EXPLORING TEACHING STRATEGIES OF TURKISH PRIMARY TEACHERS IN MUSIC EDUCATION

By Zuhal Dinq ALTUN

Thesis submitted to School of Education, University of Leicester for the Degreeof Doctor of Education

June2005

Abstract

Contemporary literature suggeststhat there is a growing body of researchin music education, however, research on the teaching processes and effective teaching strategiesof primary teachersin teaching music is highly limited and highlights the need for qualitative researchin the pedagogyof music. Thus, with referenceto music as one of the foundation subjectsof the Turkish primary curriculum, this study aims to investigateprimary teachers'teaching strategiesin Turkish primary classrooms.In the study the 'qualitative' researchapproachwas adopted in order to fulfil the aims in in The the two and objectives of stateprimary schools study. study was carried out Turkey. A total of six primary school teacherswith different educationalbackgrounds in the study. As one of the research instruments, a semi-structured participated interview schedulewas preparedand participant teacherswere interviewed regarding their perceptions about music education and experiencesin the classrooms. As a instrument. data secondmeans of collection, classroom observation was used as an Each teacherwas observedduring their music lessonsfor a period of two hours (two lessons).The analysis of the qualitative data suggeststhat there are rangesof factors influencing teachers' music teaching activities in negative ways in classrooms. Negative factors influencing the classroom were found to come from the students, curriculum, lack of teacher competencies,inadequate facilities and resources for music education, limited support from parents, and the negative effects of audiovisual media. Data obtained from classroom observations reveal that although teachers employ a range of teaching strategies in music lessons, there is limited in variety the type of strategiesused. In all the music classessimilar practices could be seen.The findings suggestthat in the field of music educationteachersneed more support in improving their pedagogical skills in teaching music as well as their technical skills in the subject. It is suggestedthat due to the lack of confidence and competenceof primary teachers,music specialist teachersshould be assignedto the task of delivering music curriculum. In addition, it is recommendedthat education faculties should take a more active role in training teachers, and more in-service training activities should be provided for teacherdevelopmentin music education.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to passmy greatestgratitude to my supervisorDr. Roger Merry and cofor Cambridge University Linda Dr. Hargreaves their most valuable supervisor at support, guidance,commentsand assistancethroughout their supervisionof this thesis during in and my studies the UK.

I am grateful to all the participant primary teacherswho gave their time voluntarily to join interviews and allowed me to carry out classroomobservations. I am also thankful to my sponsor,the University of Seljuk in Konya, Turkey, and the Higher Education Council (YOK) for giving me the opportunity to do my doctoratein England.

I am also indebted to my parents back in Turkey for their patience, support and indebted Particularly, I to my mother who came over to stay with encouragement. am my husbandand I while we were having our first baby. And my special thanks go to my dearesthusbandTaner, for his incredible support, encouragement,understanding, love during my Ed.D. and My final and deepestthanks go to my friends and researchfellows, especially to my family friends Nedim - Nagihan Alev, and Serhat - Ozgul Irez and Erkan Dinc; their friendship and their generous help and support throughout my Ed.D are greatly appreciated.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract Acknowledgments Tableof Contents List of Tables List of Figures List of Appendices Abbreviations Page CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.Introduction

1

1.2. Context of the Study: GeneralStructureof the Turkish Education System

3

1.3. Music in the Primary TeacherEducation Programmesin Turkey

6

1.4. Aims of the Study

13

1.4.1.ResearchQuestions 1.5. Format of the Thesis

14 15

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

17

2.2. Researchin Music Education

18

2.3. Rationale for TeachingMusic in Education

22

2.3.1. The Utilitarian Values of Music Education

23

2.3.2 The Intrinsic Values of Music Education

27

2.4.ThePlaceof Music in thePrimaryCurriculum

29

2.4.1.Music in theNationalCurriculum:TheEnglishCase

32

2.4.2.An Analysisof Music in the TurkishPrimaryCurriculum

38

2.5. Effective Teaching Strategiesfor Music Education in Primary Schools

44

2.5.1. Characteristicsof Effective Teaching

44

2.5.2. Effective Teaching: Can it be described?

47

2.5.3. ProfessionalQualities

51

2.5.3.1. Pedagogyand PedagogicalSkills

52

2.5.3.2. Planning

56

i

2.5.3.3. ClassroomManagementand Organisation

58

3.5.3.4.Presentationand Teaching Styles

59

2.5.3.5. Assessment

60

2.5.4. PersonalSkills of an Effective Teacher

62

2.5.5. Effective Teaching as a Profession

65

2.6. Strategiesof TeachingMusic in Primary Education 2.6.1. Singing and Teaching Songsin Primary Music Education

68 73

2.7. Factors Influencing Teachers'Practice

76

2.8. Summary and Conclusion of the Literature Review

79

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Introduction

83

3.1. Researchin Music Education: Developing a Framework

84

3.2. ResearchParadigmsand Qualitative Researchin Education

89

3.3. ResearchDesign: Selection of ResearchSampleand the Participants

95

3.4.DataCollection 97 Procedures: Issues Access, Research Instrurnents Administration of and 3.4.1. Interviews 99 3.4.2. Observations:Design and Administration

103

3.4.3. Documents

106

3.4.4 Generalisability, Reliability and Validity Issues

108

3.5. Data Analysis Procedures 3.5.1. Data Preparationand Analysis of Interview Data

114

3.5.2. Analysis of ObservationalData

116

3.6. Reflections and Conclusions

118

CHAPTER 4. DATA ANALYSIS

Introduction

122

SECTION I GENERAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION

123

4.1.1. Background Information of Schools

124

4.1.2. Background Information of Teachers 4.1.3. Summary and Discussion of GeneralBackground Information

130 137

ii

SECTION 2 TEACHERS'ATTITUDES TOWARDS MUSIC EDUCATION

140

4.2.1. Analysis of Teachers'Perceptionsaboutthe Importanceof Music in Primary Education 142

4.2.2. Summary and Discussion of Section2

153

SECTION 3: ANALYSIS OF TECHERS' PERSPECTIVESON DIFFICULTIES OF TEACHING MUSIC IN TURKISH CLASSROOMS

157

4.3.1. Difficulties in TeachingMusic

157

4.3.2. Teachers' Strategiesto OvercomeDifficulties in TeachingMusic

172

4.3.3. Summaryand Discussion of Section3

183

SECTION 4: ANALYSIS OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS

190

4.4.1. Analysis of Teachers' Strategiesfor TeachingMusic in Classrooms

190

4.4.2. Summary and Discussion of Section4

198

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION

5.1. Introduction

207

5.2. The Study Revisited: A Brief Critique of the ResearchMethodology

208

5.3. Review of Main Findings and Overall Discussion

213

5.4. Implications for TeacherTraining, Policy and Practice

221

5.5. Recommendationsfor Improving the Conditions of Music Education

225

5.6. Concluding Remarksand Suggestionsfor Further Research

231

REFERENCES

234

APPENDICES

254

iii

List of Tables Table 2.1. Teaching strategies in music

70

Table 3.1. Researchparticipantsand their backgroundinformation

96

Table 3.2. The research instrumentsfor data collection

99

Table 3.3. Types of interviews

101

Table 4.1. General characteristicsof the schools

125

Table 4.2. Researchparticipantsand their backgroundinformation

130

Table 4.3. General indicatorsof teacher backgrounds

138

Table 4.4. Teachersviews about importanceof music in education Table 4.5. Reasonswhy music is a neglectedsubject

143 151

Table. 4.6. Values of music.

154

Table 4.7. Sources of problemsencounteredby teachers and their indicators

158

Table 4.8. Problematicissues for teachers in teaching music.

159

Table 4.9. Primary toovercome Issues Inmusiceducation. schoolteachers' strategies problematic Table 4.10. Data obtained through observationsof music lessons Table 4.11. Roles of teacher and students in a typical music lesson (observed)

175 193

Table 4.12. Techniquesfor teaching songs and observedfeatures.

204

Table 5.1. Teacher's strategiesto overcomedifficultiesin music education

220

Table 5.2. Teachers' recommendationsand suggestionsfor better music education.

227

197

List of Figures Figure 3.1. The process of analysis

113

List of Appendices A. B. C. D. E.

The Turkish EducationSystem InterviewQuestions ObservationChecklist An Examplefor ObservationTranscripts An Exampleof Lesson Plans

Abbreviations INSET: In-serviceTraining CPD: Continuing ProfessionalDevelopment IVINE:Ministry of National Education YOK: Turkish Higher EducationCouncil

iv

CHAPTER I Introduction

1.1. Introduction

As elsewhere,in Turkey, primary school teachersare expectedto be competentand for is in including As teaching subject skilled all subjectareas music. music a compulsory all teachersto teach in primary schools (Mills, 1991), primary school teachershave to considerthat music educationis a part of the curriculum (Gamble, 1988).However, it is well documentedin Englandthat music is an areaof the curriculum which teachersoften feel anxious about (Hennessy,1995).It is reportedthat in Englandmany primary school teachersare frightened of teachingmusic and believe that this specialised.subjectshould be left to the specialist(Kempton, 1992),or at leastthat there shouldbe a music specialist in present the school in order to get daily support. The main question here is 'what happensif the school does not have enoughresourcesor power to employ a specialist music teacher?' In Turkey, primary school children generally do music with their class teacher,usually a non-specialistteacher,as there is a great shortageof specialistmusic teachersthroughout the country. Either trained or not, or talentedin music or not, classteachers (as non-specialists) have to take the responsibility of delivering the music educationin primary classroomswithout the supportof a music specialist.

I

In these circumstances,particularly in as in the UK, music education at the primary in level has been school generallypoor and students'achievements the aspectsof music have often been low (OFSTED, 1995). In addition, there have been many examplesof in Turkey, Similarly, (Hoskyns, 1996). in the negligence practice of music education although limited, research in music education revealed that primary school teachers lacked confidence and competencein teaching music and this is voiced as the main inhibiting factor in reducing the quality of teaching music in Turkish primary schools (Ugan, 1996, Bariseri, 2000). On this issue,Ucan (1996) arguesthat problemsin music educationin Turkey start from the pre-school educationlevel, continuesat the primary level, and is consequentlytransferredto the secondarylevel (p.129).

It is for thesereasonsthat there is a need for a closer examinationof music educationin Turkish primary schoolsto find out what quality of music educationis taking place in the classrooms,and what strategiesnon-specialist primary teachers apply to deliver the compulsorymusic curriculum.

There are many discussionswhich draw attention to the way a teacher's approachcan both the learner and the type of learning achieved(Struthers, 1994). In this vein, affect investigating the styles and strategiesof primary teachers in teach they music when classroomswould help to identify the approachesas well as challengesand difficulties. Then, it is assumedthat one can move on to the considerationof how to overcomeany problemsin order to help non-specialistprimary teachersto improve their performancein the areaof teachingmusic.

2

Obviously the link between teaching and research is a complex issue. Researching teaching and teaching strategiesinvolves a variety of aspects,and this researchcan be conductedin a variety of ways which need to recognisediversity of approachesand, importantly, understandingof them (Loughran, 1999). On this issue Hitchcock and Hughes(1995:5) point out:

It is our view that researchhas and continuesto contribute much of significanceto our understandingof the educational process.Researchcan function to generate questionsabout teaching and learning. It can explore and test existing theoriesand explanations.Researchcan be used to open up difficult and problematic areas, providing descriptionsof them and through evaluation studies, researchcan focus upon the effectivenessof existing curricular and pedagogicpolicies andprocesses.

1.2. Context of the Study: The General Structure of the Turkish Education System

This section provides general background information about Primary Education in Turkey, the educationalcontext in which this study was carried out. The information laid

in out this sectionis adoptedfrom theMinistry of NationalEducationof Turkey's(MNE) website (URL: w,,vw.meb.gov.tr). In this website generalcharacteristicsof the education system are describedand some statistics about the system are given. The information in provided the MNE's website about the characteristicsof Turkish Education System be can seenin Appendix A.

3

In Turkey, the Ministry of National Educationholds the responsibility of all educational services for the country. It means that education is planned, operated, managed, controlled and financed by the government. Provincial Education Directorates and District Education Directorates supervise the educational services at the local level. Higher Education in Turkey is co-ordinatedby the Turkish Higher Education Council (YOK). Until 1981 teacher training was under the responsibility of the Ministry of National Education. In 1981 this was transferredto universities with the 1981 Higher EducationLaw (MNE, 1999).

Primary Education in Turkey is compulsory for all citizens and lasts for eight years

without interruption. Primary educationis given free of chargein stateschoolsand covers all children betweenthe agesof 6 and 14 (MNE, 1999). The purposeof the primary educationin Turkey is describedas '4....to ensure that every Turkish child acquires the basic knowledge, skills, behaviours,and habits to becomea good citizen, is raised in line with the national moral conceptsand is preparedfor life and for the next educationlevel parallel to

his/herinterestsandsldlls." (www.meb.gov.tr)

In parallel with the large population of the country (around 75 million) there are a relatively high number of students (about 10.3 million) who are being educated,and 375.000 being in (MNE, 2002 teachers who are employed primary education about nil

Statistics).It has been statedthat 'in primary education,98% of schoolsand studentsand

4

96% of teachersare in the public sector.98% of the public primary schoolsoperateunder the GeneralDirectorateof Primary Education' (www.meb.gov.trj.

As mentioned earlier, in regard to teacher education the responsibility of providing Education is between Ministry (co-ordination, the and the of services supervision) shared Higher Education Council (YOK). In Turkey, all teachersare required to possessa degreeregardlessof the educationlevel they teachat. The teachertraining takesplace in 32 educationfaculties in different universitiesacrossthe country.

As part of the National EducationDevelopmentProject (NEDP), sponsoredby YOK and World Bank, a reform act called 'The Restructuringof Education Faculties' came into effect in 1998 in order to meet the short and long-term teacher requirementsof the primary and secondaryeducationinstitutions. According to the information given at the MNE's website (www. meb.g-ov. 1r) "the new systemthat has beenimplementedsincethe 1998-1999 academic yearis basedonthefollowingprinciples: 1. Training Pre-primaryand primary schoolteacherswith bachelor'sdegrees. 2. Training secondaryschoolteachers bachelor's degreesof four years for Foreign Language,Music, Art, Physical Education, with e Specialeducation,ComputerTeachingTechnologiessubjects e with non-dissertationgraduate degrees(3.5+1.5=5 years or 4+1.5=5.5 years) for Science, Mathematics and Social subjects.Also, in order to employ one teacher in several areas,the practice of a compulsorysecondsubjecthas beenintroducedin the teachertraining programsfor primary educationschools.

5

The implementationof teachercertification programsbeganin the academicyear 1997-1998,and they are comprisedof the following: Certification Programmefor Pre-primaryTeachers(29 credits/hour) Certification Programmefor Primary School(Class)Teachers(33 credits/hour) , Certification Programmefor English Teachers(31 credits/hour).

(Source: www.meb.gov.tr) The introduction of a consecutivemodel of initial teacher education into the Turkish Similar Act. Education Systemwas one of the main consequences Reform to the this of UK's Post-graduateCertificate Education(PGCE) programmefor SecondaryEducation, Teacher has been into in faculties. In Primary Turkish a model, put practice education

Education Programmes, 4 year B.Ed programmes remained the same, but some modifications were made in the contentof the coursesso that more spacecould be given to pedagogicaltraining (more teachingpractice and preparation)in order to reducethe heavy emphasison theory and teachingthe subjectmatter. 1.3. Music in the Primary Teacher Education Programmes in Turkey

One of the main problems in music educationin Turkey was related to the training of music teachersin the TeacherEducationPrograms.It was also arguedby music educators that the Turkish Music TeacherTraining model is insufficient in terms of pedagogyand incompatible practice,and with the primary National Curriculum (Aydogan, 1996,Ucan, 1996).

6

However, the 1998 RestructuringAct in Education Faculties attemptedto reshapethe teacher-training model in Turkey. For instance, in Primary Teacher Education Programmes,the new shapeof the course gives more room to pedagogyand practice (YOK, 1998).Music takesits place in this four-yearB.Ed programme.In the secondyear of eachsemesterthere are 2 hours of music lessonsin the programme(Music I in the first semester,and 2 hours of Music II in the secondsemesterper week). Again in the third year, 4 hours of music teaching per week have been added to the programme, and these

hours comprise mostly practical training sessions.In these sessionsstudent teachers engagewith more practical activities in teachingmusic for the level of primary education (planning for music lessons, teaching school songs, instruments, etc.).

The contentsof music lessonsin this programmeare identified by the Higher Education Council as a general framework for the teacher educators. The Higher Education Council's directions for music teaching in primary teachereducationprogrammesis as

follows: Music I

(2-0)2

Music in education;its role and content;basicmusicalknowledge,natureand aim of notation, introduction to playing and voice education; singing and playing together, hearing, musical reading writing activitiesfor developingcreativity (YOK, 1998,p. 19).

Music 11

(2-0)2

Understandingelementsof music, listening, singing and composingactivities; historical overview of music, musical structures in other cultures, developing musical skills; performing, voice and notation education,topics in music units, child music with games (YOK, 1998,p. 19).

7

Teaching Music

(2-2)3

Examination of primary music curriculum, relationships of music with other subjects; music teaching techniquesand methodsin primary schools (I" level); preparing music lesson plans, evaluation of performance, classroom managementin music teaching, improving musical skills, listening, singing, playing (performing) and composing (YOK, 1998,p. 19). activities

The numbersin the top right comer of eachlessonindicate the theoretical and practical hours and credits of the lessons.For instance,the lesson"TeachingMusic" has2 hours of theory, 2 hours of practical elements,and number 3 indicatesthe credit of the lessonfor the final assessmentof the studentteacher.Apart from this generalframework, teacher trainers were also provided textbooks and guidelinesregardingthe teachingof music in primary schoolsby the Higher EducationCouncil (YOK) (DawsonandAcay, 1997).

As mentioned earlier these are only guidelines for teacher educatorswho train student teachersin music for primary education.However, they do not provide descriptionsor illustrate how to implement these directives. The final decision is given to the to ways related departmentsin terms of generating the course programme and the detailed content.It is for this reasonthat there is a possibility to seedifferent practicesin different faculties aboutmusic education.

The above outlined contents of music lessons demonstratethat student teachers are expectedto learn about music and develop some skills in lessonsMusic I and Music II, which compromisesmore theoretical activities. The third lessontitled 'Teaching Music'

8

is compatible with the 'Restructuring Act', which enforced more pedagogicaltraining in is initial lessons In teaching the these teacher and practices aim educationprogrammes. to introduce the primary music curriculum to the studentteachersand train them in the in music education. areasof planning andpreparationfor the practiceand assessment

The inclusion of a pedagogicalelementin music educationat the level of initial teacher educationis necessaryand important. However, there is little evidenceabout the quality of implementationof thesedirectivesin practice.

In Turkey, there is a system in primary schools where every teacherhas a class and he/sheteachesthe sameclass for five years from the beginning of grade I (age of 7) to grade 5 (age of 11). Thus, teachersassignedas "classroom teachers" in the first five gradesof the primary schools are required to teach a minimum of 30 hours per week (MNE, 1999).

According to Ucan (1996) and one of the recentstudiescarried out by Bariseri (2000), in the current state of Turkish Education System the following issues are often seen as problematicin the field of music educationat primary school level:

9

formal in is Turkish 1. In the context, music education always neglected every stageof field in is the There of effective music almost no research available education. level the of primary education. education,particularly at 2. In Turkey, due to teacher shortagein primary schools, there are various types of These backgrounds. different have in educational teachers primary schools who teachersinclude, for example,graduatesof the following: faculties. in department (BEd) teaching education classroom e *

history, (physics, (BEd and BA) subject specialist teachers mathematics, Turkish, etc.) with no training in music education.

law, (engineering, faculties from agriculture, education 9 (BSc) graduatesapart in ) training music education. etc. with no 3. Limited physical conditions and resources (e.g. overcrowded classrooms,music in for instruments, ) stateprimary schools. music education room, etc. available 4. Inadequatemusic curriculum anddifficulties in delivery. 5. No practical guidelinesavailablefor teachersto show how to teachmusic.

As was discussedearlier, it is reportedthat in England many primary generalistteachers (classroomteachers)are having problems in teaching music due to lack of competence and confidence, low self-esteem as musicians, and insufficient access to in-service training (OFSTED, 1995).In Turkey, similar problemshave been echoedby someof the researchers(Ucan, 1996, Bariseri, 2000). In her study on pre-serviceprimary teachers, Bariseri (2000) found that pre-service teachershave the lowest confidencein teaching music amongst five curriculum subjects (Art, Physical Education, Maths, Scienceand

10

Music). There is almost no data available regarding practicing teachers and their strategiesin teachingmusic in primary schools.

It is obvious that primary teaching is a challengingjob becauseprimary teachersare (1996) Southworth In than teachers. explains, as specialist other words, generalistsrather they are class teachers not subject experts. Primary level teaching involves at least six

curriculum subjectsto be taughtby the sameteacher.

In regard to the Turldsh primary music curriculum, it seemsthat the theoretical and for is justify knowledge base to everyone. education music scientific not clear enough Ucan (1996) arguesthat in order to improve music educationin Turkey, an approach be includes technological together, should which and artistic approachesall scientific, taken as a basis for any improvementattempts. In addition, the values (utilitarian and intrinsic) of music education(Pugh and Pugh, 1998) in the Turkish curriculum are not clear enough to understand for a teacher, and justify the teaching of music in the classroomaccordingly.The reasonfor this is the heavily loadedmusic curriculum, which covers a vast array of musical experiencesand requires high musical skills and ability (MNE, 1995). It may be difficult for a generalistteacherto justify what sorts of musical activities are within the attainmenttarget, and what, when and how an activity shouldbe

in the classroomto meet diverselevels of students'needs(such as the out carried developmentof musical hearing,and mental,physical and languagedevelopment)(Mills, 1996).

11

Finally, Plummeridge (1991) talks about the importance of teacher attitudes and fact in Despite that musical ability and musical the professionalism music education. competenceare necessaryconditions for teachingmusic, at the sametime the teacher's (ibid) According Plummeridge to towards music are also essentialconditions. attitudes 6apractisingmusician can understandthe value of music educationin children's lives and s/hehas a commitmentto form of life. This is referred to as a senseof "professionalism" (p. 72).

In summary,it can be said that, in recentyearsTurkey has tried to improve the quality of in including in teacher order to education education many areas primary, secondaryand reach the standardsof the OECD countries (YOK, 1998). The reform attempts are important and were necessary.However, as mentionedearlier, there is little work done in it has in In the the these researching effects of attempts practice. caseof music education, been reported that there are various problematic issuessuch as training primary school teachers,and providing them guidelines to teach music effectively. Particularly, the pedagogicalquality of teachersin teachingmusic needsto be investigatedin order to find out what level of music educationis taking place at the level of primary education. It is known that primary teaching is a challenging job as it involves teaching at least six different subjects.Of course,music is one of thesesubjects,and as a form of art it differs from other subjects becauseit requires musical ability as well as effective teaching strategiesat primary level. Therefore,the purposeof this study is to examinethe practices of primary teachersin terms of their attitudesand perceptionstowards music education,

12

and their strategiesand methodsof teachingmusic.The next sectionwill provide detailed information aboutthe aims of the study in relation to the abovediscussions.

1.4. Aims of the Study

The aims of this study are: 1. To describeand evaluatethe current stateof music teachingin Turldsh primary schools. 2. To identify any concernsand attitudesof primary school teacherstowardsmusic educationand factors affecting teachingmusic. 3. To analysethe datain relation to developingeffective music teachingstrategiesof primary schoolteachersin contemporaryTurkish primary stateschools. 4. To identify if andhow teachersdevelopteachingstrategiesin music education.

The first aim is basedon the assumptionthat music educationis still a minority voice in contemporarycurricula and a neglectedsubject,where more importancein this changing is world given to core subjectssuchas Maths, Science,and Technology.

The secondaim is to explore practising teachers'particular attitudestowards music as a discipline, and to explore perceptionsof primary school teachers' about their practices and their experiencesin given settings.In addition the study aims to exploreprocessesof teaching music in primary schools, which were identified in the first aim. In addition,

13

identifying difficulties and factors affecting music educationis also an important goal for the researcher.

