to an awareness of how this connects to other people, his past or future (McDermott & Jago, 2006). Again, the importance of gaining an overview of interweaving activities and happenings has been brought up by philosophers like Wittgenstein, in his explanation of worldviews. Finally, coaching the body may help the individual step outside himself and consider how he might be perceived by others, examining the effects of different possible courses of actions, from their perspective as well as his own (McDermott & Jago, 2006). This takes into consideration the interpersonal- and intra-psychic dimension, brought up in the theoretical section of this paper, as the individual is encouraged to react not just to the outside world, but also to his inner world (McDermott & Jago, 2006). As social constructionists would argue, the coming together of these worlds may represent a captivating occasion to build new definitions of reality and meaning.

4. Discussion and Further Development In what way is coaching pervaded by language?

As a practice which promotes self-development and the unlocking of personal potential, coaching has a focus which is based on the method of setting goals and designing the path to pursue, in order to reach maximum performance. By adopting the GROW model, an individual is brought through a process of self-analysis; he is encouraged to discover and become aware of habits and rooted behavioral patterns which have determined his choices and actions. Moreover, he is induced to tap into his emotions and reflect upon what values shape his perception of life and thereby how these affect the way he relates to it. Increasing the awareness of emotions, and combining them with thoughts and intentions, is believed to enhance the individual’s quest for

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

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meaning, which within coaching is an ongoing and active process. Subsequently, by assessing himself and his reality, the individual can set his goals more easily. In these phases of coaching, the phenomenon of language seems to appear in different ways. In order to reach meaning, in his self-analysis, the individual draws from his personal background and accesses language through language-games, based on intertwined activities and practices put forward in the coaching. In the process, as he comprehends the importance of emotional intelligence, the individual is also provided with the language of emotions, and is therefore confronted with a new horizon, which may serve as a fundamental source of information for him when he establishes steps to take and makes choices. Defining his reality stimulates his exploration of meaning and, as he sets goals he is induced to make ethical and moral considerations which tie him to the plan and single steps; the close relationship between his values and the goals then may give birth to what philosophers of language call a valid discourse. It may be argued that the phenomenon of language emerges when the individual sets his specific goals, and more specifically, in the acknowledgement of wording and how it relates to meaning and purpose. By avoiding judgments, and rather focusing on precise and descriptive language, intentionality is made clear in the individual’s goals, which articulate what is going on and what will happen. Language-games are used to substitute primitive expressions in the different situations the individual is presented with, and the articulation of his intentions becomes a key speech act in the coaching process. The ontology on language prevails when the client is induced to define his reality and in it listen to his own voice of speech as a voice of being, which, according to the philosophy, manifests itself in language; by accessing language in this way, the individual becomes exposed to a moment of clearing which enables new knowledge to arise. This knowledge may be related to all the individual’s alternatives for action, which are revealed in the moment the coach helps the client specify his options (the third step in the GROW model). Following this line of thinking, language then prevails in the multiplicity of meanings exposed in this stage, providing the individual with a deep sense of truth and being. From a similar perspective, this stage may represent the moment in which a new horizon is uncovered, with the many new opportunities and a freedom of pursuing the knowledge needed to grow and progress. 71/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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It can be argued that, in going through the GROW process, and in answering the “w”-questions especially, the individual may access metaphors to structure all the concepts which make up his reality and to provide an overview of his plan. The phenomenon of language arises from the metaphors when these enable the individual to get in touch with his inventive mindset and inner sense of creativity, which are key to success in coaching. When goals have been set and a plan has been clarified, language then appears as a construction of the close interrelation between the worlds of meaning that have arisen and the action that the individual is to take; by assessing what is appropriate and real in the coming together of the different worlds of meaning he is living in, as a last moment of the coaching process, the client is induced to own his choices and maintain his steps until he reaches his end goals. The coaching dialogue is considered fundamental to the coaching relationship between coach and client as well as to the development of the individual from one coaching session to another. The creation of the dialogue also represents the moment in which the individuals are brought to the explore the complexities of thinking and language; in fact, it is believed that language occurs authentically in the open platform of dialogue, and that hidden meanings are brought to surface, enabling true communication to emerge. In developing the coaching dialogue, coach and client cocreate a situation of one-with-another, in which both individuals are highly valued and language is most present. This co-creation is made possible as both coach and client enter the process with self-awareness and understanding of their own assumptions, along with willingness to opening up and listening to what arises from the situation and other person. As a first step, therefore, the individual thought process is grasped, as a consequence of one’s own fragmentation and comprehension of his world. Yet, in the coaching dialogue, it may be observed how the thought process becomes collective, through the individual’s ultimate efforts to agree (on goals or objectives, for instance). Moreover, in this collective thought, coach and client’s worlds of meaning meet, constructing new definitions of reality and generating new opportunities and solutions wished for in the coaching sessions. As stated above, linguistic resources are considered to belong to everyone. However, the path to reach these is always far from linear and may take long. Therefore, when the individual is coached to open up, it may be argued that he, through coaching, accesses his linguistic resources. Being 72/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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2013