The third aim is to explore and analyse the teachers' stated perceptions and their strategiesin teachingmusic, in the light of appliedresearchand as a result of findings.

Finally, the study aims to provide a framework for categorisingand analysingthe data from this study in order to discuss whether primary school teachers who are nonspecialistsin music can develop effective teachingstrategiesbasedon their personaland professionalprofiles (backgroundand teachingexperience),and how they developthese strategiesand apply them in their classrooms.

1.4.1ResearchQuestions

The following general researchquestionswere generatedthrough reviewing the related literature, and answersfor thesequestionswere particularly soughtin the processof data collection: 1. What are the statedperceptionsof teachersabout the importanceof music education for children? 2. What are the statedattitudesof primary school teacherstowardsmusic educationand music as a discipline? 3. What are the main problemsin music teaching? Derived from teachers' own educational background; competencies and confidencein music teaching;physical conditions; curriculum; and children. 14

4. Have teachers developed any strategiesto overcome the problems in classroom settings? 5. Which factorshavebeeneffective for teachersto developthoseteachingstrategies? 6. How have teachers developed effective teaching strategies and applied them in classroomsettingsfor bettermusic education? 1.5. Format of the Thesis

The presentthesis consistsof five main chapters.In the chaptersthere are sub-sections depending on the topic investigated. A brief description of each chapter is outlined as

follows:

Chapter 1 is the introductory chapter.In this chapterthe backgroundto the study and a description of the researchcontext is presented.The chapteralso outlines the aims and format of the study.

Chapter2 reviewsthe relevantliteratureaboutmusic educationresearch.This chapter presents an overview of the place of music in primary curriculum and explores the potential contributions of music education to children's lives. The chapter outlines effective teaching strategies of primary teachers and puts them into the context of teachingmusic.

Chapter 3 is devoted to the researchprocedureand methodology.This chapterpresents the discussionon developingthe philosophical framework and the adoption of a relevant

15

design fieldwork The The describes the of process. researchapproach. entire chapter instruments, research sample selection, data collection and the data analysis processes limitations the with of the researchare explainedin this chapter.

Chapter 4 presentsthe data obtained from the fieldwork. This chapter analysesand interview data the through the observation and use of qualitative presents obtainedmainly discusses In from this chapter, the the that analysis. methods, and results emerged analysis of data regarding teacherattitudes and perspectivestowards music and music in in teaching the teachers' music education given context, pedagogical strategies of

classrooms,and factors influencing effective teaching strategiesin music educationare presentedand analysed.The chapterconcludeswith a summaryof overall data and main findings, and with critical conclusionsfrom the fieldwork and discussionsin connection

to therelevantliterature.

Chapter5 is the conclusionchapter,which sums up the main findings of the study, puts

them in a context, draws critical conclusions,and discussesoverall results.In this chapter, reflections for the current study are provided. The chapter examines the implications of the findings for policy and practice, and presents suggestionsand

for the future. recommendations

16

CHAPTER 11Literature Review

2.1. Introduction

This study attemptsto identify primary teachers' strategiesfor teaching music in their classrooms,and to explore the factors that are influencing music educationin primary education in Turkey. This chapter reviews the related literature on the above topic under investigation and is divided into four main sections that focus upon music educationin terms of the following aspects:

The first section focusesupon recent and contemporaryresearchin various aspectsof

musiceducationandthe teachingof musicis reviewedin this section.

Sectiontwo of the chapterpresentsthe relevantliteratureon the rationalefor teaching musicin primary education.In this section,the valueof musicandits contributionsto the lives of humanbeingsin generalandchildrenin particularareevaluated.

Section three presents the research literature on effective teaching strategies of

teachersin music education.In this section,characteristicsof effectiveteachingand effectiveteachersare highlightedin generaltenns, and specific teachingtechniques andstylesin musiceducationarereviewed.

The fourth and final sectionof the chapterpresentspossiblefactors which might influenceprimaryteachers'practicesin the areaof music education.

17

2.2. Research in Music Education

During the 20'h century many studies were carried out by music educators and researcherswhich contributed to the growth of a researchbody in the field of music

education.According to a very useful review by Mark (1992), in the USA early research in music education was carried out generally by legislative bodies, governmentagencies,institutions of higher education,and teacherassociations.These studieswere typically basedon large-scalesurveys aiming to collect descriptive data which provided information about the condition of music education throughout the USA in 1880s.

Mark (ibid) points out that 'during the early part of the 20'hcentury there was a strong movement toward the use of scientific principles to improve instruction' (p. 50). Philip C. Hayden was the first music educator to advocate a scientific approachto

musiceducation.

In the 1920smusic educatorshad begun to call for researchto confirm or guide practice.Severaleducatorsadvocatedthe need for researchin musical endowment, teaching methods, and the "results of teaching, practice, growth of whatever is added

to endowmentwhich producesthe musicalexperienceof the individual as he grows (Dykema, 1928,cited in Mark, 1992,pp.50). up"

In the 20'h century, music education researchbegan to mature with basic researchby

RaleighDrake,andMax Schoen. music educationresearchers suchas Carl Seashore, During this time the tests and measurementsmovement influenced music education researchersand practitioners. They came to believe that music instruction could be

18

improved by quantitative measurementof musical characteristicsand for the first time distinction between musical aptitude and achievement became a focus for a measurement. Carl Seashore was the first to attempt to measure 'musicality' (identified as the capacitiesof hearing, feeling and understanding),and severaltestsof

musical achievementwere subsequentlydevelopedand used by music educators (Mark, 1992).

In later decadesof the 20thcentury,educationalresearchitself expandedconsiderably and created new opportunities for music education researchers.During this period for multiple methods of research were generated and provided opportunities application within music education research.In the last decade of the 20th century,

for began foundation to the researchers emphasise establishmentof a philosophical music education research (Reimer, 1992; Jorgensen, 1992). For instance, Reimer

(1992)arguesthat for goodmusic educationresearch,the creationof a philosophical foundation is paramount.According to Reimer, music educationresearchis not presentlyandhasnot in thepastbeenguidedby foundationalphilosophicalprinciples. These philosophical argumentsstill continue among music educationresearchers regarding the best method to use to answerresearchquestions(Yarbrough, 2003).

In most studiesin music educationresearch,the following major methodshavebeen depending Historical, used on the different philosophicalposition of the researchers: Quantitative,Descriptive, Experimental,Behavioural and Qualitative (Yarbrough, 2003).

19

As mentioned earlier, the early research in music education was characterisedby adherenceto quantitative methods. According to Bresler and Stake (1992), 'little research employed qualitative strategies to illuminate education problems' (p.79). After the 1960s, a qualitative emphasis on understanding the perspectives of all

participants (student, teacher perspectives)challengedthe ideas of quantitative researchers.To date, a range of studies published within this franiework start firstly from considering what children were actually doing in school. In contemporary literature, qualitative studies in music education cover a vast array of topics. These include: research on the teaching of elementary general music (Atterbury, 1992); a 1997); Smith, in (Davidson case study of newer practices and music education in beginning (Yourn, 2000); teacher teachers perspectives of music competencies elementarymusic classrooms(Hammel, 2001); teacherattitudes (Barry et. A 2001); perceptions of beginning teachers,their mentors, and administrators regarding pre-

servicemusicteacherpreparation(Conway,2002).

Despite the fact that there is a growing body of research in music education, it is

advocatedby many educatorsthat contemporarymusic educationresearchis limited in regard to the pedagogyof music, and is not relevant to the "real world" of teaching music (Barry et. aL 2001; Hallam and Lamont, 2001). On the issue of the relevanceof

musiceducationresearchto the realworld, Abeles(1992:227)pointsout:

Researchis viewed by many music educatorsas an esotericactivity that takes placein collegesanduniversities,and that haslittle relevanceto what real music teachersdo. This perspectivelimits the sourcesof informationmusic educators haveavailableto makedecisionsaboutpracticeandto assistin understanding the processof musiclearning.

20

One of the studies carried out by Barry et al (2001) in the USA, produced evidence

that manymusic educatorsfelt that music educationresearchis not relevantto their teaching. In this study, one of the participant teachersstated:"The studiesdo not help

inform level. I find the topics too narrow and me my teachingat the undergraduate specialisedand somewhattrivial"(p.22). In this article it was revealedthat in the US context some K-12 music educatorsbelieve that college faculty are "out of touelf' with the realities of the public school classroom.One of the major concernsexpressed by music educatorsin this study was researchon teacher training. It was suggested that

University faculty should make greater efforts involve public school teachersin determining the strengths and weaknessesof their teacher training programmes, particularly in regard to the relevanceof theseprogrammesto contemporarymusic classrooms.(p.23)

In a nutshell,it is arguedthat despitethe fact that thereis a growingbody of research in music education,the relevanceof thesestudiesto the real world of teachingis highly limited. As reviewed, limited qualitative studies directly focussed on the teaching practices of primary school teachers.Particularly, qualitative studies on the

teachingof musicwhich investigateteachers'strategiesof teachingmusic in primary classrooms,their perceptions about music education and their confidence and competenciesneed to be increased in order to narrow the gap between theory and practice. In order to investigate aspects of teaching music, it might be better to

considerthe rationale for teachingmusic in primary schoolsfirst. This will help reader to understandthe philosophical base of music educationin schools for

21

developing a meaningful sense about teachers' practices in classrooms. The next

sectionwill attemptto explainthereasonsandimportanceof musiceducation,andthe rationale for including music in the curriculum of primary education.

2.3. Rationale for Teaching Music in Education

It is known that for thousandsof yearshuman beings have been engagedwith the arts in some way. This is to say that from primitive times to the present day, different forms of art appearto have existed in humans' lives. Humans benefited from the arts in different ways by using arts for different reasons such as a language for for for feelings thought, communication, a channel a vehicle expressing and transmitting cultural heritage to the next generations(Swanwick, 1988; Pugh & Pugh,

1998).Music as a form of the artshasalso functionedin the lives of humansfor the reasonsmentionedabove.Carlton(1987)claimsthat "music is a non-verballanguage, a way of communicating ideas and feelings through the medium of sound" (p. 1).

Swanwick(1996:39) distinguishesmusicfrom otherartsandpointsout that

Music is one way in which people symbolically articulate their responsesto experience and share their observations and insights with others. It has something though not everything in common with the other arts, in that it is particularly well-adapted to illuminate those elements of human feeling which are fleeting and complex, and universal aspirationswhich most people share,whatever their culture.

In our world today,music,in one form or another,certainlyplays an undeniablerole in almost everyone's daily life. Educationally, music is widely believed to have many benefits for children beyond those within the realm of music itself Thesebenefits are

22

thought to contribute importantly to development by improving intellectual, motor

andsocialabilitiesandskills (Weinberger,1999).

Many music educators(Pugh and Pugh 1998, Swanwick, 1999) claim that music has

utilitarian andintrinsic valuesfor the societyin generalandchildrenin particular.The following paragraphswill review theseclaims.

2.3.1. The Utilitarian Values of Music Education

The utilitarian value of music covers a range of issuesin music education,which are the main elementsof any type of educational system. First of all, music is seenas a vehicle for the transmission of culture. In the literature there are controversial

discussionsaboutwhethermusichasa role in contributingto children'sunderstanding of their culture. For example,Mills (1991) arguesthat 'music educationis more related to the educationof children rather than the transmissionof somemusical heritage.' However, Swanwick (1999) notes that 'the social and cultural contexts of

musicalactionsare integralto musicalmeaningand cannotbe ignoredor minimised in music education'. In this respectPlummeridge (1991) strongly arguesthat musical

in activities schoolssuch as orchestras,brassbandsand male voice choirs are not solely for enjoyment,but also that they add somethingto the quality of everybody's lives in a town or village. These sorts of musical activities reflect the life of communal feeling in a very real sense,and help to give people a senseof cultural continuity of the society.

23

Secondly,music is said to contribute to the social development of an individual. It is claimed by music educators that some musical activities require groups of people performing together, and this is a great opportunity for individuals of different abilities, ages,and social backgroundsto get to know eachother, and collaboratewith

Group 1964) for (Higgins, teaches eachother. self-discipline musicmaking, example, helps is (Hope-Brown, 1981). It that and self-confidence also claimed music individuals to develop the qualities of co-operation,consideration,responsibility, self-

individual leadership, development features the control,and of an which are of social (Pugh and Pugh, 1998). In addition, music offers self-realisation and fulfilment that is not coveredby any other aspectof the school curriculum (Paynter, 1977).

Music at the same time contributes to an individual's general scholastic development. It is suggestedthat if we are serious about raising standardsin core

ignored (Swanwick, be subjects,children'smusicaleducationshouldnot neglectedor 1999). Music has an important contribution to children's languagedevelopment, 1981, (Hope-Brown, listening, the speaking, and reading particularly in areas of

Stock, 1996,Butzlaff, 2000).However,Pugh and Pugh(1998) criticisedthe literacy programmes because so little emphasis has been placed on musical education. Music's contribution to mathematics was also recognised by Renaissancetheorists

in the training who saw music as a meansof mind abstractthinking. Furthermore, impact illustrate have training that recentstudies andmakingmusic evidential music on children's cognitive development(Bilhartz et. aL, 2000; Costa-Giomi, 1999; Hetland, 2000aft

Vaughn, 2000). These researchers argue that music training

contributesto the developmentof children's spatial,verbal and quantitativeskills.

24

These studiesprovide researchevidencethat music making leads to enhancedspatial

is in skills, reasoning andmusic associated with achievement mathsandreading.

Music also has a potential contribution to make to children's physical development.

Music activitieshelp childrento developphysicalcontrolthroughthe manipulationof soundproducing objects and movements(Hope-Brown, 1981). Through action songs, singing games,rhythm work, striking, plucking, bowing or blowing an instrument at a

precisemomentin a predeterminedmanner,children developco-ordination- both mental and physical - and fine motor skills; attributes that are increasingly important in a computerised world (Hodges, 1996). It has also been argued that singing and playing wind instruments can help respiratory developmentthrough the development of good posture, increasedlung capacity, and diaphragmaticcontrol (Pugh and Pugh, 1998).

In termsof moral and spiritual development,musicmakesvaluablecontributionsto an individual. It is cited in Pugh and Pugh (ibid. ) that for Plato music was a moral law

and the main objectiveof music educationwas the developmentof the soul's innate capacity for good. Music education also influences the hearers' emotions and morals and promotes spirituality. According to Higgins (1964) an individual child '-should

be shown that good music containsnot only the physical simulationprovided by rhythm, but also spiritual stimulationand that distinctive quality which is known as "beauty" (p.5).

It is also claimed that music also has value as a form of enjoyment or source of pleasure. In his article Horton (1968) quotes Aristotle as saying that 'the pleasureit

25

is in be While the to them one of educated music'. reasonswhy children ought gives the individual child is deriving pleasure from the musical experience,s/he is laying the foundations of enjoyment and self-satisfaction in later life (Higgins, 1964).

However,Horton (1968) also addsthat children should be educatedto be able to appreciategoodmelodiesandrhythms.

Today most of the primary teachers and head teachers believe that music appears Although 'to 1998). (Pugh Pugh, the curriculum give children enjoyment' within and the ability to gain enjoyment from life is one of the signs of being socially well a uste , it is a wrong approachto seethe purpose of music in the curriculum as one that is to give pupils enjoyment and pleasure.

Similarly, music as education for leisure is an important issue for individuals. People,

in leisure be helped their to a whether employed or unemployed,could use worthwhile way, and music is seenas one of the activities usually consideredas 'worthwhile' (Higgins, 1964). Although education for leisure can be seen as a good

include (1987) in Carlton hand, to the the and music curriculum,on reason other as Plummeridge (1991) have indicated, this view fails to reflect the commitment and seriousnesswith which many people approachmusical activity. It also reinforces the

impressionthat musicis a dispensableluxury which shouldbe accommodated outside the curriculumratherthanplacedwithin the curriculum.

The other assumptionis that music also contributesto the preparationof individuals for adult working lives. Oneof the primary aims of stateeducationis to createmore ability for the labour market. This is one of the reasonsfor the establishmentof

26

Some that in training the assume system. may vocational education and education However, does have in training. to and music not vocational education a role play Music behalf (1996), University the Westminster the of on working researchersat of

EducationCouncil, indicatedthat in 1995the music sectorin the UK generatedthe equivalent of 115,200 full-time jobs; the value of the sector to the UK economy, the This 1998). 'value Pugh, billion (Pugh be L2.5 to and sector's added', was estimated meansthat many qualities required by employers such as flexibility and adaptability;

initiative, to and co-operation;motor skills; self-awareness andconfidence;ability use Therefore, decision be developed to through ability make a music education. can development of these skills and qualities can also be a positive reason to include

musicin the curriculum.

2.3.2 The Intrinsic Values of Music Education

One of the intrinsic values of music education is the argument that music is an

elementin being human. Oneargumentfor the inclusionof musicin the curriculum is that it is a part of the uniquenessof beinghuman(Sachs,1943,DurrantandWelch, 1995, Pugh and Pugh, 1998). All cultures around the world have a wealth of

traditional songs,games,and folk dances,which suggeststhat music is a central elementof beinghuman.

A second intrinsic value is music's value as a language. However, this notion is a

debatableview betweeneducationalscholars.Stock(1996)arguesthat therearemany similarities between music and language.For instance, both are 4performed' through

the dimensionof time; both seemto havetheir own rules of structureand grammar;

27

both can be written down using special signs and symbols; and both are essentially 'pan human' activities that all normal people seem capable of taking part in and appreciating (p. 155). However, some researchers(Langer, 1957, Scrimshaw, 1974,

in cited Pugh and Pugh, 1998)arguethat a languagemust have a vocabularywith agreedmeanings,andmustbe capableof beingdefinedin a dictionary.It alsomustbe translatable and must have syntactical rules, but music does not meet these it however language; Many the requirements. researcherssupport notion of music as a

still remainsasmorecomplexissuethanit is oftenrealised.

Finally, music also has a value as a medium for expression of emotion. It is argued that music is a way of transmitting inner feelings and emotions to others (Langer, 1957, cited in Durrant and Welch, 1995,Higgins, 1964,Hope-Brown, 1981). Whereas

the words we use to communicateare sometimesinadequatefor expressingour feelings,music offers an admirablemeansof non-verbalcommunicationfor us all (Hope-Brown, 1981). In other words, music as an art form enablesus to expressand

experienceemotionsand deepenthose experiencesin the way that words cannot (Pughand Pugh, 1998).Soundsare more abstractthan the materialsof the other art forins, so music is even more important as a means of expressing or experiencing

feelings.This is alsoseenasanotherreasonfor music'sinclusionin the curriculum.

To sum up, thereis variety of claims and assertionsmadeby many music educators that musichas a rangeof valuesandcharacteristics that establisha clearrationalefor music to be included in the curriculum of formal education.These values are categorised into the two main headings of 'utilitarian' and 'intrinsic' values. It is

claimedthat utilitarian valuesof music contributeto the transmissionof culture,to

28

children's social, scholastic, physical, moral and spiritual development, and to the

provisionof pleasurefor children.Intrinsicvaluesrefer to the music's contributionto the language development and emotional development of children. The review of

theseclaims aboutthe valuesof music helpsus to establishan understandingof the rationale for including music in curriculum and the importance of teaching it. In order to find out how music takes its place in primary curriculum, it might be helpful to examine the curriculum in which music included. The following sections will focus

on this and will articulatehow music placedin the curriculum on the basisof the aboveclaims and assertionsregardingmusic's values.

2.4. The Place of Music in the Primary Curriculum

Music as a foundationsubject cannot be isolated from the other subjectsof the curriculum. Like other subjects,music aims to prepare young people for tomorrow's adult life, which is a main purpose of education. In this respect Durrant and Welch

(1995:3) point out:

is too important an activity to be neglected. It is an integral part of music ... young children's intellectual, cultural, emotional and spiritual development and should not to be treated in isolation from the rest of the curriculum, nor should it be sole province of the music specialist. Music can and should be more closely related to other areas of the curriculum. It provides particular experiences that will broaden children's thinldng and facilitate a deeper understandingof the world in which they live.

According to Hoskyns (1996) all children are able to make music and respond to music. In fact, the great majority of children come to school with remarkablemusical

29

experienceand most of them have a capacity for music making (Glover and Ward,

1993,Scarfe,1993).With the variety of forms of music, childrencan enhancetheir learning; teacherscan use it as a part of their teaching strategy.Music is potentially a

field of education,which can contributeto children's emotional,intellectual and imaginativedevelopmentin order to enablethem to live a richer and fuller life. Moreover, music offers the opportunity for every child to move on from where they is in imagination (Pitts, 2000). In this a music are skills, understanding and sense

unique subjectwhich addressesthe different sensesof a child, and as mentioned earlier, can contribute to the child's intellectual, social, cultural, emotional, and spiritual development.It is this uniquenessthat makesmusic a part of the curriculum for every child's education in primary schools. Paynter (1997:16) points out that cmusic is part of the curriculum because we believe it can make an important

contributionto everychild's generaleducation'.

Today it is assumedthat in almost all formal educational systemsand in all types of national curricula "music" generally takes its place as a foundation subject. However,

thereis evidencein practicethat musichasbeenneglectedor devalued.In the UK, for instance,Hoskyns (1996:146) asserts,"in practice music education is not experienced by everyone". Here, the important point is to recognise a child's capacity to

it. in further build Therefore, to of experiencemusic order skills and understanding the teacher'srole at this point is very important in terms of providing appropriate musical opportunitiesfor children. Glover and Ward (1993:4) supportthis idea and they state:

30

Teachers need to become accustomed to children's musical behaviour as individuals and to think in terms of providing experienceswhich match a particular child's abilities and needs.

However,in order to apply this idea in the classroomthe following considerations may needto be taken into account:

9 Teachers' abilities and strategies for music teaching are vital: They can be improved by either an Initial Training course or by the In-service Teacher Training (INSET) courses. e The curriculum must allow for the breadth of the role that music plays within the 'ordinary' life of everyone(Glover and Ward, 1993).

However,music is an art andeducationin the arts is a complexanduniqueprocess, being unlike other curriculumsubjectsin the ways it is experiencedand understood (Hoskyns,1996).So, if music is a uniqueandcomplexsubject,it would be betterto take a look how musictakesits placein the curriculumin different contextsandhow it operatesin primary schools. In order to do that, there is also a need to focus on the main componentsof music in the curriculum. Then, it is possible to analyse a music

in curriculum, termsof how far it fulfils the aboveclaims,in orderto makemusic a worthwhile subjectto be includedin curriculum.The following sectionsof the study investigate the UK curriculum and the Turkish curriculum respectively. It is will worth noting that there is no intention to explore the place of music primary

curriculum in a comparativeway, but to identify the approaches, which are usedin different contextsand to establishcriteria in order to make a critical analysisof the music curriculum in Turkey.

31

2.4.1. Music in the National Curriculum: The English Case

In formal education,music is a foundationsubjectin the curriculumas a form of art. Music has a variety of componentssuch as performing, composing,listening and designed be (DME, is to 1995). It that should appraising a curriculum undeniable for in As the all music provide children with widest possible experiences every area. individuals' in be determined to the musical need. children, response curriculum must In other words, all children have equal right to an appropriatemusic education(Mills, 1991). In this respectDurrant and Welch, (1995:3) contendthat

Music in the classroom should involve all children, especially those not is by formalised Music in the the not captured school. performing groups just for the 'able performers'; it plays a part in all our lives, not only at important times and occasions,but also as an everyday experiencewhich enrichesour thinking and feeling.

This is very much related to equality issuesand the content of the music curriculum. It

is arguedthat the contentof a curriculum shouldreflect our socially and culturally diversesocietyandits interdependence with the wider world (Suschitzky,1995).

However, Hoskyins (1996) argues that in practice not everyone experiencesmusic

education.Despitethe existenceof a National Curriculumin England,music is not yet a universal experience,in or out of school. The reasonsfor this vary, but may be

relatedto the structureof the educationalsystem,and the teachingapproachwhich teachersadoptin schools.