truly open is perceived in the coaching process as a result of letting go of habitual patterns and being ready to take in new ones, mentally as well as physically. This moment is argued for in philosophy of language as playing the game of the dialogue so fervently, that the individuals almost lose themselves in it and become “being-played”. Letting go of control accompanies this stage in coaching, and it is considered a pre-linguistic dialogue, in which the individuals involved are finally provided with freedom. From a different perspective, the opening up in the coaching dialogue serves to replace outdated metaphors with new ones, so that the individuals are able to capture new aspects of reality they would not have encountered otherwise. Listening is an activity in coaching that takes account of listening to oneself as well as to others. Active listening includes consideration of words, silence and body language. Individuals access language and participate in dialogue when they start listening to one another. In fact, it is argued that through attentive listening they become the dialogue itself. Generally, coaching supports the activity of listening as the basis for effective communication, as it enables the deciphering of emotions and provides a clearer understanding of the situation and the established relationships in that situation. This type of listening is internal and it makes up a big part of the process of selfawareness, as it includes being emotionally intelligent and becoming open and available to the other. The importance of removing oneself from prejudices and paying attention to the other is a fundamental characteristic brought up much in the practice of coaching. This characteristic is considered the power of listening, through which the individual is able to absorb the silence, and thereby embark on the road to pure linguistic experience, a moment that has been claimed to open the doors to the “truth of being”. By listening to the unspoken, both client and coach distance themselves from their selfcenteredness and start the process of understanding each other, including capturing the language lying underneath the many silent answers. As a matter of fact, according to philosophers of language, meaning is given to language by filtering words, beliefs, knowledge and experience which originate from the individuals engaged in the dialogue, and it is therefore found within the individuals, rather than in words. The engagement arising in the dialogue may be embodied by saying and showing, and it is believed to enable a higher understanding of reality and the infinite experience of language to activate the truth of being. Listening may also represent an opportunity