32

The content of a subject curriculum (e.g. maths, science, and music) is actually shapedby the generalor national curriculum in all educationalsystems.If the system

is morecentralisedandalsotendsto be moreteacher-centred, thencurriculumcontent also seemsmore detailed and standardisedfor all children in primary schools. Step-

by-step instructionsin curriculum are very likely to be seenwithin this style of is it is Curriculum In England, National (NC), there argued curriculum. a although that individual teachersmay still interpret the NC differently (Owen, 1998).They may favour a child-centred approach,a 'progressive' or a knowledge-basedapproach,or a literacy, numeracy and enquiry approach.They may vary in the amount of time they in England, for individual Again, the teaching, use whole class work, or group work. majority of the primary teachers still see a child-centred education approach as the most suitable for primary school children (Owen, 1998). This can be regarded as a

decentralisedaspectof a centralisedsystemif teachersdo interpretthe curriculumin their own ways.

The currentNational Curriculumin Englandincludesmusic as oneof the foundation subjects.At all levels, Key Stage2 Programmesof Study illustrate generalobjectives of the curriculum. The curriculum provides programmesof study for Key Stages1,2,

and3 underthe following main sections:

*

Controlling soundsthrough singing and playing - perfonning skills

9

Creating and developing musical ideas - composing skills

9 Respondingand reviewing - appraising skills

e Listening,andapplyingknowledgeandunderstanding(WES, 2004, http://www. nc.uk.net/)

33

In addition there is a requirement for using ICT acrossthe curriculum in all subjects

includingmusic.As a generalrequirementit is statedthat

Pupils should be given opportunitiesto apply and develop their ICT capability throughthe useof ICT tools to supporttheir learningin all subjects(at key stage1, there are no statutoryrequirementsto teachthe use of ICT in the programmesof study for the non-corefoundationsubjects.Teachersshouldusetheir judgementto decidewhereit is appropriateto teachthe use of ICT acrossthesesubjectsat Key Stage 1. At other key stages,there are statutoryrequirementsto use ICT in all subjects,exceptphysicaleducation).(http://www.nc.uk.net/)

The English music curriculum only provides general areasof music to teach suitable for be is detailed It to a guideline age groups. not a style of curriculum and seems

teachers.As arguedearlier,the interpretationof thesegeneralaims andobjectivesor interpretation dependent teachers' to targets the reaching expectedattaimnent are on of this curriculum,and very much relatedto the resourcesandphysicalenviromnent of the school.

In addition, one of the important issues here is whether the music curriculum in

Englandreflectsthe utilitarian and intrinsic valuesof music education,which were discussedin Section2.2.of the chapter.In orderto obtainmore insightsaboutvalues andcoveredareasof the music curriculumin primary schoolsin England,it would be usefulto take a closerlook at expectationsin music for Year 6 (11 yearsold), which wasdocumentedin SCAA (1997)asan example:

34

Performing and Composing 0

Controlling sounds: Sing in tune with expressionand awarenessof phrase;perform with

a secure senseof pulse; play and sing from memory and from notations/symbols; control severalmusic elements. 9

Performing with others: Sing songs and sounds in two parts and play instruments

fit lower to the maintainingtheir own part with awareness part of otherperformers,e.g. sing with upper part. *

Exploring and composing: Select and combine appropriateresources;explore musical

structures,maldng use of silence and combinedeffects of texture, timbre, melody, and rhythm. e

Communicating musical ideas: Achieve a planned effect: use notations/symbols to

refine andrecordmusicalideas.

Listening and Appraising

9

Applying knowledge: Recognisesomerelationships betweenmusic and its context, such

as the resourcesavailable at the time, the intentions of the composer. *

Responding and reflecting: Respond to music from different traditions; make

comparisons, analyseandevaluatechangesof characterandmoodby identifyinghow musical elements and resources are used; refine and develop their own work; use a musical vocabulary.

As can be seen,the music curriculum in Englandcoversa rangeof areasin music educationand only the abovepart of the curriculum reflects someof the utilitarian and intrinsic valuesof education.For example,performingwith othersis one of the values in music education in relation to a child's social development. The exploring and composing part of the curriculum also fits with music's value for its contribution

35

to individuals' generalscholasticdevelopmentby doing someexercisesof exploring musical structures,making use of silence and combined effects of texture.

In terms of structure of the curriculum, it can be said that although it covers a range of

areasin music, it is documentedin short, easily perceivableand understandable sections. In early stages of the music curriculum there were no step-by-step instructions to demonstrate how to achieve these expectations. This was entirely dependenton the teacher's own perception of the music curriculum and their own perception of teaching and learning. Arranging activities, selecting activity topics, for is deciding the age the timing selecting resources, activity suitable and whether groups were some of the complex issuesin the music education.However, there were implement for like CD-ROMs to teachers texts some materials available, and guide Although freedom to teachersto some the music curriculum within classroom. giving extent seemsmore practical, it also has some limitations. The lack of direction within

the curriculumto illustratea teachermight achievethe aims and objectivesof music differently. interpret implement the teachers to and curriculum education, allows

Curriculumfor example,for Key Stage2, coversages7-11. It may be difficult for a justify teacher to generalist what sortsof musicalactivitiesarewithin the attainment targets, and what, when and how an activity should be carried out in the classroomto

meetthe diverselevels of students'needs(suchas developmentof musicalhearing, mental, physical development). Perhaps it is for this reason that later the Qualificationsand Curriculum Authority (QCA) produced'schemesof work' for teachersuse.

Thesecanbe viewedat htip: //www. standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/music/? view=get.

36

Here it is explainedthat "this schemeshowshow the musicprogrammeof studyfor key stagesI and 2 can be translatedinto manageableunits of work. " The schemeis

it intended in for With to teachers. teachers not statutory schemesof work was guide terms of providing ideas on how to interpret and implement the curriculum. Teachers

in little The to this they were allowed use as wished. units the schemeasmuch or as schemeare aimed at pupils who are attaining at levels that are broadly appropriatefor their age. Teachers may therefore need to adapt them to meet their pupils' needs. When schemesof work for music are examined, it can be seen that there are many practical examples and ideas available for teachersregarding how to deliver music if be This helpful for they teachers curriculum. might particularly generalist primary are having difficulty in teaching music. Schemesof work also prevent highly diverse

musiceducationin schoolsandbringsa degreeof standardsin musiceducationacross the state schools. This may contribute to improvement in the quality of teaching and

learningmusic and to the raisingof standardsin generalmusic educationin primary schools.

The otherimportantpoint for primary teachersis to know what music consistsof In other words, the teachershouldbe able to distinguishbetweenmusical activity and music lesson.In this respect,Mills (1991:1) pointed out:

Not all activities that sometimespassfor music in Primary school are music. Drawing a flute is not music,thoughit might be an appropriateartistic activity for children who havejust performedthe musicalactivity of listening to flute beingplayed.Readingaboutthe life of Mozart is not music,thoughit couldbe a usefullanguageexercisefor childrenwho havelistenedto a pieceby Mozart,and who want to find out more abouthis life. Maldng a musical instrumentis not music,thoughplayingit maybe.

37

Of course,the abovequotationis just an example,but therearemanyteachersin the field of primary educationwho are not confident enoughto fulfil the requirementsof the curriculum. That is why in some countries, for instancein Turkey, music tends to be an ignored and neglectedsubjectin primary schools.Due to its uniquenessin terms

its teaching, and involvement of such activities like playing an instrument, of composingand performing can causemusic to be ignored by teachers.

This section provided a general overview of the place of music in English National

Curriculumand examinedits theoreticalunderpinnings.The next sectionwill focus issues in Turkish the as on place of music curriculum and will consider similar discussedin this section.

2.4.2. An Analysis of Music in the Turkish Primary Curriculum

In Turkey the practice of primary educationin schools is for a total of 8 years and is compulsory for all citizens. All the educationalactivities in the country are controlled

by the Ministry of National Education.In this senseit can be said that the Turkish educationalsystemis a highly centralisedand control lies in the handsof relatively few individuals.

The educationalsystemof Turkey continuesto have a tradition of rote learningand memorisation, and neglects class discussion,problem solving, and divergent thinking

among students.Due to heavy teaching loads and overcrowdedclassrooms,the prevalentmodelof educationin Turkeyis onethat acceptsmemorisationandrecall of facts. Studentsare passivein learningand receivewhat the teachersselectfor them,

38

which comes primarily from the curriculum (Bayrarn and Seels, 1997). In other words, a highly detailed curriculum is one of the powers which shapesteaching

in methods the classroomsof Turkey. The Turkish curriculum for primary schools consistsof a vast array of infonnation and knowledgewhich needsto be taught. Teachersin generalinterpretthe curriculumby using a whole classteachingmethod, infrastructure the time constraints which is a teacher-centred and education,within (Bayram and Seels, 1997).

Until 1997-1998 compulsory education in Turkey was for 5 years. From this date institutions. in formal 8 to education compulsory education was extended years all This act brought a range of revisions and new arrangementsin primary education.For th in 4 example, for the first time languageteaching (particularly English) was put to and 5thclasses,that is for 10 and 11 year old children respectively. Previously, second language teaching started at the 6th class for 12 years olds. In terms of National

Curriculum,as a whole, a revisionfor the 8-year'sof educationis yet to be done.In based in learning teaching on other words, and activities primary schoolsare still formercurriculum,which waslastrevisedin 1995.

There was no revision in the music curriculum, so a highly detailed and heavily

loaded music curriculum is still in practice for primary teachers.In the National Curriculum, music occupies approximately 100 pages for all year groups (1 to 8). Like other subjects,the music curriculum is establishedfor each class one by one in

greatdetail.However,classes1,2 and3 aregroupedasthe I" Period,classes4 and5 as the 2ndPeriod, and classes6,7, and 8 are named as the Yd Period. It is assumedthat

in the I" Period,generalistclassroomteachersshouldteachmusic, in the rd Period

39

in but the teach teachers teachers can music, generalistclassroom or specialisedmusic Yd Period, only specialisedmusic teachersshould teachmusic.

In order to obtain clearer insights about how Turkish music is structuredin the it be better it to examineonegrade'smusic curriculumandwhat values covers, would (I I for 5h For this, year classes curriculum. an example of curriculum arrangements old children) will be examinedand analysedhere.

When the music curriculum for this particular age group is examinedclosely, it can be 5h nd for the Period for 2 determined 53 the that there group, and seen are generalaims in For different (11 9 the there eachunit, curriculum. units grade are year olds) only, in detailed The these documented topics units of way. a very aims and objectives are

follows: areas 1. Music in our life andour musicalenvironment. 2. Voice in our music. 3. Rhythm and melody in our music.

in our music. 4. Beatandmeasurement 5. Speedin our music. 6. Density in our music.

7. Form in our music. 8. Variety in our music.

9. Ataturk, art andmusic.(Ministry of NationalEducation(MNE), 1995)

40

For Unit 1, there are 17 specific aims (attainment targets) determined again. In

additionto this subjecttopics for eachunit are also detenninedand specifiedwithin the musiccurriculumfor 11 yearold children.

In termsof valuesof the musiccurriculum,dueto lots of generalandspecifiedaims, thereare someutilitarian and intrinsic valuesof music,which can be found if those aims are examined more deeply. For example, one of the aims for the 5h grade is

knowing Turkishculture,andits musicis relatedto music'svalueregarding to related the transmission of the culture. Similarly, again one of the general aims for the fifth grade is to sing songspaying specific attention to the sentencesin the melody (MNE, 1995). This aim is also related to music's value to language development. These examplescan be extended;however, those values are not clear enoughfor a teacherto realise or determine and then justify music educationin the classroom.

Although it would be betterto write down the topics of a unit andthe aims of topics here,due to spacelimitation it is not possibleto do this. However,topics and subtopics within the units seemnot to be sequencedclearly, and it seemsthat those sequencingof topics is much away from the progressivesequencing.Expectationsfor an 11 year old child are also very high and demanding. For example, it is a highly

challengingand difficult task for an 11 year old child to be expectedto show the ability of describing,hearinganddifferentiatingthe numberof beatsandbarswithin a bar line.

The otherargumentis that the Turkishmusiccurriculumhasbeendesignedwith stepby-step instructions and there are many topics to be covered. It is known that teachers

41

are under stress due to excessiveworkload in primary schools, this type of music curriculum also requires a lot of skills and ability to educatepupils to achieve the

aimswhich wererequiredby the NationalCurriculumin Turkey.In otherwords,this curriculumdemandsthat classroomteachersneedto be musiciansin order to teach in music primary schools.Thereis a shortagein specialisedmusicteachersin Turkey at this presenttime, andit is thereforecommonfor classroomteachersto teachmusic in the 2ndperiod of primary schools.

There is no grouping as in the English curriculum to guide teachersto do activities related to performing, composing, listening and appraising.In other words, there is no consistency and compatibility between most of the units and topics to provide a

progressivemusical education.Thus, the Turkish music curriculum doesnot give enough flexibility and freedom to teachersto createtheir own activities, and use their

abilities and skills in thosemusicalactivities.Therefore,this step-by-stepdesigned the aims and objectivesof the curriculum. curriculumleadschildrento underachieve Similarly, it also causesteachersto ignore most of the curriculum requirements, which are highly demanding,and there is not enoughtime to achievethesetargets. Swanwick (1988) also mentions the feeling among music educators that too much sequencing in the music curriculum obstructs the progressive way of teaching and

reducesthe musicalexperienceto a seriesof exercises,andcausesteachersto losethe excitementof unpredictableencounters.

Due to highly specified instructions,teachersalso have to move towards using didactic teachingmethods,or whole classteachingmethods.However,teachingof music mainly involves individuals, some times one-to-one activities - particularly

42

teaching to play an instrument - in the classroom. There are some topics such as "Ataturk, Arts and Music" which are obligatory to put at the end of the eachunit, and leads teachersto use a talk and chalk method. This also again causesonly recall and learning rote which only dependson mernorisation.

In terms of equality issues,againthe Turkish music curriculumneglectsthe diverse is diversity. The Turkish to musical experiencesrelated music curriculum cultural

based mainly on Turkish folk music,Turkishart music,andchildrensongs,which are again composedaccording to the rules for Turkish music. This is again a feature of a highly centralisedsystem.

Therefore,this does not meet the needsof individuals. Due to a highly detailed curriculum, the socio-economic backgrounds of children, and musical listening

is by development the the curriculum physical children not considered of bilities, . ,%I,

becauseit is a standardcurriculumfor all agegroups.

To summarise,it can be said that there are a numberof issueswhich needto be consideredwhena musiccurriculumis to be constructed.The first thing is to consider that a clear educational and curricular theory needsto be established.In this respect Farmer (1979:8) points out:

In constructing a curriculum we shall need to have some idea of the contributionthat educationaland curricular theory can make.We shall also needto be able to justify music educationin order to arrive at certainbroad aims:thesewill be the foundationof secondaryschoolmusiccurriculum.

43

This is also applicable for the primary education.For the Turkish music curriculum, it seemsthat a theoretical and scientific knowledge base is not clear enough to justify

music educationfor everyone.Ucan (1996) arguesthat in order to improve music in education Turkey,an approach,which includesscientific,technologicalandartistic approachesall together,shouldbe taken as a basis for any improvementattempts. Thus, values(utilitarian and intrinsic) of music educationin the Turkish curriculum are not clear enough for the teacherto realise, and so do not justify teaching of music

in the classroomaccordingto its values.The reasonfor this is a heavily loadedmusic curriculum which covers a vast array of musical experiences.

2.5. Effective Teaching Strategies for Music Education in Primary Schools

Prior to presenting literature on primary teachers' strategies for teaching music in

be literature teaching classrooms,generalcharacteristics will of effective and related presentedin this section.As primary school teachersare generalistsand are not specialisedin music, their generalcharacteristicsof effectivepedagogycan possibly be appliedinto the musicteachingactivities.

2.5.1. Characteristics of Effective Teaching

The 21F`century presentsall teachersand studentswith new challengesand complex tasks to overcome. Now teachers are required to respond to demands for greater professionalism and reform, and they are expectedto help an increasingly diverse mix of studentsprepare for life in an ever more global and competitive world (Orlich et. aL 2001). It is for this reason that in recent years the quality and effectiveness of

44

teaching and the teacherin school have been at the centre of political and educational debatesin many countries around the world. For instance,GeorgeBernard Shaw said that 'There are only two qualities in the world; efficiency and inefficiency; and only two sorts of people; the efficient and the inefficient' (cited in Farrell, 1999, p.61).

Teachersare the central practitionersin educationso that their effectivenessis a pivotal factor in terms of educatingbetter citizens.

Today, in the UK, as elsewhere, there are some unsatisfactory teaching practices hear which we either from the media or from the inspection reports on failing schools and failing teachers(Wragg et aL 2000). In the late eighties Laar et aL (1989) argued that most of the debatesup to the 1980shad centred on national initiatives about the organisation of the education service, the administration of schools and what should be taught within them. They strongly stressedthat, most importantly, nothing much

hadbeensaidthenaboutwaysof teaching.In the last decade,however,a gooddealof researchin publicationshasfocussedon pedagogythat improvesthe effectivenessof teachers and their classroom practices. On this issue Cooper and McIntyre (1996) point out:

The quality of the work of schools, and especially the effectivenesswith which pupils learn and are taught, have in many countries becomeincreasingly important and contentiouspolitical issuesin recent years. In Britain, for example,politicians' dissatisfactionwith the quality and effectivenessof schooling has purportedly been the reason for radical changesin the nature and structuring of school curricula, in the assessmentand reporting of pupils' attainments,in managementof schoolsand in teachereducation.(p. 1)

45

Due to theseincreasingradical changesin educationand rapid changesin the world in general, schools are changing dramatically; in particular, such changesare pushing

and pressingdown hard on the teacherswho work within them (Hargreavesand Fullan, 1998),which makesthe definition of teaching even more complex.

In fact, Calderhead(1994)makesthe point that teachingis a complexprocessthatcan be conceptualisedin many different ways, using alternative models, metaphors and analogies. Croll and Hastings (1997) argue that teaching is a thoughtful activity, being be by As knowledge teachers are which must underpinned class as well as skill. required to teach to the full curriculum due to the National Curriculum (Southworth, 1996), teachers need to have a critical awareness of the range of pedagogic lead (teaching this their possibilities should outcomes; strategies)and evidence about teacherstowards being more effective in the classroom.

In the UK, in orderto teachin a maintainedschool,teachersarenormallyrequiredto have Qualified TeacherStatus(QTS). The QTS (TTA, 2002) documentaims to improvethe quality of teachingso that all newly qualified teacherscan contributeto raising standards in schools. However, raising standards in schools also relies on teachers,individually and in groups, creating and sustaining the capacity to improve

their professionaland personalskills. Effective teachingin this senseneedsto be focusedon improving the effectivenessof teachingin order to raise standardsand enhance the classroom conditions for pupils to become more successful learners

duringtheir educationalprocess.

46

2.5.2. Effective Teaching: Can it be described?

Overthe years,describingandthinking abouteffectiveteachinghasbeenapproached in a numberof different ways. In the literature,there is no single, exactdefinition about 'effective teaching' or 'effective teacher'.Teachinghas been describedas a vocation, a profession and other things besides,but most often as an art (Callaway, 2000). Some educators define an effective teacher in terms of having professional

skills, someapproachit in termsof organisingthe teachingenvironment,andalsothe governmentsannouncea set of professional standardsand requirements(TTA, 2002), which also includes pedagogic skills for new teachers to improve their teaching effectivenessin schools. At this point, giving some educators' points of view about

effectiveteachingwould be useful.

Kyriacou (1986)arguesthat effectiveteachingis essentiallyconcernedwith how best to bring about the desired pupil learning by some educational activity. Kyriacou approachesteaching in terms of the quality of pupils' learning. Knight (1994, quoted

in Moyles, 1997,p.21) notesthat 'Teachingis aboveall led by sensitivityto thestate learner. A learner's state will include motivations, confidence, and existing the of understandings.' Southworth (1996) emphasisesthe importance of pedagogy and he

points out that the quality of teachingis an essentialpart of raising the standardsof schools.However,Southworthmaintainsthat the examinationof pedagogyhasoften been a lower priority than other issues.According to Proctor et al. (1995:2) teaching

involves: *

the learningof new skills,

*

the application of theoretical knowledge in a practical situation,

47

an enquiring and reflective approachto presentpractice and new situations,

* *a

professional commitment to children and their parents as well as to teacher

colleagues.

Cullingford (1995)also ascribesto effectiveteacherssomepersonalandprofessional characteristics which are essential.He detenninesthe characteristicsof the effective teacheras follows:

Integrity: The quality of someonewho is doing his best, and without selfconsciousness.Every teachercan try to do better. Learning: The teacher is involved in learning. Teaching is a chance to gain knowledge and insight. Organisation: The quality of managing the classroom, with good preparation, clear rules and expectations,attention to detail, the best use of the classroom facilities, as

knowing well as whento teachthe classasa whole,in groupsor individually. Communication: The quality of showingan interestin otherpeople,both pupils and colleagues,and being able to demonstratethat interest through ideas, and stories, as

well assharedvalues. Humour: Having a senseof humour provides good interaction with people.

Many other educators (Robertson, 1996; Kyriacou, 1986; Cohen et. A 1996) agree

that effective teacher/effectiveteaching has central key characteristicsboth professional and personal. Many studies have sought to identify those characteristics

of teachingwhich contributeto effectiveness.For examplethe OECD (1994) study focusedon five key aspectsof teacherquality: *

knowledgeof substantivecurriculum areasand content

48

including the acquisition and the ability to use a repertoire of * pedagogic skill, teachingstrategies

*

reflectionandability to be self-critical,thehallmarkof teacherprofessionalism

*

empathyand the commitment to the acknowledgementof the dignity of others

*

managerial competence,as teachersassumea range of managerialresponsibilities

within andoutsidethe classroom.

OECD's study reflects the idea of taking the holistic view about teaching quality, as it key five it be displaying that the suggests above should regarded as a whole dimensions.

In his study Kyriacou (1997) attempted to itemise in detail the various attributes

which are associatedwith teacher effectiveness.The top ten characteristicsof teachingidentifiedby headsof departments were: 9

Explains points clearly and pupils level.

9

Conveys an enthusiasmfor the subjectto pupils.

Has interest in the subject. a genuine 9 *

Pays attention to revision and examination technique.

Tries to make lessonsinteresting wherever possible. 9

Conveys high expectationsfor work pupils produce. e *

Teachesfor understanding ratherthanreproductionof learnedmaterial.

Is confidentandat easewhenteaching. 9 Stimulates pupils to think for themselves. e *

Is constructive and helpful in criticism of pupils (p: 78).

49

In termsof professionalskills, we canseefrom the DfES's documenton QTSthatthe governmenthasalsodeterminedcompetencies expectedof Newly QualifiedTeachers, in terms of professional values and practice, knowledge and understanding,planning, monitoring and assessment,subjectknowledge and application and teaching strategies

(TTA, 2002).In practicethesecriteria define an effectiveteacher'sjob, that is, how newteachersmight be expectedto performin the classroom.

It is obviousthat,in agreementwith the manyeducatorsaswell asthe DfES's criteria, it is really very difficult to exactly say what an effective teacher is and/or what effective teaching means.In fact, there is a danger in producing long checklists about the characteristicsof effective,teaching. This may result in losing sight of the holistic quality of teaching referred in the OECD study (Kyriacou, 1997). However, all the lists about the key characteristics of effective teaching provided so far signal that

conceptsof effectiveteachingareassociated with two generalaspects:

1) Professionalskills and2) Personalskills involved in effectiveteaching.In fact, the contemporaryliterature, which examinesthe effectivenessof teaching, elucidatesboth

teacherprofessionalismand personalattributesof teachersas a whole (seeFullan, 1991, Galton, 1992, McNamara, 1994, Wragg, 1993, Simmons and Pitman, 1994, Goodsonand Hargreaves,1996, Craft, 1996).

Despite the fact that the literature reveals a range of aspects regarding teachers'

professionalskills, due to the scopeand spacelimitation of the studythe following aspectswere seen as the most influential elementsand are selectedfor further

50

investigation in an attempt to clarify some characteristics of teacher effectiveness. Theseare: (Training, knowledge Pedagogy subject and application) e o Planning

Classroom Management Organisation and 9 Presentation and teaching styles & * Assessment

Besides these professional characteristics,personal characteristicsof a teacher are a complementary aspect of an effective teacher in the school. In other words, the personal andprofessional qualities of a teacher are directly linked with the teacher's it is classroomperformance, and most likely to obtain better results when these two 'effective As be in descriptions the of are strongly combined. qualities can seen earlier

teacher',now teachersare expectedto bring their personalqualitiesinto classroom i. practice e. enthusiasmfor developingtheir own teaching skills and strategies, establishinggood communicationand interactionwith their students,maintaininga high interest in teaching,and keeping their commitmentand integrity in order to provide effective teaching in schools. In the following sections the professional and personalqualities of an effective teacherwill be examinedin turn.

2.5.3.ProfessionalQualities

Today, a teacheris expectedto promotestandardsof educationset by professional bodies, curriculum-experts,subject-matterspecialists,and supervisors(Cole and Chan, 1994). Particularly, new teachersneed to be oriented to the fact that becoming a

51

teachermeansentering into membershipof a special community (Maguire and Dillon, 2001). They needto demonstratethat they should be committed to the developmentof their professional qualities and skills in order to attain maximum levels of student learning. Particularly, understanding pedagogy and improving pedagogical skills as

well asotherprofessionalqualitiesis a crucialfactor for a prospectiveteacher.

2.5.3.1. Pedagogy and Pedagogical Skills

It has been argued by Loveless et aL (2001) that identifying a sharedunderstanding of the term pedagogy is not immediately straightforward. Over the years researchers have been trying to develop an understanding and definition of pedagogy. One definition commonly given is 'the scienceof the art of teaching' (Gage, 1985 quoted in Loveless et A 2001). During the last three decadesresearchershave focussedon

differenttypesof teachersandstyles:contextsfor teachingin classroomlife; teaching learning and within a learning community which underlines the importance of pupils

as thinkers; and views of practitionersand policy makersand their conceptionsof learning,andthe purposeof education(Mortimore, 1999,p.17).

Despite the fact that effective pedagogy covers a range of skills and aspects of

teaching,it is importantto bearin mind that everyteacher,from the studenton his/her first practice to the experienceddeputy head, is already a practising pedagogueand as such has her repertoire of pedagogical skills and expertise (McNarnara, 1994). In

addition,CooperandMcIntyre (1996)point out:

When teacherstalked about effective teaching that led directly to student learning they often talked in terms of the ways in which their pedagogical 52

decisions were informed by perceptions they had (i. e. 'knowledge') of their students.(p: 18)

They also commentedthat successdependson the extent to which teacherseffectively

integratetheir knowledgeof studentswith other knowledge- such as knowledgeof different possible ways of giving subject content, curriculum requirementsand studentsaccessto this knowledge - into their overall teachingplans.

The TeacherTraining Agency (TTA) in England expectsnew teachersto demonstrate a range of pedagogical skills and knowledge in its recent document on Professional Standardsfor Qualified Teacher Status (TTA, 2002). For instance, new teachersare have knowledge to secure required and understandingof the subjectsthey are trained to teach. In parallel to this knowledge as it is laid out in the document (see TTA, 2002, Section 3 on Teaching: Planning, expectationsand targets, (p. 11) new teachers be in to trained are expected pedagogicalskills such as Setting learning to teaching all challenging relevant are and objectives which e

pupils in their classes, lessons, learning Using lessons, these teaching to of and objectives plan sequences * showing how they will assespupils' learning, Selecting for their effective organisation, taking and preparing resources and plan 9

interests accountof pupils' andtheir languageandculturalbackgrounds, in Taking part andcontributingto teachingteamsasappropriateto the school, * in learning Planning and out-of-school contexts such as visiting museums,theatres. -

This clearly shows that a strong combination of subject knowledge and pedagogic content knowledge (ways of representing subject knowledge appropriately for

53

learners)is one of the startegieswhich may increasesthe probability of getting better results from teachersin their classroompractices. Incorporating knowledge and skills is in be but have to to teachers relating effectiveness all very well also newly qualified an enviromnent which supports their efforts to be effective. In other words, teachers

in be in-service throughout their should supported pre-serviceeducationand practices developing an understandingand application of effective pedagogy.

However, Kyriacou (1986) mentions that there are three professional concerns for effective teaching within schools themselves.First is the need to develop the school curriculum so that it meets as fully as possible the educational aspirationsheld for it. The second is to develop systems of teacher appraisal, which will foster more effective in-service professional development. Overall, he suggests,there seemto be three major purposesadvocatedfor teacherappraisal:

* Managerial e Publicaccountability e Professional development (meaning teacherscan improve and develop their skills

in orderto meetmoreeffectivelytheir currentdutiesandtakeon any furtherdutiesor responsibilities.)

The third concernKyriacou mentionsis to developways in which the levelsof stress experiencedby teacherscan be reduced.He says that in the context of effective teaching,teacherstressraisesa numberof concernsandissues.Although he suggests that many teacherswho experiencehigh levels of stressarevery effectiveasteachers in the classroom,for some teachersthe experienceof stresscan underminetheir effectiveness. This may occur directly, in that the experience of stress in the

54

is impairs for However, the teachers, teaching their teaching. classroom quality of all a demanding profession, and if teachersare to be helped to do their best, then they need appropriate levels of support to do so. This support includes both professional developmentand effective and sufficient school resources.

To sum up this section on pedagogy, the good pedagogical training of teachers is crucial if they are going to be effective in the classroom. Without it, teacherswill be

(1997) Galton However, unableto operatewith understanding, confidence,and skill. arguesthat pedagogy is a neglected aspectof primary education and emphasisesthe building of notion a theory of pedagogy and appropriate INSET training for effective teachingbasedon a teacher's cognitive development.It is recognisedthat pedagogyis

influencedby the interactionof a rangeof factorsfor teachersand learners.Despite the goverrunent set standards for pedagogical skills, teachers' performance in

classroomsare affectedby their approachesto teaching,their beliefs about subject matter, their subject knowledge,their pedagogicalcontent knowledge,their craft in their perceptions their personalcharacteristics, skills organisationandmanagement, of the current situation,their teachingbehaviourand the context in which they are teaching (Mosely et A 1999). It is becauseof these interacting factors that defining effective pedagogy is more complex and difficult and causes stress in teaching. Therefore developing a holistic approachto pedagogy and training, which consists of

as many as these factors as possible to promote better understandingand better perfonnance,is needed.

55

2.5.3.2. Planning

According to Cohen et aL (1996), in order to provide effective learning for pupils the learning has to be planned.

Planning of the curriculum subjects has a crucial place in the educational process. Particularly, fifteen years ago in the UK, with the advent of national curricula and the concern for curriculum progression and coherence,whole-school curriculum planning has become of enormous significance (Pollard, 1997). However, regarding the National Curriculum in the UK, the SCAA (1996) points out that although the programmes of study provide a basis for planning teaching, no methodology is implied. That is, it is a matter for teachers' professionaljudgement to decide the most effective and efficient way of teaching it. In other words, teachershave to make a

selectionof the curriculumwhich they will actually cover before detailedplanning. Pollard(1997)arguesthat it providesan opportunityfor a teacherboth to drawon any interests particular or expertisewhich they have themselves,and to consult with childrenin their class(p.182).

Classroomteaching and learning sessionsare central activities for teachersand pupils.

That is why they need to be plannedcarefully and put into action sensitivelyand skilfully (Pollard,ibid). At the beginningof a lessonall teachersneedto havesome idea of what learningthey wish to take place and how the lessonwill facilitate that learning.Therefore,goodpreparationand good planningcontributeto more efficient learningprocess,andthat meansquality. Kyriacou (1991)suggeststhat therearefour major elementsinvolvedin theplanningandpreparationof a lesson:

56

1. A decision about the educational objectives that the lesson will be designed to

foster. 2. A selection and scripting of a lesson, which involves deciding on the type and be (e. Exposition, to of activities group work, reading), the order and nature used g.

timing of eachof theseactivitiesandthe contentandmaterialsto be used. 3. A preparation of all the props to be used, including materials, worked examples, checking that apparatusis at hand and in working order, arranging the layout of the

classroom. 4. A decision regarding how pupils' progress and attainment will be monitored and has during learning intended lesson the the to assessed and after evaluate whether taken place.

To conclude, for an effective teacher, curriculum planning is a vital practice which

needshigh level skills and expertise.Teachersneed to be aware of curriculum both at nationallevel andwhole-schoollevel.In addition,carefulplanning requirements in following identification interests take the should of children order place of needsand to combinesubj ect matterknowledgewith pedagogicalskills to deliver appropriately challenging and enjoyable sets of learning experiencesin the classroom. As Pollard (1997) points out:

In the hands of a skilled and sensitiveteacher,structureand purposewill be temperedby flexibility, excitement,andintuition.(p:203)

57

2.5.3.3. Classroom Management and Organisation

It is a fact that the primary classroom is the main context in which a wide range of teaching and learning experiencesoccurs for both the teacher and the children. Since

teachershold the responsibility for implementing the National Curriculum, the is learning the total underlying organisation and managementof environment crucial to teachers' and childrens' feelings of success,achievementand well-being (Moyles, 1992). Kyriacou (1991) assertsthat teaching a class of pupils requires a whole range of management and organisational skills in a sufficient order necessary for pupil learning to occur. However, the classroomis a complex place to organise.Cullingford (1995) suggeststhat the classroom can look complex with its pupils and resources. There is, then, more that one aspect to the organisation of a class; it consists of the people and the enviromnent and how one can be used to support the other.

Accordingto Laar et aL (1989) effectiveclassroommanagementcan be categorised, into two groups: pupils and resources. Regarding pupils, they observe that the

effectiveteacherhas to be many things (director,provider, listener,facilitator, etc.) often at one and the same time. Furthermore, in order to be so, s/he is first and foremost a good manager.However, over and above this there are qualities which are

essential.For example,the effective teachershould have good wann relationships with pupils while still maintainingthe professionalaspectto theserelationships.The teachershould be able to be firm, have high expectationsof pupils, command attentionwhen necessaryandhavean awarenessof individual needs.While finnness is important,so understandingthe dynamicsof the classis also a skill. Somechildren and someclassesare different to others.The teachermust diagnosethe needsof the

58

know how Some to to the class and respond variety of situations which can arise. children show difficulties and display special needs. The teacher needs to pick up difficulties sensitively and to ask, if necessary,for the appropriateoutside help. such

3.5.3.4. Presentation and Teaching Styles

After planning the lesson, presentation is an essential part of the teaching process. According to Kyriacou (1991), lesson presentationrefers to the learning experiences teachersset up to achieve the intended leaming outcomesby pupils. Many different types of teaching methods have been developed and he suggeststhat teachers are expectedto make use of a variety of teaching methodsin their programmeof lessons.

A first aspect of presentation is the teacher's manner. Asking appropriate questions,

monitoringprogress,andhelpinganyonewho is in difficulties are essentialpartsof a teacher's manner. Effective teacher questioning, classroom discussions, investigationalandproblemsolving activities,worksheets,computergames,role play andsmall group-workare demandingtasksbecauseof the variety of skills demanded for each. This is to say that effective and skilful teachers can use a wide range of approachesin a flexible way to ensure learning is occurring in the activity. One

importantpoint here is to realise that the presentationshould be intellectually and pedagogicallysound and appropriateand that the teachershould see the learning experience from the pupils' perspective. In other words, effective presentation may require giving explicit guidance to children as many pupils simply do not know how

to organisetheir learningactivity on a mentallevel (Kyriacou, 1997). This is directly

59

depending the teacher's teaching with on the activity that associated style selection of hasbeenplanned.

Laar et al. (1989) argue that teaching style leads to the interesting question of which of the many choices of teaching strategies or styles on offer are most effective. Children learn through many ways, such as through making effective choices,through trial and error, through reflection, discussion, debate and argument. Therefore, it is evident that no one style or strategy is likely to be adequateto meet the Nyholerange of learning needs and learning tasks. Effective teaching then might be most likely to be provided by teacherswho think about the strategy and 'styles' most appropriateto particular needs, particular stagesof development, and particular children at various times. Depending on the criterion of fitness for purpose, teachers may use the following teaching styles:

(didactic, Closed formal style) 9 (teacher-centred Framed but for room studentsown contribution) .9 Negotiated (students and teacherslargely negotiatethe contentand the activities * betweenthemselves)(Cohenet aL 1996,p.196).

2.5.3.5. Assessment

Assessingpupils' progressis also an essentialpart of effectiveteaching.Cullingford (1995:150) strongly emphasisesthis by saying

Teaching depends on assessment.It is possible to give a wonderful lecture or a

brilliant broadcastfrom which peoplemight learn, but sustainedteachingrelies on

60

the ability to analysehow pupils are learning and to diagnosewhat they need.At the lesson or a day one evaluateswhat took place, and concentrateson what end of a have learned,what knowledge they have acquired and the skills the children concepts the have displayed.

Kyriacou (1991) suggeststhat there are a number of different purposesfor assessment in effective teaching and he presentsa seriesof primary functions: 1. To provide feedbackabout pupils' progress 2. To provide pupils with educativefeedback 3. To motivate pupils 4. To provide a record of progress S. To provide a statementof current attaim-nent 6. To assesspupils' readinessfor future learning (pp.108-109)

Concerning assessment,Nevo (in Cohen et A 1996) assertsthat it may assistteachers

to seewhetherintendedlearningoutcomeshavebecomeactuallearningoutcomesor not. This is seenas essentialby the author,becauseit is expectedthat from every learning activity pupils should reach the intended level. However, each function of depends assessment on our exact purpose or purposes that we have in mind for the

learningor teachingandthat is what effectiveteachersshouldfocuson.

Within the National Curriculum, SCAA (1996) intendsthat during eachKey Stage, is an integral part of teachingand learning.It helps teachersto build up assessment their knowledgeof eachpupil, and developan understandingof a pupil's strengths and weaknesses.It is supposedto inforin the planning of teaching and learning in

61

order to help pupils to progress.At the end of a Key Stage,teachersare also required, in some subjects, to make a judgement about pupils' attainment against the level descriptionsor end of Key Stagedescriptions.

2.5.4. Personal Skills of an Effective Teacher

Besidesthe required professional skills, there are a number of personal characteristics

which arerequiredto be an effectiveteacher.Someof thesepersonalcharacteristics may be there from birth while some of them develop subsequentto the maturing person. Cullingford (1995) argues that there are personal characteristics, like a concern for other people, and a willingness to work hard, that underlie the effectiveness of teachers. He also points out that the variety of teachers' personal is styles enormousbut many can achievethe samesuccess.More importantly, he says

that there is one aspectof personalitythat no teachercan do without and that is a willingness to learn and to rej7ecton teaching.

Thereis alwaysa debateon whetherteachersare born or made.Somepersonalskill must be developed later during the education for a teacher. Cullingford (1995) said: 'cA teacher can be 'made' if he is willing to be made." There are many people who become teachers,however, there are some who are just not For example, successful. Wragg and Dooley (1984) in their study reported that personal is that characteristicsthe qualities a student teacher needed for effective presentation of self are crucial. Certain studentswere observed to be failing to cope with their classes,whilst others

were more successful.They suggestthat it sometimescomesdown to aspectsof personality, and that some of thesemight be impossible to change.

62

As mentioned earlier, the teacherin the classroomsometimeshas to adaptmany roles. S/he becomes an actor/actress,sometimesa manager,sometimesbecomes a friend, learner, adviser and so on. So the teacherhas to play a role. Not every personality be may able to do this successfullyor feel happy doing it.

One of the most essential personal skills for an effective teacher is to be a good communicator with both pupils and other people in the school. According to Cullingford (1995), the ability to communicate derives from a curiosity about other people. He says that young children like to talk and they like to talk in a variety of styles. Perhaps the classroom is the most appropriate place where communication skills are learned.So, effective teachersgive opportunities for others to talk as well as communicating effectively themselves.

Anotheressentialcharacteristicis the relationshipbetweenpupils andteachersin the classroom.Woods (1994) points out that relationshipsbetweenpupils and teachers seemto meetseveralof the criteria of friendship.In pupils' own terms,friendsspend time together,help and careabouteachother,give eachother things,find eachother attractive, and play and have fun together. The teacher can meet all these requirements with pupils to some degree in the classroom atmosphere, so a good teacher responds to these requirements as much as is possible to create a friendly classroom and one which makes learning attractive. At the same time, teacher-pupil interaction is as essential as communication. One thing in have teachers effective common is the appreciation that the quality of intervention lies at the heart of the quality of teacher's work in the classroom. According to Laar et al. (1989) there are three crucial aspectsto high quality intervention that are worth identifying:

63

1. Diagnosis:

The teacher'sinterventionsneed to be diagnostic.The teacherwill be constantly interpreting interaction be how the task. through to exploring a pupil appears

2. Provocation: The effective intervention tends to provoke learners into thinking for themselves.It

addsto the discussionanddoesnot closethe learningdown.

3. Encouragement

The most effective teacherstend to be constantly encouragingthe learner, and finding ways to reward effort without being patronising or creating a climate of

in the classroom. competitiveness

In addition to theseissues,the authoralso considersthat developingand improving teaching skills is anotherpersonalresponsibility for teacherswithin the teaching process.Kyriacou (1991) outlines this issue that teachers should monitor their own teaching. He suggests that it is the sense that teaching skills continually need

developmentto improve one's own practice and to meet new demandsthat makes teachingsuch a challengingprofession.Teachersshouldhave the ability to develop their teaching skills profiting from reflection and practice. They also need the

motivationto do so.

64

Another point is that at early stagesof primary education,many young children want to be like their teacher.They follow every single behaviour of the teacher.Moreover,

brief, imitate In behaviours they the teacher's pupils often see andspeech. sometimes is It 1994). Pitman, (Simmons teachers and primary school as a model of excellence

for this reasonthat, asRoe (1971)argues,the teachershouldbe sensitiveto children and responsiblefor children, should have knowledge about the whole child and differences between pupils. The teacher should have the capacity to form a good

friendshipwith parents.Importantly, the teachershould have the ability to make interesting, everything and be full of interest for teaching itself.

Finally, an effective teachermust be open-minded,must not be dogmatic and cynical,

have must s/he a greatnumberof the admiredqualitiesof personalityand classroom behaviour, must be competentin those areaswhich teachersare usually assumedto be

in, his/her if be date to to to pupils' competent and must up s/he wants contribute leaming effectively.

2.5.5. Effective Teaching as a Profession

As mentioned earlier in this study, teaching can be conceptualisedin many different

ways, like using alternative models, metaphors, and analogies. According to Calderhead(1994:80),

One metaphorthat acknowledgesthe intentional,problem-solvingaspectsof teachers' work is that of teaching as a reflective, thinking activity. This highlights severalkey characteristicsof teaching,which it shareswith many otherprofessionssuchasmedicine,law, architecture,andbusinessmanagement.

65

Consequently,the metaphor sometimesused is that of teaching as professional ac ivi .

Calderhead(ibid) commentsthat according to this metaphor, teacherspossessa body

have The knowledge teachers training through of specialised andexperience. acquired acquired knowledge about curriculum, teaching methods, subject matter, and child behaviour together with a wealth of other particular information resulting from the different in of experience working with children numerous contexts and with materials.

Southworth (1996) (quoting from House of Commons Education, Science and Arts Committee 1986) also points out the professional demands of primary teaching are many and varied and require a

high degreeof skill, keenperceptionof children'sreactionsand educational needsand a clear comprehensionof the underlying principles of what is being taught In particular it calls for high organising ability to ensurethat younger ....

childrenareworking effectivelyandefficiently.(p. 286)

As we seefrom the quotation and the rest of the characteristicsreviewed earlier, being

an effective teacheris a highly complex and demandingtask. The complexity of teachingrequiresthe continueddevelopmentof knowledge,skills andcraft if teachers are going to meet the demands of the profession. Particularly, according to Southworth (ibid), primary teachers need to see their work and careers as encompassing on-going professional development if they are to develop into, or

remain,e ctive teachers.

66

To sum up, there is no one accepteddefinition of effective teaching or description of

because is. As the teacher effective who might agree, manyeducatorsandresearchers of the humaninvolvementin teachingactivities(pupil/teacher)andthe dimensionof the psychology of human beings, it is a difficult job to measurepeople's personal and

professionalskills andthoughtsdefinitively.This is simplybecausethe complexityof the role of primary teachersandtheir diverseresponsibilitiesinvolvesa vast arrayof issues and go far beyond keeping mere order. Moyles (1992) argues about the complex nature of teaching and points out:

In how many other occupationsis one person individually and directly responsible for 30 or more other people, for over 6 hours a day, 5 days a week for upwards of 9 months of the year? How many other people, under those conditions, are responsiblefor almost every aspectof welfare, safety, education,development,for setting worIcing rules and being generally personally and professionally aware of the other people's needs?(p:2)

This hasvast implicationsfor teachereffectivenessandit clearly showsthat carrying out all the responsibilitiesof the teachingprofessionis highly demandingandrequires high level a of expertiseand a wide range of skills. This complexity makesthe descriptionof effectiveteachingmore difficult as there are many interactingfactors suchasthe teacherherself,schoolcontent,materialsandorganisation,curriculumand policiesthat affectteachingandlearning.

In talking about the characteristics of effective teachersin general, we can say that being an effective teacher firstly requires the in this professional skills mentioned study. However, in teaching much more could be done to match the teacher and teaching environment, taking into account teaching style and the of use personality,

67

is It information the technology most appropriatemethods, and other materials. use of also possible that teachersneed a mix of approachesto suit their own style and that of

the children.Therearetimes,however,whenteachersemploya particularstrategyin their classroomactivity. This is because,as Alexander (1995) argues,it is best for the

children as well as for the teacher.In this sense,the more comfortablethe teacher feels with a particular way of working the more likely it is that the teacher will be effective in helping children to learn.

Finally, having a good personality is the characteristic of an effective teacher. Without the establishmentof a good relationship between teacher and pupils, trying to teach meansnothing apart from the time it takes to teach the lesson.Not only is it important to developing friendliness with pupils, it is also important to have good communication skills with parents and other people in order to be an effective

teacher.

2.6. Strategies of Teaching Music in Primary Education

It is argued that music education has evolved over a very long period and music educators now

support a variety

of

rationales and teaching approaches

(Plummerridge,1999). It is for this reasonthat the characteristicsof an effective teacherexplainedin the previous sectionalso can be applied to primary generalist teachers.As primary classroomteachersare requiredto deliver the music curriculum as well as other subjects,they need to demonstratesimilar skills of an effective teacher and have to employ a range of teaching strategiesthat enhancethe musical experiencesof students.

68

Today, one thing is obvious - educationalpractitioners, including teachers,students, A in (Smyth living school administrators et. and are a sea of educational change 2000); furthennore, Fullan (2001) assertsthat 'educational change dependson what teachersdo and think' (p. 115). In contemporary society Drummond (1999) critically

maintainsthat the main role of today's teachernow appearsto be delivery of the However, curriculum. as Krueger (2000) maintains, 'today's teachersface a variety of major challenges on a daily basis in schools' (p.22). It is for these reasons that

teachershaveto acquirecertainskills andknowledgein their professionto survivein the classroom. As documented in the previous section, for effective teaching and learning in classrooms teachers need to develop effective teaching and learning strategies.This is also applicable to music education.Tait (1992:525) points out:

Successfulmusic teachersdevelop many strategiesand styles in order to address varied needs of their students. Accordingly, there is no one best style for teaching music, but rather a repertoire of strategies and a range of teaching styles.

In generalterms teachingstrategiesand styleshave to do with the "how" of music teaching.Depending on the situation, the teachermay use a combination of strategies, which can be referred to as the style, that contributes to the teaching profile of a

teacher(Tait, 1992). Philpott (2001, p.83) arguesthat for teachers'activities, the approaches and tacticsusedby the teacherfor bringing aboutlearningare important. However,it is suggestedthat activities and strategiesdiffer from eachother in their description.Philpott (2001:83-84)makesthis distinctionby stating:

Activities are a description of what the pupils are going to do, for example 'today ... we are going to listen, appraise, compose or perform'. Strategies are the ways in

69

which you bring about musical learning and theserequire a rich description of ends and means, for example, the use of question and answer to elicit subjective

from pupils suchthat we can introduceanddevelopmusicalvocabulary. responses Teaching activities are the vehicles for teaching strategies.

This meansthat teachingstrategiesarerelatedto the actionsandinteractionsthat take in place the classroom after planning (Tait, 1992). As Tait (op. cit) argues,teaching strategiesinvolve a range of procedures(i. e. vocabulary choice and usage,modelling, managementand implementation) in the classroom, and the combination of these

strategiesis referred to as teachingstyle and severalteaching styles producethe teachingprofile of a particular teacher(p.525).