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2013

for new worlds of meaning to be constructed and for an agreement to be reached, thereby fulfilling the purpose of the dialogue. In the practice of coaching this type of engagement is viewed as the process where coach and client dance together towards the client’s achievements. Being a self-development discipline, coaching supports the importance of the individual. In particular, as sustained by the self-fulfilling prophecy, the client may realize that he is the key to change; in particular, through coaching, he may understand that his language creates his reality and that he can start using it as a promoter for his personal development. Since his social and psychic worlds are subjective, his interaction with the coach may foster the human communication needed for him to concentrate on what he wants to achieve, until this becomes his reality. Therefore, the appreciative language and inquiry serve to encourage and strengthen the client’s pursuit of goals. Theory of use of language may argue that the coach’s questioning is a fundamental speech act, as it induces the client to reproduce words by answering, and through these generate meaning to himself. Appreciative inquiry thus stimulates the individual’s curiosity and starts his thinking process, which coaching approaches as the key motivator for the client’s success. The emphasis of the individual remains a constant factor throughout the coaching process, whereas, in the use of language, despite the prominence of the speaker, the real domain may shift between the individual and language itself. The Johari window is one of the tools used by coaching to guide through and graphically show the process of feedback. The language deriving from this process serves to create a pure authentic dialogue between coach and client, and others who might be involved in group settings. Philosophy of language, in fact, accentuates the role of feedback in the confirmation of language, and the listening which comes along with it contributes to the creation of the coaching relationship, giving birth to what is argued for as true language. The exchange of information deriving from feedback (which might be go under any of the four areas of the Johari window) helps the individual see connections of thoughts and get a better grip of the situation. It has been argued that connexions and an overview are crucial to eliminate misunderstandings and overcome the complexity of language. Moreover, once the individual has removed the pitfalls language may present him with, it is believed that he may start shaping his worldview and reality. The connections may also be viewed as new worlds of meaning, constantly being constructed in the

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Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

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process of feedback and which foster shared action. The language and social relationships arising from feedback, therefore, anticipate experiences and create new knowledge. It may be argued that this new knowledge, as well as all genuine experiences, are then conceptualized through metaphors, which assist client and coach in clarifying non-shared experiences and facilitating the communication. Non-verbal communication plays a crucial role in coaching, as it is believed that a lot may be read and understood from gestures, postures, the tonality of the voice and behaviors. This is supported by the philosophical perspective, according to which primitive reactions (or forms of life, including non-linguistic behaviors) are conveyed by bodily expressions and translated by language-games, thereby also defining language. Furthermore, it is argued that gestures may establish linguistic relationships with others. Coaching then helps the individual (coach and client) develop and apply empathic listening and use his emotional intelligence to access profound and indirect information, which may turn out to be useful in constructing new definitions of reality and meaning. Just like verbal communication, non-verbal communication requires the individual to access not only his outside, but also his inner world; in going through a self-analysis of his behaviors, he is induced to be fully immersed and living the moment. It is suggested that everyday language transpires in these moments, and the individual uses metaphors as a mode to give structure to his reality. Once again, the self-awareness and the state of inquiry of one’s behavior and non-verbal communication may become useful to stimulate dialogue and give birth to true language. In the creation of a dialogue, which can thus also be non-verbal, the individual is able to reach the right coaching body-mind state and pick up all connexions and overview needed to shift his awareness of how he is to understanding how he connects to others, to his past and his future.

Does language affect individuals’ structure of interpretation? And how may understanding language open up more possibilities for coaching?