In his article Tait (1992) documentedthat teachersgenerally use two main strategies: verbal and non-verbal. The generalfeaturesand keywords associatedwith these

strategiesarepresentedin the tablebelow:

Table 2.1. Teaching strategies in music

STRATEGIES Verbal Strategies Professional

Experiential

Process

Description

Nonverbal Strategies musical modelling

Technical. Vibrato, articulation, legato Conceptual. tone, rhythm, crescendo Aesthetic: blend, balance, intensity Imagery. Aural colourful,pastoral, religious connotations modelling Metaphor. evoke qualities of feeling or movement,such as dry, violent, or nervous Analogy. includes words with living processes such as cohesion, expectationand stabilitv Whysical Analyse, imagine,describe, explore, express,and modelling demonstrate

Description Teacher performance providesa total image of what is desired either vocally or instrumentally Teacher employs phoneticvocalization Includinghummingand syllablesin order to convey particular meaningsor points of emphasiswithin the music Includesfacial expressions,physical gestures,formal conducting

70

Tait (op. cit) documentsthat music teachersuse a lot of languagein music lessons. However, researchdoes not indicate concrete evidence on the dominance of one of these strategies (verbal or non-verbal) in music lessons increasing efficiency in learning music. In fact, Price's study (1989, cited in Tait, 1992, p.527) indicates that

levels. increasedteachertalk canleadto decreased of all age studentattentiveness

In regard to nonverbal strategies,Tait (ibid) argues that music teaching makes for considerablenonverbal communication in the classroom settings. Tait maintains that little is very research focussedon the relationships between nonverbal strategiesand music-teaching effectiveness.Most music teachersseem to employ various kinds of modelling both intuitively and spontaneously and as reinforcement for verbal strategies.Tait (1992:529) concludes:

"The researchindicatesthat musiclessonsare frequentlydominatedby teacher verbal and nonverbalstrategies.Studentsdo not interactverbally, and for the most part their nonverbalbehavioursare limited to actual performance.This situation is unlikely to changeso long as music educationplaces greater emphasison teacher-directed musical productsrather than on student-centred " processes.

Despite all the arguments above being based on specialist music teachers, these strategies seem to be applicable and practical for generalist primary classroom teachers.For a generalist primary teacher, a pre-service teacher training programme and the In-service Training and Education (INSET) coursesare the places where s/he can attain musical abilities and the pedagogy of music in primary schools. However, Young (2001) claims that primary teachersreceive inadequatetraining in music both initial and in-service. At school level, with the experience and appropriate support

71

over the years, successfulmusic teacherscan develop various teaching strategiesand in styles order to addressthe different needs of their pupils. The teaching of music involves various elements such as singing, playing, moving to, listening to, and

creatingmusic. In this vein, music educatorsare constantlyin searchof the perfect methodology,althoughthey havetheir own techniquesand strategies(Costanzaand Russel, 1992). These teaching strategiesmay involve different forms such as vocabulary choice and usage, modelling, and management and implementation

procedures.In addition, Struthers(1994) critically claims that the adoption of a teaching style has direct consequencefor the learners.It is for this reasonthat teachers have to understand the technical points and difficulties of teaching music. Plurnmeridge(1991:71) contends:

They have to be in a position to decide on suitable learning strategiesin order to assistpupils over particular hurdles. Thesetechniquesare nonnally taken for

granted,and require a certainmusical expertiseand experience.Unless the teacherhas that necessaryexpertise,which is acquiredover a period of time through musical engagement,it is impossibleto see how any meaningful teachingcantakeplace.

Struthers (1994) lays out some teaching styles in music such as 'formal or informal; dependent or independent; structured or unstructured; and guided or open-ended'

(p.65-66).Theseare sometechniqueswhich a teachermay apply during the teaching of music.However,Plummeridge(1991)arguesthat primary generalistteachersneed a smusicconsultantor a music co-ordinator'in the school in order to contributeto children's musical education.According to Plummeridge(ibid), at presentthis is a neglectedissuein schoolsandoften children get little musicalexperiencedespitethe requirementsof the curriculum.

72

2.6.1. Singing and Teaching Songs in Primary Music Education

In primary music education"singing" activity is the most common musical exercisein all classrooms(Dawson and Acay, 1997; Yildiz, 2002). Persellin (2002) arguesthat

'for young children participating in music class the ability to sing in tune often determines the feeling of successof failure' (p. 1). In primary education, teaching songsis central for music teaching (Ucan, et. al., 1999). Singing is not only valuable

in itself but the songsthemselvesalso provide a meansfor learning about music (Young and Glover, 1998). Teaching songs and singing is a multi-dimensional it process as involves various aspectsof music learning (Ucan, et A 1999). Young and Glover (1998:125) document a network of skills and knowledge that learning to sing a song offers to young children: *

Aural - to listen attentively to learn the song and to self monitor singing;

e Physical- to controlbreathingandthe vocal mechanism; 9 Verbal- to remember,understand, pronouncethe songwords; *

Musicalmemory- to remembermusicalforms andreproducethem;

9 Performing- to producerhythm,pitch patterns,dynamicsandtonal qualitieswith sensitivity and accuracy; 9

Social - to cooperatein singing activities with others;

Communicative to 9 - sing expressivelywith andto others.

As can be seen, singing songs covers a range of aspectsof is for It music education. this reason that singing a song can be a complex process of learning. In this activity the first thing to do is the selecting of appropriate songsfor children's levels (Ugan et. al, 1999; Philpott, 2001). The teacher should select a song that s/he knows best and

73

know for The take time teacher which aspectsof should enough should preparation. how learning is hoping by this relates to the to singing, and musical s/he promote lessonplan. The teachershould consider thesequestions:why are we using this song it? do hope from and what we we pupils will gain

htnil there are At the website on: bttID://www. musickit.com/resources/songteacb. simple strategiesfor teachersto teach songsto primary school children: 1. When you are teaching a song to children, provide several opportunities for them to hear the songbefore they ever try to sing it. This can be doneby either the teachersinging the song for the studentsor by listening to a recording of it. You can often tell studentsare ready to learn the song if they mouth the words or try to sing listening. along while 2. Before actually teaching the song, ask children to listen very carefully to the songone more time through, noticing parts of the songthat are the sameor different from eachother. 3. Sing the song I phraseat a time, asking the children to sing after you eachtime. Point to the class eachtime it is their turn. e.g., "Here bluebird (point " teacher to class) comes a "Here bluebird" class comes a "in (point teacher through to class) my window" "in through class my window" "Hey, diddle-um-a" (point teacher to class) "Hey, diddle-um-a" class "day, day, day! " (point teacher to class) "day, day, day! " class etc. Be sure NOT to sing out loud when the class is singing, otherwise the studentstend to try to listen to the teacherrather than singing themselves,and sing only half heartedly.

4. Repeatthis processdoublingup the phrases,e.g., "Here Bluebird teacher in throughmy window" (point to class) comes a "Here Bluebird in throughmy window" class comes a "Hey, diddle-um-a teacher day, day, dayl" (point to class) "Hey, diddle-um-a day, day, day! " class etc. 5. Singthe completesong,askclassto repeatit all teachermouthingthe words,BUT NOT SINGINGOUTLOUD to supportclass. 74

6. Finally allow classto sing alone with no support.When starting the song,tap the beat ( two fingers in the palm is a good way) and then sing the words "Ready, SING I" to the starting note of the song.Do NOT count outloud unlessyou are sure of yourself and the metre of the song.Counting " 1,2,3... " before singing, is often more confusing than helpful, unlessthe songis in 3/4 time

A primaryschoolteachereasilycanfollow abovesteps.Similarly, in their handbook for EducationFaculties,DawsonandAcay (1997)give directionsto primary student teacherswhenteachingsongsin primaryclassrooms.Accordingto themthe teacher shouldtakethe following stepswhile teachingsongs: 1. Teachthe chorus of the song first (not verse). 2. Use hand-armmovementsto demonstratethe structure of the melody. 3. Do not talk too much. Make music.

4. Changethe speed. 5. Be quick for children to feel the song as a whole. You can return back for details

later. 6. Whisperwordsclearly. 7. Give rhythm by clapping your hands.

8. Get half of the classto sing and the other half to listen (Dawsonand Acay, 1997, p.1.4).

Walters(1992)strongly arguesthat for efficient learningin music teachingstrategies be to Walters(1992:543)providesthe following five main principles need sequenced. for sequencingin teaching music: 1. Teach soundbefore sign.

2. Leadthe studentto observeby hearingandimitating insteadof explaining. 3. Teachbut one thing at a time rhythm, melody, and expression beforethe child is called to attendto all at once. 75

4. Require mastery of one step before progressingto the next. 5. Give principles and theory after practice.

In summary, Philpott (2001) emphasises'the importance of teaching singing in real

is, that circumstances, musical as part of a processwhich prioritises performing, listening and even composing and improvisation' (p. 95). Particularly, children in early ages in primary education should be given opportunities to experience these aspectsof music as much as possible. Listening and performing activities often take in place the early stagesof primary education.

2.7. Factors Influencing Teachers' Practice

Therearemany factors(externalandinternal)todaywhich influencethe functionsof schoolsand the practicesof teachersin those schools(Orlich et al. 2001, Fullan, 2001).Dijkstra (1998)claimsthat eachday the teacheris trying to solvean ill-defined design problem that has different components: creating a friendly and productive

behaviour, development the climate, classroom supporting of public and social designinginstructionsfor the subject involved that support the students'learning goals, designing feedback and evaluating the learning results. Hence teaching is a

highly demandingtask not only for beginningbut also especiallyfor older teachers (p.106).There are many other factorswhich influenceteachers'everydayclassroom practiceswhich are dependanton the culture,context,and educationalsystemin the differentcountries.

There are almost no studies available in the literature on primary teachers' practicesin

music educationand revelationsof influential factors on their practices.In music 76

in limited have that teachers" education, studies practices music classesare reported affectedby diverse factors. Thesefactors included heavy teaching loads, inappropriate student behaviours, and a perceived lack of support from school officials and the community at large (Hoffer, 1982; Heston et. al, 1996 cited in Krueger, 2000). In one

of the studiescarriedout by Krueger(2000),it is revealedfactorsthat contributeto music teachers' job dissatisfaction. Findings from the study in which thirty music teacherswere interviewed revealedthat the following factors as essentialto teachers' dissatisfactionwith their profession: Insufficient 9 administrative support. It was expressed that relations between teachersand administratorsgreatly affects teacherautonomy in the school. 9 Isolation from other music teachers. Lack of contact with other music teachers negatively influences the teachingmusic in schools. *

Itinerancy. Moving between schools, being asked to serve the needs of two or

more schoolsand to meetthe demandsof conflicting schedulesoverwhelmingly affectsteachersuccessandmorale. *

Poor music facilities andlor inadequate budgets for supplies, equipment and

materials. This was also viewed by some teachersas a negativefactor which influenced their well-being in schools. o

Challenges of discipline. Many teachers found discipline challenging, however,

felt they were ableto makeprogressin establishingrespectfulenvironments most in their classrooms,particularly if they had strongadministrativecooperationto do so. *

Working with emotionally unstable students. Inadequacy in dealing with emotion y unstablestudentswasreportedasoneof the negativefactors.

77

*

Working unassistedwith large classes. Someteachersdescribedworking with no help in large classes, often including mainstreamed students with special (pp. 24 information little been had teachers given problems about which music 25).

In additionto thesefactors,Adams(2001)talks aboutthe time factor and maintains that 'teachers are under pressure to give adequatetime to the core subject areasof

in lead English, Science ICT to a reduction time spenton which mathematics, and This in (p. 52). ' the the pressure particular arts. other subject areas of curriculum, influences the effectivenessof music teaching in schools. obviously

In Drununond's (1999) study in Northern Ireland, it was revealed that music in is disadvantaged in funding the teachers, andfacilities. schools education areasof

With regardto teachers,teachershortagein terms of two dimensionswas seenas inadequately by the teachers were problematic:a) employment someschoolsof who for b) failure their the work qualified and of some schoolsto employ sufficient teachersfor the number of pupils on the roll.

It was revealedin Drummond's study (1999) that the situation with funding was in It found departments limited funding that unsatisfactory. was was allowedto music schoolsandthis fundingwasmerelydependingon the individual headsof the schools.

In the study, in regard to facilities,

again music teachers were reported as

disadvantaged. It was argued that there were inadequate resources and materials

78

It for demands teachers to the was curriculum. available meet of current music in for that music-making most schools not present music-suites were reported 1999, in in (Drummond, activities which may result excessivenoise normal classes pp.23).

Despite the fact that these findings are based on the experiencesof specialist music teachers,most of these findings may be applicable to generalistprimary teacherswho in to teach are required music their classrooms.

2.8. Summary and Conclusion of the Literature Review

The review of the literature suggeststhat despite the growing body of research in music education, there is a gap between the research world and actual practice.

Studiesreportedthat most of the researchcarried out in music educationis not relevantto the actualpracticesof teachersin classrooms.

In addition, researchstudiesin music educationmostly considerthe concernsof specialistmusic teachersat all levels. However,as it is known in most parts of the it is in Turkey, primary school teachers(non-specialist in music) are required as world to deliver music curriculum. There is highly limited research available on primary

teachers'practicesof music teachingwhich providesinformationon their concernsin musiceducation.

In the literature,thereis extensivewritten work availableon the valuesof musicasan form for human beings. It is reported that music contributes to humans, art

79

development. Many studies children's, particularly emotional, cognitive and physical have been carried out that still continue to provide evidencethat music contributes to

the developmentof children's spatial,verbal and quantitativeskills (Bilhartz et A, 2000; Costa-Giomi, 1999; Hetland, 2000a&b; Vaughn, 2000). These studies were

in despite in for However, to out order carried providea clearrationale music schools. theseefforts, Duke (2000:14) strongly arguesthat

We need stop talldng as if there is convincing evidence that music listening and music study will inevitably lead to the improvements in students' performanceon intelligence tests and their performance in school. Such evidence does not yet exist. Recognising the basic value of arts education, most advocatesfor music in schools agree that increasedtest scores,by themselves,provide a weak rationale for music in schools.

According to Duke (ibid), the rationale for teaching music should be based on the

carefully consideredbenefits of teaching the arts. Duke maintains that music's benefitsshouldbe takeninto considerationandwe needto restorefocusto the effects of musicthat areobservable.Duke (ibid, p. 24) continuesto point out that

Music is a marvellously engagingand rewarding activity. All of the arts are a basic part of human culture and a fundamental aspect of human communication and expression.To teach our children about the arts is to teach them about the culture

and societyin which they live, while, at the sametime, helping them develop sophisticatedskills in auditoryand visual discrimination,fine motor skills, and a senseof personalaccomplishmentthrough active participationin arts activities. And, if one needsmore practical rationale for music study, there is no better activity throughwhich childrencan observea tangiblerelationshipbetweentheir own efforts and the results their efforts produce (in terms of increasedskill, capacityandexpressivepotential)thanlearningto singor play an instrument.

80

The review of the literature illustrates as a form of art music takes its place in the foundation in as a curriculum subject educational systems of countries. school Although the content and structure of the music curriculum varies in different context, involves listening, appraising, curriculum various of music such as a music aspects

the Depending the education of and upon characteristic perfon-ning. composing its decentralised) (centralised take the the shape. or content of curriculum will system

In order to effectively deliver the music curriculum in schools, it is reported that a teachershould acquire certain personal and professional skills and characteristics.The literature does not provide a clear definition of an effective teacher (or effective teaching) but it presentsthe notion that an effective teacher should demonstratesome professional and personal characteristics. Professional characteristics involve some include teaching that of aspects pedagogy (training, subject knowledge and application), planning, classroom management and organisation, presentation and teaching styles, and assessment.Personal skills and characteristics involve integrity, enthusiasmfor learning, organisation skills, good communication skills, and having a

hurnour. senseof

The music education literature suggeststhat primary school teachersapply a range of

teachingactivities and strategiesand presentvarious music-teachingstyles in their classrooms.Although much has beenwritten about the teachingstrategiesof music teachers,limited studieshave focussedon generalistprimary school teachersand information for theseteacherson how to deliver primary music curriculum provided having adequatetraining in the area of music. Generallyin music lessons, without dependingon the situation, topic and availability of the resources,teachersselecttheir

81

strategies.In music classesteachersmostly use verbal and nonverbal teaching strategies.However, there is no concreteevidencethat one of these strategiesis more in learning than the other. effective music

Finally, researchstudiesin musiceducationreportthat therearevariousfactorswhich influencethe efforts of teachersin deliveringthe music curriculumeffectively.Some of these factors include lack of support from the school administration and from the parents (community), limited funding and inadequate resources and facilities for in music education schools, isolation of teachers and lack of cooperation between colleagues,the challenges of music education (teacher competenciesand inadequate training) and the shortageof music teachersin schools.

82

Chapter IH Methodology

Introduction

This chapter outlines the researchmethodology adopted for this study. It reviews the issues including the administration proceduresapplied in the searching methodological for answersto the researchquestionsidentified in the introduction chapter.The chapteris organisedin sectionsas follows: Section I examinesthe development of the research framework for the study, which highlights the researchissuesin the field of music education.The section also outlines the aims of the study and providesthe main researchquestions. Section2 provides a brief discussionabout qualitative researchapproachesin educational research,which was adoptedasthe philosophical framework for this study. Section3 focusesupon the researchdesign,which involves descriptionsof data sources, for instruments the the selection, sample researchparticipants as well as used research study. Section4 explainsthe proceduresof data collection in the field, including administration of the instrumentsusedin the study to gatherdata. Section 5 concentrateson the data analysisproceduresand clarifies the techniquesused for the analysis. Section6 highlights main points consideredin this chapterand provides somereflections aboutthe researchprocess.

83

3.1. Researchin Music Education: Developing a Framework

Contemporaryliterature,particularly in the UK, suggeststhat researchin music education is highly limited, though Hallam and Lamont (2001) explain that there is extensive researchon the acquisition and developmentof performance skills, singing skills and on the use of reinforcement for improving performance skills in music education. In addition, early studies focussed on the process of composition in music experts and psychologicalmodels of this processhavebeendeveloped.However, therehasbeenvery little researchon the interfacebetweenthe teachingand learning of music, and immediate factors affecting the pedagogy of music. As Hallam and Lamont (ibid) note, 'most recommendationsabout teaching are derived from researchon pupil learning, not from direct observation of the processesinvolved' (p. 14). Perhaps these processescan be observed.As Duke (2000) suggests,we need to focus on the observableexperiencesof teachersin order to see the effects of music in schools. Similarly, Cox and Hennessy (2001) arguethat the role of teachersin music educationhas been given little attentionin

musiceducationresearch,andtheypoint out that Longitudinal, qualitative studies are neededto discover the impact of recent ... practiceson children's learning in music; and independentresearchis neededto validate, evaluate,or challengethe effectivenessof the pre-serviceeducationand continuedprofessionaldevelopmentof music teachers(pp. 36-37).

In addition, Reimer (1992) strongly arguesthat there is a lack of philosophical grounding and there is a great need for a philosophical foundation for music educationresearch. Reimer (1992: 24) points out that

84

Becausemusic education deals with the interrelations of music, people, and education, each of them existing on three general levels of reality, research attemptingto understandand enhancethose interrelationsmust be both diverse and co-ordinated.No single approachto researchcan possibly cope with all levels, and no scattershotarray of studiescan possibly yield understandingof the organic natureof the interactionsmusic educationmust influence.-To construct philosophical principles for music education researchis precisely to provide guidanceas to how we can achievebetterscience.

The presentstudy is an attempt to satisfy Hennessy's(2001:248) assertionthat 'research only has value and relevance if it contributes to making a positive difference and better to contributes understandingand better practice. Due to these reasonsand the focus on the observableaspectswhich include teaching and learning processesin music education,this study is basedon the view of Croll and Hastings (1997) who claimed that 'educationalresearchershave paid too little attention to designing studiesdirectly aimed at improving processesof teaching' (p.9). Since the present study aimed to investigate how teachers'strategiesof teachingmusic could be improved, it was necessaryto decide 248) (2001: Hennessy the As most on appropriate, suitable and effective methodology. states:

If we want teachersto be more creative and take more risks in teaching,then we

must also do this in our research,with the confidenceto use methods,which properly suit that purpose.

In this study both qualitative and quantitative approacheswere consideredat the first stage.The processof adopting suitablemethodwill be explainedshortly (seesection3.2). As mentioned earlier, educatorsand researchersin music educationhave suggestedthe 85

needfor qualitative researchon the pedagogyof music. Therefore,the aims and research be be derivation below, followed by to the questionswill stated of methods a reasoned adopted.This study soughtto achievefour main aims: 1. To describe and evaluate the current state of music teaching in Turkish primary schools; 2. To identify the stated concerns and attitudes of primary school teacherstowards music educationand factors affecting the teachingof music; 3. To identify the main music teaching strategiesused by primary school teachers lin contemporaryTurkish primary stateschools. 4. To identify how teachersdevelopteachingstrategiesin music education.

The first aim is based on the finding of the literature review (Adams, 2001; Philpott, 2001; Hoskyns, 1996) that music education is still a minority voice in contemporary curricula and a neglectedsubject,where more importancein this changingworld is given worldwide to core subjectssuchas Maths, Science,and Technology.

The secondaim is to explorepractising teachers'particular statedattitudestowardsmusic as a discipline, to explore insights of teachers' practices, and to understand their experiences as well as processes of teaching music in given settings which were identified in the first aim. In addition, identifying any difficulties and factors affecting music educationis also an important goal of the study.

86

The third aim is to explore and analyse the teachers' stated perceptions and their findings. in in light teaching the strategies music, of appliedresearchand as a result of

Finally, the study aims to provide a framework for categorisingand analysing the data from this study in order to discuss whether primary school teachers who are nonin specialists music can develop effective teachingstrategiesbasedon their personaland develop how these (background they teaching professionalprofiles and experience),and strategiesand apply them in their classrooms.

Having identified the aims and objectives of the researchstudy, the following general data the these of process research questions were generated and questions guided collection: 1. What are the perceptionsof teachersabout the importance of music education for children? 2. What are the attitudesof primary school teacherstowards music educationandmusic as a discipline? 3. What are the main problems encounteredby teachersin teachingprimary music in classrooms?

I

4. To what extent teachershave developedteachingstrategiesto overcomethe problems in classroomsettings? 5. Which factors have been effective in helping teachers to develop those teaching strategies?

87

6. How have teachers developed effective teaching strategies and applied these improve in in to music education? strategies classroomsettings order

Thesequestionshavebeengeneratedafter the review of the literature. As presentedin the little teaching has to the chapter, attention previous music education research paid There deliver teachers to of qualities primary school music curriculum. who are required have been some studies on factors influencing effective teaching of music in schools; however,other questionsset out abovehave not been answeredfully. In other words, the teachingstrategiesof generalistprimary teachersin the areaof music is not investigated deeplyenoughto generatea set of effective strategies.

Robson (1993) arguesthat the purpose(s)of enquiry and the researchquestionshave a influence strong on the research methodology adopted. For this study a qualitative researchapproach was adopted over the contestedapproach (quantitative) for reasons explainedbelow. The next sectionwill examine the purpose of this study in relation to two fundamentalresearchparadigmsand the traditional conflict betweenthem. After this the characteristics, strengths and weaknessesof the use of qualitative methods in educational research will be explained briefly. This may provide the reader with an understanding of how the research framework has been developed within an 'interpretivist' paradigm.

88

3.2. ResearchParadigms and Qualitative Researchin Education

Social scientific researchhas been characterisedby two fundamentalresearchparadigms As frequently in indirect being to each other. which are portrayed as opposition Hammersley(1992:159) put it; 'one representsthe true way, the other the work of the devil'. As we shall see later, this simple oppositional view has been challengedby rescarchcrssuchas Hus6n(1988), Bogdanand Biklen (1992), and Pring (2000).

In the late 1980s,Hus6n (1988:17) made a clear distinction betweenthe basic research paradigmsby stating:

The twentieth century has seen the conflict between two main paradigms employed in researchingeducational problems. The one is modelled on the

naturalscienceswith an emphasis which on empiricalquantifiableobservations, lendthemselves to analysisby meansof mathematical tools.Thetaskof research is to establishcausalrelationships, to explain(Erklaren).The otherparadigmis derived from the humanitieswith an emphasison holistic and qualitative informationandinterpretiveapproaches (Verstehen).