The analysis reveals how coaching includes an uncoiling and a reconstruction of the individual’s notions about being human, thereby expressing the existential issues which arise from the practice. As mentioned above, the individual is the focus and center of coaching. Therefore, 75/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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understanding the essential constitutive particulars of human beings becomes crucial; it may be argued that, apart from providing techniques for doing, by displaying a way of viewing oneself and others, coaching then also displays skills of being. The ontological take of this paper, according to which humans exist in a different way from other phenomena, opens up possibilities for coaching; it digs into how individuals enter into relationships with what they encounter and, in particular, how they pre-reflexively interact with phenomena, as a constitutive part to their being. Language is then considered the vital phenomenon which accompanies human beings in how they relate to themselves and others, as well as in how they decide what is important and how to act. Therefore, it may be argued that even thoughts and cognitive experiences become part of the opportunities that language provides to the individual. An example includes, how, in the process of self-analysis, language allows the individual to assess previous behavior and move from what has taken place in the past to an opening of time, by taking action in the present to bring about an outcome in the future. In accordance to some views within philosophy of language, one may claim that it is language that uses human beings, in the sense that it provides them with the horizon of possible actions, experience, relationships and meanings. In other words, throughout the practice of coaching, language may be viewed as the phenomenon which guides the individual towards a specific orientation of the world. In living the spirit of coaching, the individual is induced to cultivate an ongoing awareness and sensitivity which enable him to undergo a conversation within himself and, ultimately, reach a sense of self-mastery. As described in the stages of the GROW model, this process includes facing reality by letting go of control and surrendering to the situation as it is; the individual is encouraged to reveal his uncertainties and accept frustrations and other obstacles which might be presented, in order to be able to welcome change and commit to his own involvement and acknowledge the power of his resourcefulness and creativity. The active nature of language then shines through in the individual’s assimilation of this reasoning, which may occur both consciously and unconsciously, until it reaches a level where it changes behavior. As the above analysis displays, the self-development process, in fact, suggests that the individual’s cultivation of this way of thinking leads him gradually to it. Eventually, the individual is believed to develop a deep confidence within himself and an attentiveness to what is going on around him, which produce a sustained energy and enthusiasm, resulting in more tangible outcomes and 76/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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lasting success. Also, the horizon of opportunities may consist in greater latitude to shape the individual’s future than what he would otherwise have believed. From a different perspective, arguing that language is present as a type of game that exists in the context of the world created by the speaker of the language, coaching may be approached as a practice that continuously shapes and re-shapes the narratives in which the individual makes sense of his world (or worlds). The prominence of the language in which he interprets himself thus grows as the individual develops his ability to understand and direct himself, when he is invited to explore and reflect with curiosity and without judgments. The coaching dialogue serves as one of the main moments for this to occur; it breaks a new ground by establishing and sustaining a field for collective inquiry of coach and client and creates a setting where the two (and any other individual who may be involved) can become more aware of the context around their experiences, as well as the thought processes and feelings which accompany these experiences. Alternatively, it may be argued that the language arising from the dialogue stimulates speech acts and metaphors that create new meaning and motivates internal search, encouraging the individuals to ask powerful questions and stay engaged and focused (which are key assumptions coaching rests on). If the domain is given to the speaker, as the coaching dialogue is practiced, it may be claimed that, in bringing about a different set of activities and outcomes, the individuals learn to skillfully deal with language; attention is paid to words and spaces between words, to timing and silence, to the tone of the voice and gestures, creating the conditions to access all resources and experience the situation as a whole. Furthermore, by comprehending the phenomenon of language, both coach and client are also reminded of the systemic thinking underlying the practice of coaching, of how they are made up of interconnecting systems (examples include mind and body, intellect and emotion, reflection and action) and may thereby experience the primacy of the whole (Senge et al., 1994). This systemic approach is not dealt with in detail in this paper, but may be a topic for further research and development of studies pertaining to coaching.

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This paper aims to display the necessity of coaching of bringing up existential issues when assisting the client in his pursuit of performance and success. Mentioned earlier in this section is the significance of comprehending and accessing the language of emotions, which takes into account entering the realm of emotions and tapping into a deep and ethical well of aspiration to develop a personal vision. The coaching relationship and the ongoing interaction between coach and client is crucial to this process, as its openness and intimacy serve to care for the vulnerability which may arise. By exploring the language deriving from his mental models and values, the individual is believed to become mentally, socially and emotionally exposed, yet remaining assertive and selfassured. Moreover, the analysis of this paper discusses how the individual’s body interacts with the phenomenon of language. It is argued, in fact, that the individual carries and expresses what he cares about and how he understands the world in his body; the language behind non-verbal communication expresses the level of openness to change, since the ability to progress, connect with others and persist in challenging situations may in big part be determined by the state of the body. Therefore, through coaching the individual is persuaded to also assess his language by including the body and by paying attention to how he attends to it. As a coach, comprehending the pertinence of the phenomenon of language may ultimately provide him with new notions on how the client perceives himself, and more specifically what particularities makes his client the kind of human being he is. As the above analysis reveals, it may be contended that through the coaching dialogue, the coach is able to access the language world that he constructs and shares with his client. In this process, he may be able to explore what the client exposes and what he keeps obscured in the language he speaks. Also, in analyzing the client’s worlds of meanings, the coach may easier identify opportunities and experiences which are inaccessible to the client. Consequently, by observing the way the client observes his structure of interpretation, the coach may intervene in articulating it and making it explicit to the client. This increase of awareness may then serve to alter the client’s structure of interpretation, as new distinctions and practices are provided, until, in the long-run, these become ingrained and the client is believed to be freed to take action.

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As stated in the introduction, the approach of this paper is mainly focused at coaching at an individual level. However, in other forms of coaching, especially in organizational or executive coaching, principles brought up in the analysis may be applied to build learning organizations; coaching sessions may serve to create business environments where employees continuously expand their capacity to create results individually, while still nurturing expansive patterns of thinking and setting free collective aspirations (Senge, 1997). Further research in this regard may include how the phenomenon of language can transpire in this case too, in particular in the coming together of more people who engage in a continuous process of learning and creating new knowledge and meaning together. Processes like self-analysis expand and become a genuine “thinking together”, with a suspension of assumptions and a generation of shared visions (Senge, 1997). The active presence of language may be argued for especially in the integrated discipline of the coaching dialogue, which, in an organizational setting, may foster many feedback loops as part of the emergent and learning process. Furthermore, as awareness of the presence of the organizational spirit increases, more often decisions are believed to be taken as teams, in light of the shared vision and common sense of purpose (Senge et al., 1994), once again opening up a horizon of new opportunities which would not have been visible if the sense of being, and thereby deeper purpose, were obscure.

5. Conclusion This Master’s thesis views coaching as a practice which enhances personal development. Coaching is revealed through definitions by coaching exponents like Whitmore, Downey, Flaherty and McDermott and Jago, as a process that helps individuals meet their goals in their private as well as professional life, improve their relationships with themselves, others and with their environment. Despite its close affiliation with other practices, like mentoring and consulting, coaching bases its idiosyncratic approach on the trusting relationship between coach and client that serves to guide the latter through his personal experience and discover his own solution, which is most right for him. In this paper, it is argued that through dynamics, like the engaging partnership of coach and client, coaching delves into existential issues, which are often underrated in the pertinent literature. In fact, the practice may assist individuals in comprehending vital constitutive particulars of human beings, including how they relate to meaning, truth and language. 79/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

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Language is the phenomenon which has the main focus in this paper. In fact, it is attempted to analyze coaching through the lens of philosophy of language and related notions, in order to suggest how language strikingly transpires through the practice. According to the ontological approach of this thesis, language is what differentiates human beings from any other form of life and, in line with the thinking behind philosophy of language, it becomes fundamental to humanity and understanding human life. One continental philosopher belonging to the hermeneutic movement is Heidegger, who wishes to remove the common comprehension of language as a means of communication, and makes language the basic event of man’s “being”. His take is greatly ontological, phenomenological and existential; language is considered an active phenomenon which uses human beings. It is then the individual’s job to listen to the voice of speech, leading him to the moment of “clearing” during which new knowledge may become unconcealed. Heidegger’s assigning the domain to language differs strongly with Wittgenstein’s game phenomenology, according to which it is the subject speaking who engages in a communitarian process of using language. In fact, the philosopher describes language as a game that is played in a context for a specific purpose. Assuming an inbetween position, instead, is Gadamer, who reflects an intermediate role of the game of language that accentuates the dialogue’s activity in the process, but is still exceeded by the speaker’s outlook. Moreover, Searle’s pragmatic approach to the issue of meaning draws upon the theory of “speech acts”, delineating the pertinence of language in how verbal expressions constitute behaviors and are closely linked to relationships between individuals. This theory serves as a source of inspiration for Habermas and Apel’s dialogue, which puts forward a public sphere and universal claims of validity to the linguistic community. The social constructionist view is presented through Gergen’s orientation on language perceived as a pre-condition of thought, as well as a form of social action; language is believed to provide a framework of meaning to individuals, who come together and construct new worlds of meaning and definitions of realities. The last approach brought up in this paper pertains to Lakoff and Johnson’s contribution to figurative language, arguing for how metaphors are used to understand and experience one thing in terms of another. The analysis puts forward a set of tools and methods used in the practice of coaching: the GROW model, the coaching dialogue (including opening up, listening, appreciative inquiry and feedback),