Husen appears to identify the term erkldren as representing the 'quantitative', and verstehen as 'qualitative' researchparadigms. Since they are not used for testing of hypotheses,qualitative researchmethodshave not been classified as scienceby many of the quantitativeresearchers(Diamond, 1987cited in Morce, 1994).As it was noted in the introductory sectionof this study, Eisner (1997) strongly arguedthat quantitativeresearch is 'scientific', whereas qualitative research methods belong to the 'non-scientific research' domain (cited in Mayer, 2000, p.38). In this sense, Eisner is arguing that

89

educationalresearchcarried out within the interpretivist paradigm can be interpretedas non-scientific research.According to Pring (2000:43), becauseof this dichotomy and 'false dualism' researcherswork within different paradigms:

Quantitativeresearchers areseento havea distinctiveview aboutthe natureof our knowledge about the physical and social world. And the qualitative researchersquestion that view, and very often reject the whole quantitative enterpriseas 'epistemologicallyflawed'.

However, Mayer (2000) arguesthat 'scientific researchcan involve either quantitativeor qualitative data; what characterizesresearchas scienceis the way that data are used to support arguments' (p.39). In fact Bogdan and Biklen (1992) contend that qualitative researchfits with the definitions of science.They assertthat 'scientific researchinvolves ' although they believe that rigorous and systematicempirical inquiry that is data-based, somepeople have a very limited definition of science,namely that it is purely deductive and hypothesis testing (p.43). If we carefully examine the main characteristicsand philosophical foundations of these two paradigms, we are more likely to find the possibilities of how they both are scientific and how they can be complementaryrather than in opposition to each other for a scientific inquiry, particularly considering the educationalresearch.

Researchershave identified the characteristics of these two approaches.Denzin and Lincoln (2000) assertthat quantitative studies emphasisethe measurementand analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes. On the other hand, the qualitative researchallows the researcherto explore the depth, rather than the breadthof

90

the knowledge of a particular phenomenon.Brannen (1992) arguesthat the qualitative researcherslook at the phenomenonfrom the wider perspective,searchingfor patternsof inter-relationships between a previously unspecified set of concepts, while the quantitativeresearchershave a more narrow perspectiveand focus on the specifiedset of variables.

Bogdan and Biklen (1998, pp. 5-7) delineatefive critical featuresof qualitative research. Thesewill be consideredin turn in relation to the aims of the presentstudy:

Accordingto Bogdan and Biklen (1998) 'qualitative researchis naturalistic. Qualitative research uses actual settings as the direct source of data, because researchersare concernedwith context.They feel that action can best be understoodwhen it is observed in the setting in which it occurs.' The present study aims to investigate the classroom in settings terms of identifying the natureof teachingmusic in a Turkish context. Bogdan and Biklen (1998) assertthat 'qualitative researchis descriptive. The collected data is presented in words and in pictures rather than in numbers. The qualitative researcherstry to analysethe data with all of their richnessas closely as possibleto the

form in whichtheywererecordedor transcribed. ' As mentionedearlier,thepresentstudy alsoaimsto obtaindescriptionsof settingsin which teachingandlearningoccurwithin its culture.Hence,in this perspectivethepresentstudyadoptsa qualitativeapproach. The methodsfor datacollectionwerethereforedesignedwithin this approach. Again Bogdan and Biklen argue that 'qualitative researchis concernedwith process. Qualitative researchersare concernedwith processrather than simply with outcomesor products.They look for answersto questionssuch as how do people negotiatemeaning? What is the natural history of the activity or eventsunder study?I The presentstudy does not focus on students' level of musical abilities or student achievement in music

91

education.Rather,it considersprocessesof teachingand aims to reveal music education activities that take place in classroomsettings. According to Bogdan and Biklen 'qualitative research is inductive. The researchers analysethe data inductively. They do not searchout data or evidenceto prove or disprove hypothesesthey hold before the study; rather, the abstractionsare built as the particulars that havebeen gatheredare groupedtogether.Theory this way emergesfrom the bottom up rather than from the top down (e.g. Glaser and Strauss (1967) termed this as 'groundedtheory'). ' As will be explainedlater in the presentstudy, collected data is not analysedinductively or there is no hypothesisto prove or disapprove.It is aimedto reach conclusions through analysis of recorded data. In this way it is intended to reveal teachers' actions and activities within classroom settings and to identify possible problemsthat are reportedby participants. Finally, Bogdan and Biklen (ibid) statethat 'qualitative researchis focussedon meaning. Researchersare interestedin how different people make senseof their lives. Qualitative researchersare focusedon explaining and interpreting what they observe,hear, and read, and they are concernedwith making sure they captureperspectivesaccurately.' One of the aims of the presentstudy is to examinehuman behaviour (teachers),and obtain their perceptionsabout their profession.Here the job of the researcheris to give meaningsto the datathat are obtainedthrough different ways in order to interpret statedperceptionsof teachers.In order to make data sensibleand meaningful [in other words what teachers' actions means in teaching music], a qualitative methodology is employed (i. e. use of classroomobservations,interviews for data collection) and the obtained data analysed and interpretedwithin the framework of an interpretivist approach. Furthermore, Rubin and Babbie (1997) claim that 'qualitative methods may be more suitable whenflexibility is required to study a newphenomenon,or when we seekto gain insight into the subjective meanings of complex phenomena in order to understand it clearly' (p.27). Given that the present study seeks to investigate the complex

92

into insights in the perspectives of primary teaching to order gain phenomenonof teachersand to find answersto the question of "how do they teach music?" then a As the be than to one. a quantitative qualitative approachwould seem more appropriate teachers' the to teaching the of and meanings study were processes aims of explore classroomactions, teachers' perceptions,as well as attitudes towards music, qualitative techniques such as making naturalistic observations in real classroom settings and carrying out individual interviews with teacherswere employed as the main sourcesof data collection. As can be realised,the presentstudy focusesupon descriptionsof natural settings, investigation of processesof teaching music, and teacher perspectivesand meanings of stated perceptions. These are compatible with the characteristicsof a qualitative approachstatedby Bogdan and Biklen (1998) earlier.

Although a qualitative approach seemedappropriate, it has been suggestedthat this has approach some "weaknesses".For instance,McEwan and McEwan (2003) claimed that qualitative researchcannotanswerevery questionthat the author needsto carry out a successfulresearch,but offers a variety of answersfor eachquestion.Moreover, Bresler (1992) Stake and claimed that qualitative research 'still, chargingthe researcherwith spontaneous responsibilityin the field, it lacksgoodprotectionagainst 1. excessivesubjectivity in observations, 2. impreciselanguagein descriptions, 3. vaguedescriptionsof the researchdesign, 4. unwieldy and voluminous reports, 5. implications of generalisabilitywhen little warranted, 6. cost and time overrun, and 7. unethicalintrusion into personallives' (p. 87).

93

Of course,a researchershould be careful and be aware of these dangers,but there are many studies in the field illustrating that these weaknessescan be minimised by employing various techniques(e.g. triangulation, piloting the instruments).In addition, the power and strengths of the qualitative research are more impressive than its weaknesses.Bryman (1988) points out that the distinction between quantitative and qualitative researchis really a technical matter. Hence,the choice betweenthem is to do with the suitability in answering particular researchquestions.As Newman and Benz (1998) suggest, 'the better paradigm (qualitative or quantitative) is the one that servesto answerthe specific researchquestion' (p.11).

In a nutshell, based on these argumentsand mainly on the study's aims and research questions,qualitative researchwas seenas the most suitable approachfor this study. If the aims and researchquestionsare examinedmore closely it can be seenthat the study deals with human (teacher) behaviour, their stated perceptions and actions in natural (within settings classrooms).The researchquestionsmostly aim to obtain descriptivedata about teachers' actions in the classroomsand are also concernedwith the meaningsof theseactions and strategies.The adoption of a qualitative approachis related to the aims of the study, which aimed to help the researcheras well as the readerto understandthe Turkish context with its culture and give meaning to the processesinvolved in the teachingof music in Turkish primary classrooms.

94

3.3.ResearchDesign: Selection of ResearchSample and the Participants

In this study a total of six primary school teachersfrom two different primary schools (ages7-

11) in the city of Konya (three from each) in Turkey have been selectedas

informants and/or researchparticipants.The sample schools selectedfor the study have specialcharacteristics.The Old Town primary school is a rotation school which is based in a village. In Turkey newly qualified teachersfirst appointedto village schools.When the obtain required scores(years of experience,inspection points etc), they may move into the city centre schools. Hence generally younger teachers with lower teaching experienceswork in such kind of schools. As can be seen later that, (see Table 3.1), participant teachersin the Old Town Primary school are younger than the teachersof New Central Primary chool which is basedin the city centre.

In order to provide variety, some specific parameters such as teachers' educational background, teaching experiences,ages, subject specialism (non-specialist in music), gender,and their musical interestswere considered.The study focusedon the l't Phaseof Primary Education,(ages7-9, grades 1,2 and 3), as in grades4 and 5 specialistmusic teacherscan teach music in primary schools.Teacherswho teach at the I't phasein the majority of casesare generalistteacherswho are responsiblefor teaching all curriculum subjects.The following table summarisesthe researchparticipants and their background infonnation:

95

Table 3.1. Research participants and their background information

0 0 0

M W

(n

V

M

0


-a > Am

>

40)

cu

1-i

rf) ZO

>- i

44

ö Je 0

25?

-5 0) 0rc -m

a) u) q) c) «0

e -A -0, mMr 40

(Z CL.

«ss

S

0)

-Z2 . c0) m *C) S

N'st(LI 2! om

' (L) 2 0u2

U.

>>>

CL

Co M*ýi Co

tc 0)

0 AZ l? h-. Z .22

E ' J., 12«a >v

;m-

«e-

-ö Co ccga 10

CI)

CY) f3 a)

.22

-5.0 2 -j k- czz 2

r>

G 0,. -6 Buiqoeo.L '0 *rm cu 2

cl

(4

00

rcm *5-. .3 0e r-

U)

0c

12

000 ZZZZZ

joosn

0 Je

0)%..

o0ým0 t30mam

1-j 1--

leolsnw

U) je

Co-C)

2e2

Cb

r_ 0 u)

ia ja

0 0 M mv «o ý! -9 U)

CL 13

to 0)

-5

*Va C

cmh

0wM.

0 Cl) Cl) U)

AZ

WO CL

-c6

mmc 4)

r_ Co CL)

CL ti.

senbluqoajL pue SOIXIS C! auiqoeajL Co--i

c2 0)

Z

0., 1

Co

=-O

*A

r_

-5

2 (M

10

Mm

0)

Z .I.?

-6 mM

As

ýh *MC

rc CL

0) Z 0

2 c2

CI) a

U) m

i;

-6 m

ia Z

Co cu

m

Co

m9 C) U)

cm

A: 2 0.2:

m

=-O

Cl)

a CO

m

CM

E

fi

mu

-A f3

A. p 2. k

:s

0

CL

A

c

soll301t, ils 13uiqoeejL

t) .s c8Q-00W ý:üf, ä

?ýA8Acc2, l ä-ceQ

-e JE ZE 00f, e0 'ý g -E Ok. E 0. c» c . CM

0 r1-3

t*--

LU)20 ei,KIS

1229 Q

CL

13

«8 KE 40 pLo 0 r., cmE c.

0Z? (D

mc3

ir

m«a E* >, r a)

tu EmmE

L:ý

0

K-

c:

(U 4)

ý)

E0 m A0).2E >ý

-Z 4) c E. 2 ch

-e

cm

@0C,

£3

l

9) r_ ,

E r .2 cm

a)

E£00 E0 cm ,» ob r_ cm -üs

to

CL00

0.28 ty 0 CL

CY

jewg)i jw

3

*f,

-2Co CL 12 c

13)

mEC, Em 9) xr tu EM

CL) Em

ZaW., -0

ýi c; r_

Q

I-

0) >. 1Z3 C E Co

C,

CI)

a) r- .Em

r-

CAE-

Co

E-

x

r- 3, -

K

M

a)

im-E

0)

3:

rj *P

f3 Ütt (0

0)

A c3) S -: 0) c. c 12 f»

X M 4)

cm

g 9,

0)

CI)

la

c

looqos

CO

4)

E =, O 0) >, r

cm

1

10

rc

scc

mmEm

GPEJE)

C» .9 «a S Lu

3:

r_ )

C)

0 u)

to (1)

4)

M

r_

E m

(L) (0 cn

e cr1). e c:En-r(4) --x

(L) MX

CY)

CL 00

CL

> #A im CL 03

.103 0)

0)

10 R= 0a0 4ý.-Ec C,) u)09A

0rGe.(4 üý 980 0-

0Z

(0

Co) r-

0) r_ *a) U)

r4

eanw s:w

ÄJ'ZW. lJd IL'J;u03

elelsnW-jW MON

wolzo sjw

Z

IM c, ) m

ö,

e 12

U-Cul

r_

r_

CI)

13uluie,9-1 m «o E 0) :"r

smsel

Z2>-

Lug

-

(0 m

23

Ui rj m

C.

LU

r_

lu c»

E- 0 r- C"ä *5 mZ

M .E0Z 13 tM 4) *fj g2A :3 *ro

r_

u11313 *rsiw

esxv -SJW

1 'ÄjeWlJd UMOI PIO

It can be seen clearly that all the observed classroom teachers demonstratedsimilar in lessons. lessons In their the activities and strategies characteristics all observed music were planned (checked teachers' daily plans) as "learning a new song" and "repeating learned lessons In teachinga new school song was the main task to songs". all previously be done.At the time when theseobservationswere made"Mothers' Day" was approaching. In Old Town Primary, two teachers(Mrs. Ozlem and Mrs. Ayse) taught the song called "My Dear Mother". Other teachers selected different school songs and taught in classrooms.As explained in the Literature Chapter of this study, in the first phase of primary school, the music curriculum does not require the teaching of notation, and does not cover other music elementssuch as composing and the performanceof instruments. Theseelementsare generally coveredin the 4th and 50'grades.As can be seen,in observed lessonslistening and singing took place. In fact teachersmentionedthis distinction in their interviews. However, as explained in Chapter 2, the music curriculum for the I" Phase covers other topics such as theoretical topics on types of music and the music aroundus, and practical topics on voice management,rhythm, musical speed,tone etc. However, all the observedteachersplanned"singing" and "listening!' activities in their music lessons.

As for the children's learning styles, it was mentioned earlier that the teachers' main teaching strategywas direct instruction, thus the learning style in the classroomwas "by hearing and memorising". In other words, the technique of "learning a song through notation" was never employed due to curriculum reasons.In all lessonsteachersdirected the instruction and used didactic teaching methods, even when teaching a song. In all lessons,the topic (name of the song) was explained by teachersfirst. For motivation Mr.

194

Kemal and Mrs. Muge told short stories about the song to the whole class. At the beginningsof the lessonthe teachersfirst perfornied the song, which was written on the board. Before a singing activity, only Mrs. Muge and Mr. Mustafa employed some breathing exercises;other teachersignored this exercise.Next, repeatingthe song several times with the whole classtook place in theselessons.During theseactivities the teachers useda lot of verbal explanation(e.g. by saying 'slow', 'fast', 'lengthen the word', 'loud, 4quietly' to the students) and physical demonstrations(e.g. performing slow, fast, or difficult parts of the song,giving the rhythm).

In almost all classes,group, individual, or whole class singing activities took place. The teachersorganisedthe groups(such as groupsof boys and girls, groupsof studentsin rows) in the classroom.Although group activities took place in classes,children never changed their positions, or deskswere never moved.A different place (sportshall, play garden)had neverbeen considered.Group activities were arrangedbetweenrows which were arranged in three columns and each column was regardedas a group. Small singing competitions between these groups were arranged (for example, in Mr. Kemal's lesson). Individual singing was generally directedby the teacher,but in someclassesvoluntary studentswere brought in front of the classroomand allowed to sing the song that was learned in the lesson.Again, in some lessons,individual singing performanceswere basedon children's own preferencesand choice of music. In most classes,the studentssang songs selected from daily life (pop, traditional etc). Mrs. Ozlem, however, encouragedchildren to choose school songs.During individual singing some teachersintervened in the singing activity

195

by in lyrics tried to tone, the spontaneously etc. and correct rhythm, students' mistakes demonstratingthe correct form, but most teachersignoredthis.

As for the use of an instrumentin lessons,exceptMrs. Muge, none of them useda musical instrumentduring theseteachingand learning songsactivities. The voice of the teacherwas the only resourcefor almost all teachers.They used their voice in providing the melody, rhythm, and tune of songs. All teachersperformed the songs using their own musical hearing and abilities. There were moments when some teachers performed songs completely different to its normal melody or gave rhythms to children that were totally unrelatedto the song.Only Mrs. Muge brought a recorderinto her lessonand tried to useit for teachingthe song.At the beginning of the lessonshepracticedthe songwith a recorder as shewas having difficulty with certain notes. After correcting them she played the song with the instrumentto provide studentswith a senseof rhythm, and to familiarise them with the melody of the song that sheplannedto teach. She repeatedthe activity severaltimes. However,after this point shedid not eventouch the instrumentagain throughoutthe lesson and went on to activities similarly carried out by other teachers.It was observedthat the recorder drew the attention of the children, but it was used only for that reasonand for nothing else. Again the teachertried to teach the song through repeatingthe parts of the song (versesand chorus) by using her own and the children's voices. No other resources brought (a tape-cassetteplayer, CD player etc) to classroomsby any of the other were teachers.Pupils have music notebooksand they are instructed to write down the lyrics of the songthat is being taught during the lesson.

196

Children's participation in the songs was high but the quality was in dispute as performanceswere weak in terms of the musical qualities of singing activities. All music lessonswere taught by teachersusing almost the samestrategies. Generally,children were passive and teacher directed instruction was dominant in music lessons. When all data observation are combinedtogether,a typical music lessonin the observedclassrooms can be drawn. In Table 4.11 below the main featuresof a typical music lesson(teachinga song)and the positions of the teachersand studentscanbe seen:

Table 4.11. Roles of teacher and students in a typical music lesson (observed)

Minutes of the Lesson 10

m i ns. (introduction)

20 mins. (Improvemen t )

Positions (activities) Teacher Explaining the topic, motivating, telling story related to song Writing lyrics of the song on the board ' Reading the words Demonstrating breathing exercises Teacher singing the song first Introducing melody and rhythm Pointing out the places where to breath, where to lengthen syllables Teacher singing it again (modelling) Giving rhythm and singing [AD5]to whole class Listening Teacher correcting students mistakes (slow - fast, loud - quiet) Demonstrating (changes In melody, rhythm. tonality, speed etc.) Teacher organising groups Teacher directing groups Correcting mistakes Organising small singing compe tions Teacher selecting Individuals

10 mins.

(Conclusion)

I Directing whole class Praising students Giving feedback Giving homework

Students Listening Writing into their notebooks Listening, repeating, reading Listening, viewing and doing breathing exercises Listening Listening Listeninq Whole class singing Practicing the song, repeating, whole class singing Listening Listening, exercising Groups sing the song Groups sing some parts of the song In an orderly fashion Listening and practicing Groups Jointhe activity Individuals singing In front of class Whole class final sinaina Listening Writing down

As shown by the table, in most parts of the lessonthe children were [AD6]inthe position of "listening". They were listening either to the teacher'sverbal explanationsor instructionsor

197

it friends' However, Group teachers' the or other singing. activities were mentionedearlier. is worth noting that these group activities are different from the group work activities. In theselessonsgroups were used to perform (sing) songsonly. There were no interactions betweengroups,or teamwork activities betweengroup members.In this vein, the meaning in in lessons differs from taking activities music of group other group activities place other lessonswhere interaction and communicationskills between groups and group members are greatly required. Here, in music lessons,group memberstry to sing the song as best as they canbut they can do nothing for the singing qualities of other members.

4.4.2. Summary and Discussion of Section 4

In this sectionparticipant teachers'music teachingactivities in real classroomsettingswere explored through the employment of an observation method as part of the whole data collection methodology.Six interviewedprimary classroomteacherswere observedduring their music lessonsand the data were recordedon pre-scheduledobservationchecklistsas well as using an audio-taperecorder.

Analysis of observational data revealed that the teachersemployed a range of teaching activities in music lessonsand demonstratedvarious styles of teaching (see Table 4.10). However, there are no major differencesin these strategies.In fact, quite similar teaching techniquesand styles were observed in the music lessons. As illustrated in all cases, teaching songs was the main task in all lessons, and rehearsing and learning through hearingand memorisingwas the major activity.

198

Prior to making the observations,the daily plans of the teachersfor their music lessons were collected with their permission in order to see what preparationsand arrangements they were making for the lesson (examplesof these plans can be seen in Appendix E). Philpott (2001) arguesthat planning for music lessonsis important because'teachersneed to formulate objectives,preparethe resourcesand materials to structure learning through planned sequenceof activities' (p. 83). In Turkey all primary teachersare required by legislation to prepare their daily lesson plans. When the participant teachers' plans are examinedit can be seenthat the teachersdid not pay enough attention to music lessons comparedto other subjects.For instance,Mrs. Ozlem's plan for a maths,lessonwas quite detailed since aims and objectives were noted, activities were sequencedin detail with examples,and resourceswere mentioned.On the other hand, for music lessons,only the topic, aims and objectiveswere written in the plan but classroomactivities were not noted, and resourceswere not mentioned. Similar treatmentswere applied to other foundation subjects(Arts and Physical Education). Similarly, [AD7]Mrs.Ayse planned the 40 minutes Mathematicsand Music lessonsfor I" Gradestudentsin the following way (translatedfrom the original language(rurldsh), seeAppendix E): Lesson: Maths Topic: Problem solving (meaning simple mathematical questions and solving exercises e.g. subtraction,adding) Duration: 40 mins. Resources:Maths test-book,teacher,students Aim: Be ableto sing the songwith its rhythm correctly. Behavioural Objective: 1. Writing the question 2. Readingthe question 3. Finding the answer(solving the problem)

199

be The the be will Example problem Activities: ways of solving questions will answered. explained[AD81. I had but 7 from them bought off I Question: gone the Example of greengrocer some tomatoes bag in bag. How left in at tomatoes 12 my were many my threw them awayand goodtomatoeswere the beginning? Answer: 12 +7 19 tomatoes Evaluation: The whole classwill be askedthe following examplequestion: Therewere 15 olives on my plate and I ate 8 of them.How many olives were left on my plate? Lesson:Music Topic: Songcalled "The Train7' Duration: 40 rnins. Resources:Teacher,students Aim: Be ableto sing the songwith its rhythm correctly. Behavioural Objective: Ability to sing the songin the classchoir Activities: Songwill be taught. Songwill be sungaltogether. here..lyrics of the song is written ... ... Evaluation: Who wantsto sing the song?

It canbe seenthat the plan for the music lessonis very short with almostno detail aboutthe lot in fact, In of a the classroomshe applied a range of activities and employed activities. different strategies; for instance, writing down the song, reading, rehearsing, and in individual it, singing activities were carried out performing and whole class, group and the classroombut none of thesewere mentionedin the lessonplan. Perhapsit is relatedto her teachingexperiencein classroomsand so shedoesnot feel it is necessaryto write down is in behaviour details. This the teachingpractice of many experienced the common a all teachersin Turkey.

200

Referringto Table 4.11 it can be seenthat in a typical lessonchildren do a lot of listening. It could be arguedthat this is a featureof a good practice in music educationas it illustrates that children are integratedor immersedin music. Barrett (1996) arguesthat 'immersion' is one of the most important prerequisites for developing the understandingsand skills necessaryfor learning to use and control the materials of music' (p. 65). In other words, as Mills's (1991) researchrevealedthe quality of learning in music can be increaseda great deal by engagingstudentsin music[AD9]. Philpott (2001:85) talks about Mills's researchand points out:

"Mills's work shows the centrality of listening in music-making and receiving of all types. Indeedit is impossibleto imaginemusic making of any type without listening and appraisal (although the latter might occur more at an intuitive level). Listening and appraisalare the common elementsof being an audience,performer or composerand as sucharethe 'glue' for both immersionand integration."