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and observing non-verbal communication. By explaining these tools, the analysis of this paper suggests how language perceived from the above mentioned lines of thinking pervades the process involved in coaching. However, it is important to take into consideration that the paper does not favor one approach over another. Rather, the intent is to provide the reader with a new angle with which to view coaching, namely the existential issues related to defining human beings, which often arise from the practice. To conclude, this new perspective serves to propose how, by having a thorough understanding of language, a coach may be presented with more opportunities. In particular, it is suggested that, in scrutinizing this phenomenon, an individual is also encouraged to investigate how he relates to himself and others; his process of self-analysis and inner conversation assist him in sustaining creativity and a sense of inquiry, evoking him to observe and listen to himself as a whole (considering thoughts, emotions and body). Furthermore, this increase in awareness may challenge him to further explore his client, including how the client perceives himself, as well as what the client exposes and keeps concealed in the language he speaks. Final observations are that, once applied individually, this view of coaching may be considered on a corporate level, for those business environments where organizations assume emergent approaches, with the hope of embracing change and introducing new opportunities for learning and develop.

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Appendix A Schleiermacher’s Breakthrough in the 1700s

Adapted from Marina, J. (2005). The Cambridge Companion to Friedrich Schleiermacher. Cambridge University Press By many has Schleiermacher been indicated as “the father of modern theology” due to his profound influence through the reformulation and rethinking of theological propositions. As a matter of fact, the philosopher goes against the mainstream thought of the time; he suggests that religion cannot be considered the intuition of the universe, in the sense that through religion, human beings are able gain a complete knowledge of the infinite. Also, without its sense of mystery and ineffability, the infinite would not be the same. Therefore, Schleiermacher, argues that wanting to penetrate more deeply into the nature and substance of the whole is no longer to be considered religion. The intuition of the universe simply implies the feeling of dependence of the finite on the infinite, and that of human beings on God; it is in intuition of the universe, then, that one can find the authentically religious attitude. Nevertheless, this feeling is not something temporary or contingent, neither is it an emotional state that varies as its conditions change. Rather, Schleiermacher believes it is inherent in the very constitution of human beings. The philosopher brings up the concept of language previously discussed by Kant, and calls it a “transcendental language”. Although the religious experience is then based on a transcendental language, it manifests itself in a unique way to each individual. In fact, it is argued that each person experiences his intuition of the universe differently. The philosopher thus asserts that this is the underlying reason for how religion has taken different forms historically, and how it has been institutionalized in a multitude of positive faiths.

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Appendix B Poets and Thinkers according to Heidegger

Adapted from Heidegger, M. (2001). Poetry, Language, Thought. HarperCollins. Heidegger assigns poets and thinkers the role of guardians of “the house of being”, as these are able to put the being into practice, lead it to language and keep it protected within language. Moreover, poets and thinkers affect the truth of being with the power of the word, leading it to its fulfillment. Poetic language should thus not be thought of as a separate thing from reason, but reasoning and composing poetry refer to the same linguistic reality; they are different forms of “Sage”, which safeguards the truth of being in its multiplicity of senses and meanings.

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Appendix C Neuro-Linguistic Programming

Adapted from Vickers, A. (2010). Essential NLP: Teach Yourself. Abingdon: Hachette UK.

The central idea of Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is that the language of the body, as well as the individual’s thoughts and words, interact with each other and create their perception of the world. By changing his vision, named by NLP as “map”, the individual may enhance his perceptions, and improve his actions and performance. The perception of the world, as well as the individual’s response to it, may be broadened by applying appropriate communication techniques. NLP then serves to develop successful actions and habits, by amplifying facilitative and effective behaviors, and diminishing, instead, the unwanted ones, which tend to limit the individual. The change occurs by reproducing and repeating beliefs that have proven to be successful (a technique called modeling).