Observationaldatareveal that in all classeslistening activities take a lot of space.However, thereis no effort from the teachers,as Philpott (ibid) suggests,to make an attemptto access pupils' understandingwhen they are listening to music (their own or others).Questioningis suggestedas one of the ways to assesslearning (Philpott, ibid). Again, in classrooms,the teachercheckingpupils through questionsin order to understandthe level of understanding andlearningwas not observed.

The data also reveal that singing is the only activity which took place in observedmusic lessons.This can be related to number of issues.First becausethe teachersin this study teachin the first phaseof primary school (gradesI to 3), and they may think that singing is

201

the most appropriateand suitableactivit in music classes.However,there canbe otherbasic activities, which can be held in classroomssuch as performing, composing. Secondly, in is for the teacher to with singing whole class perhaps most easy strategy a apply the in do for fact, In teacher. their report classroo,which not require much ability and work a for EducationFacultiesin Turkey, Dawsonand Acay (1997) statethat perhaps"singing" is the most commonmusical exercisein classrooms.They commentthat if enoughattentionis not paid, it can easily become a joyful exercise only, rather than a learning activity or progressionin learning music. They suggestthat singing is a skill and we needto approach singing as we approachthe learning of other skills. Again, they suggestthat when teachers plan the teachingof a song in the classroom,the aim must not be to teach the song only. Aims and objectivesshould be engagedwith other dimensionsof music such as breathing, constructingstructures,articulation, tonality, changesin speedand dynamicsof sound.

According to Philpott (2001) singing is a 'cheap and flexible activity' (p.92).

As

mentionedearlier, perhapsdue to a variety of reasons(physical conditions and resources, curriculum requirements and teacher competencies and backgrounds in music) all participant teachers carried out singing and listening activities in their music lessons. However, as illustrated in Table 4.11, a music lesson,which consistsof teachinga song, involves a lot of activities from the beginning to the end. In fact, in teaching songs, as explainedin Chapter2, thereare various points for a teacherto consider.

First of all, choosing songsto be taught is very important. The teacherneedsto consider that s/he knows the song properly and that it is suitable for children (words, melody,

202

be felt for to teaching In were tonality etc). classroom observations, songs chosen for They there were no major speed songs, school all all age groups. were appropriate changes,andwere suitableto children's vocal ranges.

Dawson and Acay (1997) and Philpott (2001) suggestthat at the beginning of the lesson involve be These somephysical exercises,such activities should carried out. up warming as: 9 stretchingvariousbody and facial muscles * shalcingandmoving partsof the body * yawning for breathing in breathing exercises, example, and out to a set numberof pulses e For warming up the voice, sometechniquesmay involve the following: different effects and vocal voices, such as speakingvoice, shoutingvoice, whisperingvoice, * growling, squeaking,sliding, wobbling. rappingwords, and setsof vowels/consonants. exploring and singing simple melodic shapesto vowels and consonants,such as ee, ay, ah, oo, oh, mm, nn.

92). (Philpott, 2001, known by Using the pp. 0 songswhicharealready pupils

In the researchsamplethe majority of teachersdid not use thesewarming up techniques. Only Mrs. Muge and Mr. Mustafa specifically consideredbreathing exercisesand carried [using dog breathing like (e. breathing like tired out some activities such as animals g. a diaphragm],or taking a deepbreath,holding it and then releasingit slowly like a punctured tyre.) Other teachersused somepreviously learned songs,however, the intention was not draw but to up children's attention. Thus, it may be counted as warming up warming Philpott's to suggestions. according

203

When teachingsongsin music lessons,there are a lot of techniquesavailable for a teacher to use.As reportedearlier, the observedparticipant teachersapplied a range of techniques during their 'teaching songs' activities. In order to put this in a music educationcontext, 1-4) Acay 1997, 94; Dawson (Philpott, 2001, pp. and pp. some of the music educators' in for teachers' teaching techniques classrooms activities songs and participant suggested inn below: Table 4.12 and presented are compared

Table 4.12. Techniques for teaching songs and observed features. Suggested Techniques for Teaching

Observed

Songs (Philpott 2001; Dawson and Acay, 1997) 1. Try to begin with a full teacher performance, asking the pupils to join in when and if they can, let them hear a full and musical model of the song (absorption). 2. Try to teach the song as a continuous piece of music, for example, through the echo singing of phrases such that even during the phase of segmentation we are continuing to behave musically. 3. Try not to be too disjointed in the teaching, with too much stopping during 'run throughs'; some mistakes correct themselves with familiarity, and over-rehearsing the difficult bits can be very disheartening. There is a limit to the amount of learnina which can take place In one lesson. 4. Encourage breathing at the ends of natural phrases. 5. Inciting more volume can often cause shouting, while sensible breathing and good posture are the keys to a fuller sound; some children have naturally quiet singing voices (Philpott, 2001, pp. 94). 6. Teach chorus of the song first (not verse).

All observed teachers started with singing the song first.

Yes

Some teachers taught some parts of the song, others taught the song as a whole.

Partly

Partly

Yes

This technique was never considered. Songs were taught as a whole. AJIteachers used hand movements to change speed, and to illustrate lower-higher tunes while teaching songs. Teacher conversations for explaining, illustrating, telling stories, and correcting mistakes took up a lot of time during lessons. This activity did not take place. Almost all teachers went to details quite early.

No Yes

S. Do not talk too much. Make music.

No

9. Change the speed. 10. Be quick for children to feel the song as a whole. You can return back for details later. 11. Whisper words clearly. 12. Give rhythm by clapping your hands.

No No Yes Yes I

13. Let half of the class sing and the other half listen I (Dawson and Acay, 1997, p. Ek. I A).

Some observed teachers stopped to correct mistakes in rhythm and melody many times; others did not spend enough time for this.

This technique was never been [AD 10]observed in singing actiivities. When teachers asked students to sing the song a bit faster or louder they all started shouting (misconception).

No

7. Use hand-arm movements to demonstrate the structure of the melody.

Features In Observed Lessons

Yes -

They were careful to pronounce words clearly. Clapping hands or hitting the teachers' desk for rhythm was observed In several lessons. In all classes this activity was carried out; group singing was also encouraged.

204

Although Philpott (2001) suggeststheseteachniquesfor secondaryeducation,it is believed that most of these techniquescan be simplified by the teacher and can be used in the be As in first the techniques the can classroom. seen, suggested column are quite primary in to practical and easy use classroomsettings for a primary classroomteacher.Someof thesetechniques(7 of them) were observedin studiedclassrooms,although they were used by teachersin different ways. It is necessaryfor a classroomteacherto acquire a certain level of musical ability and expertisein order to employ these techniqueswhen teaching music in primary schools.However,when examinedclosely, thesetechniquesare relatedto the pedagogy of teaching any subject matter. The techniques observed in the studied (1,5,7,11,12,13) classrooms

are related to the pedagogical competence of a teacher,

which can be applied to other subjects.For instance,using hand movements,or whispering words clearly (perhapswith music), grouping children, and explaining are techniquesto be usedby teachersin any other teachingactivity. Other techniques,however,require a certain level of knowledge about singing and teaching particular songs. This can be named as technical competence in music. For example,the teacher should be able to differentiate in and chorus verse a song, to know elements of music such as pitch, pace, tempo, dynamics,rhythm, melody, measurementof the song, and should be able to read notesof a song.Thesetypes of musical conceptsand skills can be gained through a certain level of training in music. As can be remembered,some teachersin the sample (Mr. Kemal, Mrs. Muge, Mr. Mustafa,and Mrs. Ozlern) had proper music training during their Initial Teacher Education(they were experiencedteacherswith a rangebetween 11 years and 32 years of teaching experience).In the classroom,observationsof these teachers'pedagogicalskills knowledge and of music were recordedoften. Other teachers,however, used a lot of talk

205

be To listen be this in to could but mostly trying to makepupils quiet or others. someextent in two in teaching background as training classroom music as well as related to their faculties from had Mrs. Ayse) Elgin teacher (Miss. education status not gained teachers and lack teachers leads institutions. This the that to the conclusion studied or related UK In in the to teach their many studies music. own abilities competenceand confidence (Wragg, Bennet and Carre, 1989; Mills, 1989; OFSTED, 1996 cited in Pugh and Pugh, 1998)report that one of the subjectswhich teachersfelt least confident about teachingwas factors for 'the the One to the this of adequacy of main situation connected was music. both 1998, (Pugh Pugh, to teachers training teachers' pp. offered and student and musical 110).A similar situation is apparentin a Turkish context as teachershave lack of technical in competence music education. andpedagogical

206

Page:187 IADi]This wasdeletedbecausecompetencemeansability. Page:188 [AD2]'Surely'adds a level of uncertaintyor doubL Do you want this here? Page:193 [AD3lDoyou needa bullet point for this item? Page:193 [ANIBullet point needed? Page:197 IAD51do you mean'signs'?? Page:197 l,u)6]sincethe next sentenceis in the pasttense,do you needthis sentencein the past tense? Page:199 incorrectphrase+ not surewhat you meanby this phrase-'in other cases'?'In [AD71Grammatically the othercase? 'In anothercase'? Pagc:200 JAD811'rn not surewhat this shouldmean... maybeneeda subjecthere. Page:201 [Awjagain, I'm not surewhat this means.It readsstrangelyto me. Page:204 tense?How about 'was neverobserved'? (ADIO)Correct

CHAPTER V Conclusions, Reflections and Recommendations

5.1. Introduction

This study has explored the factors affecting primary school teachers' practices in teaching music and has examined their experiencesin music education classrooms. Particularly,the study has focusedupon primary teachers'teachingstrategiesand styles during their classroomactivities when teachingmusic. In the study, the perceptionsof primary teachersabout music educationand their attitudes towards it have also been explored.

In this study, it was aimed to explore the main factors that influence primary teachers' practicesandteachingstrategiesin music educationwithin a Turldsh context.

Ibis final chapterof the study startswith the reflections on the researchmethodology adoptedfor the study. In this section,the limitations of the study are explainedin detail anda brief critique on the researchmethodologyis provided.

207

Secondly,a summaryof main findings of the study is presented.Then, basedon these findings, a discussion from the wider perspective of music education researchand elaborationmusic educationin primary schoolsin generalas well as the implications for for policy and practice in the context of effective teaching in music education are provided.

In the final section of the chapter,some practical recommendationsfor improving the current stateof music educationin Turldsh primary schools and recommendationsfor teachereducationin the areaof music educationare given. The chapterconcludeswith somesuggestionsfor further investigationsandresearchin the field.

5.2. The Study Revisited: A Brief Critique of the Research Methodology

As explainedin Chapter3, a qualitativeapproachwas adoptedfor this study as the best meansof gaining a fuller understandingof Turldsh primary school teachers'perceptions about music education and their actual practices within the classrooms.One of the reasonsfor adoptinga qualitative approachis relatedto the strongargumentsand beliefs about qualitative researchthat promise to provide readers of researchwith a clear understandingof complex situations which occur as social reality in teachers' professionallives. Eisner (1996) arguesthat well designedqualitative researchcan help the researcherassistreadersin understandingsuchrealities.He states:

Qualitative research,particularly when artistically crafted, has the capacity to generateemphaticforms of understanding.In sharp distinction to the neutralised,

208

indeedsanitiscdlanguageusedin conventionalforms of research,artistically crafted help feeling that a reader grasp the of qualitative researchcan generatequalities having it. forms Some the to those of experience of understandingrequire meaning Second, be for to the artistically crafted all subject matter understood at empathy ... qualitativeresearchprovidesa senseof particularitythat makespeopleand situations is but Abstractions the so of reality are of courseuseful, sense very often palpable. formalizedthat it cannotbe envisionedbecausethe formalizationleavesno tracesof what the empiricalsituationwas like. (pp.12-13)

For this reason,and since the subjectunder investigationis a social reality, in order to obtaindeeperinsightsaboutwhat goeson in Turkish primary classroomsqualitativedata collectiontechniques(semi-structuredinterviews and classroomobservations)havebeen usedas the researchinstrumentsin this study. A total of six teachersfrom two different schoolsin Turkey were interviewedand observedin their classroomsduring their music lessons.In this way the socially constructedmultiple realities of teachingand learning processesarereflectedin the study (Sevik, 2001).

It has been suggestedthat in every researchstudy the choice of methodologymust be appropriateto the subjectunderinvestigation(Quaigrain,2001). As set out in Chapter3, in this study a qualitative approachwas adoptedin order to understandthe social events holistically. However, it is to be noted that many scholars in educationalresearch advocate that representing teacher realities is complex and debatable procedure (Hargreaves,1996; Goodson, 1997; Gudmondsdottir, 1997). Anderson (1998:29-33) factors that there arc many which affect the educationalresearchprocess.Someof argues thesefactorsarc outlinedas for e opportunity rcscarch

209

9 the role of pecrsandmentors 0

institutionalrequirements

e experienceof the researcher literature research

*

-m cmffging rcsearchqucstions e resources *

values(intrinsic beliefs of people,societiesandcultures)

9 cnvirorunent time.

Despitethe best cfforts of researchers,due to many of the influential factors mentioned interpreting lives in is the teachers' of schools realities not completelypossible. above, What a researchercan do is to validatethe obtaineddataby employingvariousmethods, suchasusingmultiple sourcesof datacollection.As in this study,educationalresearchers use different techniquesto allow data to complementand validate each other. In this study, teacher interviews were supportedby classroom observationsand document review in order to gain a fuller understanding of what is happening in the classrooms.

As it was explained,the time-relatedobstaclesalso affected this study. Due to limited time for data collection, the scale of researchwas kept as small (particularly the sample).

The presentstudy was carried out in Turkey, hence arrangementssuch as contacting (via formal letters) done Following from England. teachers were schoolsand remotely

210

it in however, Turkey-, to the was not possible this, preliminary visits were made schools to makeany alterationsin the selectionof schoolsandteachersdueto time limitations.

Secondly,as explainedin Chapter3, volunteer teachersin schoolswere participantsin the researchprocessof this study. However, use of volunteer teacherswas one of the in issues in infonns (1998) Anderson the teLn study about the critical S of reliability.

in problemsof using volunteers educationalresearchin termsof the ethical aspectsof the (1998: following 19-20) Anderson the that the states research. use of volunteersraises four major ethicalproblems:

First, the peoplemost inclined to volunteertend to be more powerlessin society.They look has in involved, the to the and some up researcher cases,suchaswhen studentsare researcher oppositionof powerover the 'volunteers'who arereally subjectedto coercion. Second,and a relatedproblern,is the feeling of being obliged to participate.A researcher, %ith permissionfrom a sponsor,may arrive at a location andmakea verbalrequestfor people to participate in a pre-approvedstudy. Peer pressureor an expectationthat one should participatemay causesomepeopleto join the studywho would otherwisenot takepart. The third problemis that peoplemay volunteerwith the expectationthat they may be helped. Finally, the fourth issue relatesto labelling participants.By identifying people as having certainattributes,dericitsor potentials,the researchermay unwillingly affect their lives.

During the data collection processof this study, someof the aboveissueswere evident and observed. Denzin and Lincoln (1998) argue that the 'researcher'sinstitutional backgroundcan be importantin openingor closing doors,however,it may be irrelevant or evenharmful in others' (p. 163).In this study, due to the educationalbackgroundand 211

in (as teacher the music education) some educator researcher subject specialism of teacherswere seen to be feeling that they were being inspected during classroom help in been have Ilere to that the times performing researcherwas asked observations. in Chapter 3, As teachers their tune earlier and mentioned proper melody. songswith were given constantly weretold aboutthe natureand aims of the study, and reassurances beforeandduring the observations.

Although they were volunteers,during interviews and observationsnone of the teachers feel to an obligation to participate in the study. Particularly in interviews all seen were

teacherswere given spaceto talk at length. In one caseonly a teacherbeing interviewed seemto be unwilling since she gave very short answersto questionsand provided very little infonnation and few thoughts.Perhapsher health condition was one of the reasons for this, as shewas not feeling well. This teacherwas eliminatedand anotherteacherwas interviewedinstead.

Due to time and contextlimitations, it was also evidentthat the sampleof this studywas a small-sizcdgroup of teachersand for this reasonperhapsit could be said that these teachers were not the true representatives of the primary school teachers in Turkey.

llowcvcr, this is relatedto the issueof naturalgeneralisation(Stake,2000) which canbe doneby replicatingor comparingthe findings of the studywith other contexts.

Despitethoseinfluential factors,it is believedthat valid and reliable data was obtained for the currentresearchby crnployingdifferent techniques.In other words, it is believed

212

that the employedresearchtechniqueshave worked effectively in the attempt to explore for answers the researchquestions.Quality and richnesswere found in the analysisof interview transcriptsas well as in observationnarratives,in which allowed the making of comparisons,classificationsand categorisationsfor the final presentationand discussion.

5.3. Review of the Main Findings and Overall Discussion

In this study,teachers'perceptionsaboutthe importanceof music educationfor children, factors and affecting cffective music education were explored through interviews using a

scmi-structurcd interview instrurnent. The interviewed classroom teachers' actual teaching practices, and their strategiesand techniquesof teaching music were also examinedthroughclassroomobservations.

A total of six primary school teacherswith different educationalbackgrounds(from traditional institutions to the modem education faculties), and differing lengths of teachingexperiences(a rangebetween3 and 32 yearsof experience),were involved in the current study. This variety provided the study with different perspectivesand descriptionsof musicpedagogyin termsof the methodologicalapproachadopted.

Firstly, it was found that in generalterms primary school teachershave quite positive attitudestowardsmusic and music educationfor children at all levels of education.The teachersreporteda rangeof qualities and values of music for children's lives, and they cmphasisedthe importance and necessityof the inclusion of music in the National

213

Curriculum. The teachersreported that music is crucial for children's motivation for lessons as well as their emotional, cognitive, and social development, and the developmentof their self-expression.According to teachers,thesevaluesand qualitiesof finding in This impact have an on student academic success general. music also demonstratesquite similar results to Lamont et Ws (2003) recent study in the UK, in documented. highly teachers towards attitudes positive of which and students music were In both this studyand in Lamont et al's study the teachersvaluedthe role of music in the curriculum for both its musical and extra-musicaleffects for the educationof children. The positive attitudestowardsa curriculum subject,which meansthe holding of strong beliefs about the contribution of the subjectmatter (music in this case)to the children's development,may influence a teacher'senthusiasm,interest,and responsibility towards her professionalactivities in a positive way, too. However,as reportedby teachersin this In in in cases. constraints some prevent effective practices classrooms study, various is findings the to teachers to this the that music point, relation of study suggest according highly in Turkey due the to of curriculum a neglectedarea various reasons,such as a in more ccntralised general education system and national examinations resulting emphasison core subjects,parents'lack of understandingaboutthe importanceof music education,and the limited availability of resources,support, and training for teachers. The participantteachersalso statedthat many factorsinfluencetheir practicesof teaching musicin classrooms.Someof the influential factorsmentionedincludedthe backgrounds of students,a heavily loaded and complicatedmusic curriculum, the lack of teacher confidenceand competence,the limited physical conditionsand resourcesin schools,the lack of parentalsupport,andthe negativeeffectsof audio-visualmediaon children.

214

influencing the by Turldsh that the teachers above are It was reported constraints be factors in to Turkish tend these delivery primary schools and of music effective beyondteachers'control. The minimisation of most of thesefactors depends,perhaps,on However, by the none of taken or ministry. educationalauthorities the possible actions the teachersin the study discussedor criticised their own teachingmethods,and none of them said that 'music is neglectedbecausethey cannot teachit very well'. This is related to teachers' conceptions of their professional responsibility. One of the recent by Karakaya, Turkish (2004) 'the that carried out primary reported studies comparative is body knowledge Turkish The the teacher teacher's passing on goal of a of school ... be (P. 214). It teaching this traditional can style of and views as unproblernatic' acceptsa in influences teachers their professionalactivities and the that which work context argued however, deal, (2003) Madsen in her great explains a article that several responsibilities teacher characteristics and behaviours contribute to the global attribute of teacher in in Karakaya's (2004) As Turkey reported study, a teacher's subject effectiveness. is On knowledge the the tcaching. other as most crucial element perceived of good matter hand, Madsen(2003:39) reviewed the literature on the effect of accuracyof instruction, teacherdelivery, and studentattentivenessin music educationand reported on a body of has delivery' that to 'effective compared concludes academic which expertise research influence Therefore, this raises on studentattentiveness, preference,andperformance. more the important issuethat there is a need for researchexamining the instructional strategies in A by teachers music education. similar emphasis was made sixty-seven of classroom in (2001)'s Barry For teachers this reason,the present al's. study et study. of percent

215

in instructional Turkish teachers' strategies primary school study attemptedto explore teachingmusic.

Respondentteachersin this study also reported that children's limited musical abilities beliefs their and and negative attitudes towards music were also and experiences inhibiting factors for effective music education in Turkish primary classrooms. Children's lack of interestand willingness in learning music was also encounteredas one in teaching the of music primary schools.Respondentteachersclaimed that challenges of has impact influences their musical a great media on children and audio-visual in According different heavy broadcasting to teachers, a negative way. of experiences typesof music (pop, rock, arabesque,metal, traditional) everydaymakeschildren become less interestedin school music. In terms of curriculum and attitudesthis is a big issue in is Lamont (2003) to that argue music out of school et al. relation what constitutesmusic. in factors important influencing the the most popularity and effectivenessof music one of 'popular forms lifestyle in They that the of most of music play a central state role school. teenagers,and indeedconstitutea "badge of identity" for many of them' (p.230). In fact, in their study they found that secondaryschool studentshad high levels of interest in (pop, dance, R&B) of music styles rock, comparedwith school music. Similar popular level in interviewed by the the the primary were mentioned at present study problems teachers.They claim that their pupils do not show much interest in school music. However,noneof them mentionedthat they recognisethis and use more popular music in increase in interests to towards music. As Green students' attentiveness order and classes (2002, cited in Lamont et A 2003) argues,'although teachershave recently shown more

216

positive attitudestowardspopular music and other forms of music in the classroom,their teachingstrategiesoften remainedtraditional' (p.230). The classroomobservationsin the findings: demonstrated Turkish classroom teachers are strongly similar present study boundto traditional didactic teachingmethods.Most of them do not use any instruments in music classes,but instead,in general,they teachschool songsthrough the ear, which is the most commonmethodobservedin the classrooms.

For this reasonit can plainly be said that schoolsand curriculum should realise the value for lives music children's popular of and include it within the National Curriculum. However,popular music is presentlyabsentfrom the current Turkish primary curriculum. This argumentwas also supportedby several studiesin music education(Winter, 2004; Jaffurs,2004). In fact, in his study Winter (2004:238) statesthat

Popular music is one genrethat lends itself to providing studentswith experiences basedon three music-learning activities. the inclusion of popular music in the ... curriculum provides valuable learning encounters.For teenagers,popular music is unsurpassedasa mode of transmitting ideas,perspectives,emotions,and language.It is a legitimate form of music which should be included in the curriculum, not as a $goodwillgesture',or as a disguisedroute to other musics,but because its inherent of values,qualities,and ability to engagestudentsin the learning activities.

Winter also reports from other researchersthat 'popular music is a motivating factor and in tool the acquisition of skills and knowledge' (p.239). In a similar sense valuable interviewed teachersof the presentstudy reported that they use music as a motivator in (science, but Turkish) maths, subjects other complain that they obviously cannotuse it in music lessonsbecauseof the students'lack of interest in school music. For this reason,it

217

in developers be Turkey that teachers the and curriculum suggested should recognise can the valuesof popular music and describeand define what constitutesmusic and revisethe fact, it In was statedby respondentteachersthat the current currentprimary curriculum. is loaded difficult to too topics that over curriculum and are covers many primary interpret and apply in the classrooms.Particularly for older teachers,newer musical (such as variety of music, density in music, and the dynamics of sound) are concepts difficult to interpretand put into practice.

This finding can be linked to teachers' confidence and competencesin teaching music. Despitethe fact that someteachersbelieved that they had received good training during their pre-service education, they accepted that this training is not sufficient for the in teaching today's schools.In fact, in the researchsamplethere were of music effective two teacherswho had had no music educationat all, and all the teachersexplained that they had neverattendedany INSET coursesin relation to music education.This raisesthe issue of the continuing professional development (CPD) of teachersand the need for for this. support continuous

The limited physical conditions of schoolsand limited availability of resourcesfor music teaching were mentioned as another inhibiting factor by most of the teachers.It was reportedby teachersthat all music lessonsin primary schools take place within normal style classroomswhere studentssit at desks in rows facing the teacher.Teachersalso echoedthat there was no possibility of changing classroom seating arrangementsfor (e. for making music in groups, instrumental music etc.). Similarly, music activities g.