NLP was originally promoted by the founders Bandler and Grinder in the seventies, as a rapid form of psychological therapy aimed at treatments of phobias and learning disabilities. Moreover, it is believed to be an effective way of communicating and understanding each other; as a matter of fact, NLP is known to prove that it is possible for an individual to adapt his language filters to those of others, in order to create a common language and thereby facilitate communication.

The name chosen by the founders of the discipline summarizes three components of NLP: 

Neuro, or neurological processes of human behavior, based on how the nervous system receives stimuli from the sense organs and transforms these into perceptions and representations;



Linguistic, which defines the system by which human mental processes are encoded, organized and processed through language;



Programming, the ability to influence patterns of behavior variables and based on individual perception and experience. Through NLP one may intervene on a predefined range of behaviors, which operate unconsciously and automatically.

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From Rosinski, P. (2003). Coaching Across Cultures. Nicholas Brealey. P. 267

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2013

Appendix D Interpersonal, Intra-psychic and Organizational Interference

Adapted from McDermott & Jago. (2006). The Coaching Bible. London: Piatkus. According to McDermott & Jago (2006) interference can take various behavioral forms, and it is thereby possible to encounter three types, namely interpersonal, intra-psychic and organizational interference. Interpersonal interference usually arises from conflicts between two people. An example includes when the coach takes a new initiative and receives a negative response from the client. It is then argued that the coach may need to reflect on himself and on how he is viewing his client. Since every relationship is believed to be a self-reinforcing system, when the coach changes his perception of the client, he may cause the whole system to adjust, regardless of whether it is intending or not. Intra-psychic interference often occurs within the complex interrelating system of the mental- and physical. The two authors discuss how this type of interference can be internal or be exposed how the individual inhibits himself interpersonally. Therefore, the practice of coaching is believed to explore the degree of fit between what is expected and what is experienced. Intra-psychic interference may arise when the individual is in conflict with himself as he wants different things, when his drive towards change is in conflict with his need for safety, or when his body enacts a doubt or fear that he had not consciously recognized. Organizational interference is brought up by McDermott and Jago, as they describe organizations as structures that govern daily interaction of individuals, and thereby create patterned habits of interpersonal behaviors. This type of interference operates mostly at an intra-psychic level. Situations in which the coach may intervene include when an organization needs to find new creative ways to work within unseen but given structures of an industry, or when, at a micro-level, people wish to learn and develop more individual inspired strategies. Moreover, since organizations are particularly skilled at generating interference by instituting change on a shortterm, attention by the coach is needed in order to make sure that solving short-term problems like this does not result in interference with long-term systemic implications.

92/93 Adela Nicole de Pratto

Aarhus University – Business and Social Science Master Thesis: “Exploring the Phenomenon of Language in the Practice of Coaching”

2013

Appendix E Schein’s definition of Psychological Contract

Adapted from Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey-Bass. American social psychologist and professor of management at the Sloan School of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Edgar Schein (1928) created the term "psychological contract" to express the unspoken and unwritten rules that bind people within an organization. In particular, according to Schein, the psychological contract defines what an employee may expect from his employer, not only in economic terms (in regards to wages, working conditions, hours, security, for instance), but also i "psychological" conditions; these include the way the employee is valued in his activities and how he is encouraged to develop his skills and responsibilities within the organization. Schein believes that many strikes and conflicts in the industry derive from a breach of this contract, even though the apparent cause seems to regard an economic protest. Schein argues that the psychological contract does not work only one way: it includes the hopes that the company puts on those who work for it. Examples of these hopes are loyalty and consistency, Thereby, there needs to be an agreement and correspondence between the two parties, if the contract is to be applied in the long-run.

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