218

limited materials (CDs, books, tapes) and musical devices in schools were reported by in the of problems sources music education. teachersas someof

it was reportedby the interviewed teachersthat one of the important inhibiting factors influencing music educationin primary schoolswas the parents' lack of understandingof for importance their children's education and whole development. the of music Furthermore,the parents' perceptionsabout music as a curriculum subject have resulted in them giving little support to teachersas well as to their own children. Yet, parental is in Music music education critical. early educators emphasisethat 'parents support in the beginning stagesof musical of support and source motivation a primary provide (Woody, 2001, 10). However, in for this p. acquisition' study skill parental support in Turkish development is a context reported as weak or even as not children's musical demand for level This the need may some of community educationwhich, at available. the least,will inform parentsabout the values and qualities of music for their children in

andout of school.

The above-mentionedfactorswere reportedby interviewed teachersasproblematic issues in music educationin their classrooms.According to the analysis of teacherinterviews, teachersdevelopeda variety of strategiesin order to deal with these problems. The following table summarisesthe teachers'strategiesfor dealing with suchproblems:

219

Table 5.1. Teacher's reported strategies to overcome difficulties in music education (interview data).

Problematic Issues

Strategies

Students (Motivation, Interests) I Tellinga storybeforeteachinga song

Curriculum Conditions

(Resources)

Teacher Competence Parents (Support, Media

Approaches)

Carryingout competitivegroupactivities(games) Encouragingindividualperformances Explainingvaluesof musicto students Co-operatingwith experiencedcolleagues/ seeking advicefrom musicspecialists Reviewingcurriculumguidebooks Applyingwholeclassteaching/encouraginggroup activitiesIn classrooms Usingotherspacesin the schoolsuchas the sportshall Usingstudent/teacher ownedinstrumentsduringmusic lessons Readingpublicationsaboutmusiceducation Co-operatingwith othercolleagues(specialistmusic teacher,if available) Talkingto parents Beingselectiveand explainingstudentsthe needto be selective

In associationwith the second aim of the study the six participating teachers were observedduring their music teaching lessons in order to obtain deeper insights about in classroompractices music education.

The findings of the study suggestthat singing and listening activities take a lot of spacein the first phaseof primary school (Grades 1,2, and 3) music lessons.In those lessons, particularly when teaching school music (mainly school songs), teachers employed a range of techniques and methods. In general these techniques or strategies were in observed all classrooms.In other words, the teachers' techniques for commonly teachingmusic were quite similar to each other. In fact there is no conclusive evidence that suggestsa teacher used a strategy that is exceptional or unique in style while teaching music. Costanzaand Russell (1991) argue that '... those techniques,methods, curricula, and methodologiesthat are most effective and bring about increasedlearning are those that the teacherknows best' (pp. 501). This quotation explains the status of

220

teacherswho were observedduring their classroomactivities. Again this raisesthe issue that primary school teachersneed to be trained in subject matter knowledge as well as in both in-service knowledge teacher training pre-service and pedagogical content courses.

The findings also illustrate, the teachersused some non-verbal strategiessuch as aural modelling,physical modelling, and musical modelling as suggestedby Tait (1991) during music lessons.However, verbal strategies(explaining, instructing, talking, presenting)in lessons took more space than the non-verbal strategies.This may suggest that music teachershave lack of subjectmatter knowledge in teachingmusic as physical modelling (e.g. rhythm) and aural modelling (e.g. singing a song with its precise melody and tune) knowledge matter subject and training. which need

5.4. Implications for Teacher Training, Policy and Practice

One of the main implications of the findings of the study is related to teachertraining. The findings of this study indicate the fact that teachersuse a range of teachingstrategies in teachingmusic as suggestedby music educators.However, it was observedthat most lack teachers the sufficient pedagogicalcompetenceand technical competence(subject of increased bring to about matter) musical learning in classrooms.It is likely that this is locus to the of control of primary school teachersin their profession. Campbell related (1996) difference Burdell between music education and primary the explain and They state: education.

221

In primary education,the locus of control does not revolve around subject matter specialisation,rather it is situated in the relationship teachers construct with students.Subjectmatter knowledgeis loosely collectedfrom a rangeof disciplines in disciplines is by knowledge these skills and currently viewed many as and ... sketchy(p.242).

This calls for initiations that support teachersin teaching music both pedagogically and technically. This Idnd of support may start from pre-service teacher education and be to needs extendedto in-service education.Indeed,the notion of continuous certainly professionaldevelopmentneedsto be disseminatedwithin the whole educationalsystem.

In connectionto this, the other implication is relatedto the planning of policy-makers.As was revealedin this study, teachersfind the music curriculum quite difficult to interpret heavily loaded (too too many topics to teach) to put into practice since their and is formation for this. As primary school teachersare not trained not adequate pedagogic -i

to the samelevel of music teachingquality as specialistmusic teachers,they then needto be trained in primary teacher education programmes to gain adequate skills and knowledgeto teachmusic as effectively as possible.According to Campbell and Burdell (ibid), for music educationthis requiresdesigninga curriculum that focuseson pupils and ways of learning.Campbelland Burdell (ibid) point out:

Such a curriculum involves rethinking music teacher education programs as programswhich preparefuture teachersto think about what schools are for, about the context of music individuals' lives - how music is used by children and how music relatesto other subjects,and about how learning and teaching is as much a processasit is a product (p.242).

222

For primary education,Campbell and Burdell (ibid) suggest'designing a curriculum that is more focused on the theoretical foundations of disciplinary knowledge, and a less basis (p. However, 242). the of the on diffused view of elementary school education' it be in for can findings of this study, primary schools effective music education integrates both teacher that this that curriculum music a combines and entails suggested teacher teachers education programmes since generalist primary primary and education knowledge in disciplinary both and pedagogical music. need

In addition, considerationneedsto be given to the need for a music curriculum to adopt in such as child-centred education, experiments, order to slim-down new approachesand the curriculum. This may provide teacherswith more flexibility and easeto implement the curriculum within the classroom.

At this point it is worth to recommendthe governmentto involve music educatorsand into development In the process of of curriculum. music music educationresearchers Turkey, as in other areas,specialistsin music educationdo not given much attention in Majority initiate in of people reforms. who change changes curricular educational but bureoucrats, have lack teacher teachers educators or not of are who projects knowledge and experiencein the field. It is for this reason that teachersand music in should participate research projects which can contribute to education researchers developing a relevant curricula. The government should allow to give more spaceto increase doors for the to of music education, quality which may also opens a specialists decentralisationof the system. 223

The third implication is related to the financing of the schools. It was reported by the teachersthat primary schoolsin Turkey have poor conditions and quite limited resources for music education.In the schoolsin the study there were no spacesavailable for music instruments This technologies. and rooms equipped with music as music making, such finding supports the findings of Lamont et aL (2003) and Krueger's (2000) study in which teachersreported similar problems related to the poor conditions of schools for Similarly, the limited conditions of schools is the most education. effective music in commonproblem the generalstate educationsystemand is related to the changesand developmentsin Turkey's economicand demographicstandards.At the micro level, how budget is important in improving the infrastructure of the the to school spend and where for facilitating conditions for effective music education. schoolas a whole, and

The implications of the findings for the practice of music educationin Turkey are related to a range of issues. First of all, school-wide understandingabout the necessity and importanceof music educationfor studentsis important. The role of school management in this processis crucial in terms of guiding changeand development.As Campbell and Burdell (1996) suggest, 'fundamental shifts in the locus of professional control at the institutional and field level' should take place first of all and this needsto be guided by Yet, leadership. the researchevidencesuggeststhat effective leadershipin times effective it is definitely and paramount makesa difference in schools(Day et aL 2000). change of Despite the positive perceptionsand attitudes of teacherstowards music education,it is leadership, effective collaboration and co-operation of teachers, not sufficient when improved physical conditions and accessto resources,adequateteacher competencies, 224

if unification are not present or, so, are not and particularly school-community functioning well. These elementsare important for effective music education in primary local in instance, the to to the For contributions of community music regard schools. be knowledge 'musical (2001) Adams that can concepts,skills and asserts education, Local in the of settings outside communities variety classroom may a provide acquired .... somecommon and relevant musical experienceson which the teachercan draw' (pp.5253). In this sensecurriculum and policy makers should realise the importance of the initiate the aspects within educational system as a whole above-mentioned and radical in reforms order to strengthenthe national educationat all levels.

5.5. Recommendationsfor Improving the Conditions of Music Education

As reportedby the teacherswho participated in this study, music educationis taken for in in Turkey is by teachers primary schools and not given enoughattention granted many In in this study the quality of music subject areas. other words, other comparedwith educationand quality of musical experimentof children have been found to be at a low level in the Turldsh primary classroomsthat were studied. Despite the fact that the teachers of this study echoed their positive attitudes towards music education and beneficial the of as one most and important subjectsof curriculum for perceivedmusic the educationof young people, they have raised a range of challengesand factors which influencethe quality of music educationin practice. However, a discrepancyat this point in Turkey, Perhaps be teachers as many other although participant teachers can realised.

225

indicate towards the that these attitudes music, classroom positive observations reported fully in lessons. Particularly, the analysis of not were reflected music attitudes positive do demonstrate that teachers the same suggest almost all observations not classroom during lessons, to teach willingness music or and most of them usetraditional enthusiasm didactic teachingmethodsand do not seem to make music lessonsmore enjoyable. For instance,the use of an instrument was observedin one class only. Of course there are influence factors their practices (e.g. resources, training, competence, which many however, inconsistency betweentheir beliefs and actual practiceswas an expert-support), observedthroughout the study. Despite the lack of concreteand conclusive evidence,it despite their statedpositive perceptions,teachersthemselvesdo not give the that appears sameattentionto music comparedto core subjects.

Nevertheless,in order to minimise the negative effects of these mentioned factors they during they take the their teaching activities for the provision of actions explained also better music education.However, the developmentof thesestrategieswas not guided by (school management,expertsand academicians,INSET) but developed any other parties by them individually. In addition, they also raised some suggestionsand made a number improve in to the Turkish primary schools in regard to conditions recommendations of the future of music education. The teachers' recommendationsare categorisedunder three headings: these are recommendationsfor prospective teachers, the ministry of (media, aspects of other society and academiciansand parents).The following education, table summarisestheir suggestionsand recommendationsin this regard:

226

Table. 5.2. Teachers' recommendations and suggestions for better music education.

Suggestions

Categories Prospective To Teachers

To the Ministryof NationalEducation

Other (general)

and Recommendations

" Train and develop yourself in music " Collaborate with experienced teachers Learn to play an instrument Understand the importance of music for children Love music, love teaching, and love children Appoint primary teachers amongst faculty of education graduates Improve the quality of music education In Initial Primary Teacher Education Let specialist music teachers teach music in primary schools INSET in music education Increase the number of specialist music teachers in schools (minimise music teacher shortage) Government should take action to prevent musical pollution in the country Media should broadcast quality music Broadcasting companies should support schools (in providing resources for music education, CDs, tapes etc. ) Parents should be educated about the values of music

When teachers'suggestionsare examined,it can be seenthat for better music education in primary schoolsthe notion of continuousprofessionaldevelopment(CPD) was echoed in their conversationswith regardto the improvementof teachers'own capacity in music (e. education g. recommending teachers to train and develop themselves in music, learning instrument, teachers, improving the to experienced with play an collaborating INSET ITE, and ongoing support).Apart from theserecommendations,it more quality of in that music education primary schools should be handed over to was suggested in teachers, as secondaryeducationteaching contexts. However, this is specialistmusic large in teachers to numbers of music educating pre-serviceprogrammesto help related in it is beyond the capacityof the current teacher primary shortage schools, and with cope ITE programmesin Turkey.

227

First of all, for a generalist primary teacher pre-service training programmes and the INSET coursesare the placeswhere s/he can attain musical abilities and the pedagogyof is for It training takes that the this in place as pre-service reason schools. music primary before entering the profession, the importance of quality music education during this during important The INSET is the than music education provided courses. stage more be foundation in for training teacher; then, the will a a novice experience pre-service for improve INSET the teacher to the courses will offer opportunities practice plus his/her skills and strategies in teaching music: this process can be described as (continuous professional development' (CPD). There is limited research on CPD of in however, is body teachers there music education research; a of research primary school in For for importance INSET ITE CPD teachers' the and of general. primary school about instance,when we look from the wider perspectiveit is obvious that the ultimate aim of the INSET activities in today's schoolsis related to the needto help teachersto learn and improve personaland professionalskills for the benefit of all their pupils. As Hargreaves (1992: 2) Fullan assert: and

A teachingforce that is more skilled and flexible in its teaching strategiesand more knowledgeableabout its subjectmatter is a teaching force more able to improve the achievementof its pupils.

If professional development refers to changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviour,teachersneed to createtheir own knowledge and changetheir own behaviour in order to implement new developmentsand improve their practice (Kwakman, 1998). In other words, teachersneed to be aware of their own leaming processeswhen they in The the their school. new model of teacherlearning suggeststhat practices carry out 228

learning-on-thejob may lead to improvement of practice (Kwalanan, 1998; Johnston& Johnston,1998). Johnstonand Johnston(1998) reported from their data that 'teachers' in learning (1) increase in their the use of alternative can processes result an awarenessof teachingmethods;(2) an increasein tolerance of students' varied learning behaviours; in increase both (3) teacherand studentwillingness to work on teaching-learning an and facilitate student success' (p.43). In this senseany kind of in-service which strategies educationand training activity may offer practising teachersthe chance to learn about their learning processes,improve their understandingsof children's learning, as well as developingreflective teachingmethodsand a repertoireof effective strategiesto transmit their skills and knowledge into the classrooms. INSET activities can also facilitate teachersto developments keep in the professionalfield, new up with e insights developments into and put new practice, * e reflect on one's own performance, in (Kwalanan, 1998,p. 58), and policy practical matters co-operate * for and prepare change, o anticipate job improve the performanceskills (Craft, 1996). *

Due to the strong challenges and complexity of teaching, teachers need to keep on developingtheir knowledge, skills, and craft. Referring to primary teachers,Southworth (1996) emphasisesthe value of on-going supportfor teachers.He states:

Primary school teachersdo not come ready-madefrom universities or other initial training routes. Teachertraining can only, at best, provide an initial introduction to

229

(NQTs) Newly demands teachers teaching. need qualified of class the skills and beyond Yet initiatives for NQTs the earlyyears acknowledge. support,asmentoring development. done be to teachers' to professional sustain of teachingmore needs (p.270).

In this process,INSET activities aim to help teachersadd to their professionalknowledge in These improve to their skills order professional educate effectively. pupils more and deliver linked As be teachers to was primary who curriculum. music also can arguments discussedearlier, today many primary generalistteachers(classroomteachers)are aving due lack in to teaching music a of competenceand confidence,and self-esteem. problems INSET activities, which are designedto improve the musical and pedagogical skills of teachersin music education,canbe invaluable.

Teachereducationis also one of the important factors within the field of music education in primary schools.As Farmer (1979) argues,music teacherscan come from educational institutions where learning about music itself is an important agenda,but learning about faculties in Turkey is Many who run as seen unnecessary. education often education in for teacher education music particularly for secondary level of schools courses intending teachersthat contain exclusively conservatoiretype of music education,which is quite far from what goes on in primary and secondaryschools. In other words, there between ITE in big be in Similarly, to gap and music education a seems primary schools. ignored is teacher programmes, again education music education areawhere an primary the majority of student teacherseither do not get appropriate education about how to teach music, or are not aware of what a primary music curriculum consistsof. In other

230

for the curriculum national primary schools and the curriculum for primary words, faculties the teachers at education are not suitably connectedand.linked. This gap student betterment for in be the of music education primary schools. The narrowed should following four points are crucial in terms of making an impact on the educationof prein teachers the field of music education: serviceprimary *

The needfor studentteachersto begin to developa philosophical orientation,

improve The to the personalmusicianshipof students, need 9 *

The needfor studentteachersto connecttheory and practice, The need for student involvement in their own learning and assessment.(Hanley, 1993,p.9)

5.6. Concluding Remarks and Suggestionsfor Further Research

Music is one of the oldest curriculum subjects. However, there has always been disagreementover its educationalvalue and there will never be complete agreementon how music should be taught within the context of general education (Plummeridge, 2001). Despite the fact that there are divided opinions over music education,today one thing is certain: music is a foundation subject in the National Curriculum and it is in primary schools. This is because of the undeniable fact that music compulsory development the to educational contributes of children. In this regard, Glover and Young (1999:3) state:

231

Children who are struggling for numerousreasons- academically,socially or with behaviour,learning,or home difficulties - often find supportand enjoymentin music that significantly contributesto their wider development.

Music's educationalvalue in terms of the transmissionof cultural heritage to generations be in in following the can also seen education and statement from Glover and Ward (1993:6):

Music is an art form with quite specific potential and skills and competenciesand is an importantpart of the cultural heritage and living traditions of any people or social group. Each child's curriculum must introduce him/her to music as an art form, a discipline in its own right, and provide a progressive learning experience in performing,composingand appraisingmusic.

In addition, there is a body of literature which emphasisesthe role of music in children's intellectual and emotional development,as well as in the developmentof their creative thinking (Durrant and Welch, 1995,Webster, 1996,Walker, 1996,Pitts, 2000).

Despitethe fact that music has a potentially high value in generaleducation,as discussed in this study, when the music content of the curriculum is examined closely in schools far from its important away music seems role in children's education. Moreover, in England,for instance,there are unsatisfactorypracticesin the teachingof music in many it is 1995), (OFSTED, and reportedthat teachers,particularly generalistprimary schools teachers,are not well trained during their initial training to teach music in primary lack in teaching music (Mills, 1991). Similar confidence consequently, schools and,

232

lack in found been have teachers' and this competence of pedagogic study as results in the by in teachers teaching observed and music was reported participant confidence in ignored being for be teacherthe The to this may related music reason classrooms. in decreased (2001: 102) Barnes the music quality training curriculum. warns about educationand suggests:

The supply of specialistmusiciansand even confident generalistsin primary schools is dwindling alarmingly as a result of an educationalclimate which has afforded music a reducedstatusand value. The only way thereforeto raise standards,to fulfil both the requirements and aspirations of the National Curriculum, is through a renewedvision of teachereducationboth in ITr and in-servicecourses.

Another important point is to recognisea child's capacityto experiencemusic in order to build further understandingand skills in it. Therefore, the teacher's role at this point is very importantin terms of providing appropriatemusical opportunitiesfor children.

As to further researchagendas,it is clear that in Turkey there is an urgent need for fast lack in field Due the to the empirical and relevant research growing of music education. base regardingmusic education,making changes,revisions,and of an empirical research in field is difficult. In addition, in Turkey there is no concrete the very arrangements evidenceabout the quality of music education in schools today becausethere are not enoughresearchand evaluativestudiesabout music and music education.For instance,in the context of music educationin Turkey researchersfocussedmainly on the history of basics (Zeren, 1998), and voice training (Yigit, the physical music, of music universal 1998).Yet, thesestudiesare mainly theoretically basedand related to the pure scienceof

233

from few Apart these there studies are works which are related to primary or music. These for (Sun, 1990) are education. either small songbooks children, or some secondary in Perhaps Bariseri's (2000) teachers' training study on pre-service small-scalestudies. is best in the and only example of recent studies the area of music music education in Turkey. education

However, the researchwork, as Swanwick (1996) suggests,must examine the wider concernsof the field and standon a strong conceptualframework. Particularly, areassuch as curriculum development in music, the practice of music in primary schools, the musical experiencesof children, and teachereducationin music need to be investigated. Thereis almostno empirical researchproducedwithin the field of music educationwhich has attemptedto obtain more qualitative data about the theory and practice of music

education.

In this study, an attemptwas madeto investigatethe practicesand experiencesof primary in teaching music. As this study highlighted the necessity of proper teachers school teacherpreparationand training in music prior to entering the profession,the next focus be the to examinethe quality of Primary Initial TeacherEducation researcher would of Programmes.As the researcherwould be teaching in this programme, the pedagogical and technical needs of prospective teachers in music education would need to be determined first. Results of this type of study may lead to the development of a curriculum model which prepares prospective teachers for the challenges of actual teachingas reportedin this study, and may help them to develop an understandingof an

234

underlying philosophy of music education. Through observing prospective teachers' in in develop be helped teaching they to music, schoolpractices effective strategies may teachingmusic.

235

REFERENCES

R. in Colwell, in Education', 'A Guide Interpreting Research Music (1992) H. to Abeles, Music A Project Learning: Music Teaching Research the (ed) Handbook of of on and EducatorsNational Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 227 - 243.

Adams, P. (2001) 'Planning to teachmusic musically' in Philpott (ed) Learning to Teach Music in the SecondarySchool,London: Routledge/ Falmer.

Alexander, P. (1995) Versions ofPrimary Education, London: Routledge

d (1998) Fundamentals Anderson, G. of Educational Research (2 Edition), London: FalmerPress. Anderson, G. and Arsenault, N. (1998) Fundamentalsof Educational Research,2d Edition, London: Falmer Press.

Atterbury, B, W. (1992) 'Researchon the Teaching of Elementary General Music' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook of Researchon Music Teachingand Learning: A Project of the Music EducatorsNational Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 594 - 601.

Aydogan, S. (1996) 'Muzik Ogretiminde Baslica Sorunlar' (General Problems in Teaching of Music) in Say, A. (ed.) Muzik Ogretimi (Teachin Music), Ankara, Turkey, Muzik Ansiklopedisi Yayinlari, pp.146-151 Babble, E. (2001) The Practice of Social Research, 9"' Edition, London: Wadswortb/Thomson.

236

Bariseri, N. (2000) Primary Music Teacher Education in England and Turkey, UnpublishedEd.D. Thesis,Schoolof Education,University of Durham, England.

Barnes, J., M. (2001) 'Creativity and composition in music' in Phillpott, C and Plummeridge,C (eds) Issues in Music Teaching,London: Routledge/ Falmer Presspp. 92-105. Barret, M. (1996) 'Music education and the natural learning model' in Spruce (ed) TeachingMusic, London, Routledgeand the OpenUniversity Press,pp. 63 - 74. Barry, N. H., Taylor, J. A., and Hair, H. 1 (2001) 'A National Survey of State Music Education Board Members: Their interests in and attitudes toward music education

25 in 9Update: Applications Education, Fall/Winter, Music in pp. research' ofResearch

Bayram, S. and Seels,B. (1997) 'The utilisation of Instructional Technologyin Turkey', Educational TechnologyResearchand Development,vol.45, no. 1, pp. 112-121.

(BERA) British Educational Research Association (1992) Ethical Guidelinesfor Educational Research, Edinburgh: BERA and Scottish Council for Research in Education.

Bell, 1 (1999) Doing Your ResearchProject: A Guide for First-time Researchersin Education and Social Science,3rdEdition, BucIdrigharn:Open University Press.

Bilhartz, D.T., Bruhn, R.A., and Olson, I

E. (2000) 'The Effect of Early Music

Training on Child Cognitive Development' in Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,20(04), pp. 615-636.

237

Bogdan, R. C. and Biklen, S. K. (1998) Qualitative Researchfor Education: An Introduction to neory and Methods,Third Edition, London: Allyn and Bacon. Brannen, J. (1992) 'Combining qualitative and quantitativeapproaches:an overview' in Brannen, J. (ed) Mixing Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Research. Aldershot: Avebury.

Bryman, A. (1988) Quantity and Quality in Social Research,London: Routledge

Bresler, L. and Stake, R. E. (1992) 'Qualitative ResearchMethodology in Music Education' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook ofResearch on Music Teachingand Learning: A Project of the Music Educators National Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 75-91.

Butz1aff, R. (2000) 'Can Music be Used to Teach Reading? The Journal of Aesthetic Education,Fall 2000,34(3), pp. 167-178 Calderhead, J. (1994) 'Teaching as a professionalactivity' in Pollard, A. and Bourne, J. (eds) (1994) Teaching and Learning in the Primary School, Buckingham: The Open University Press,pp. 80-84 Callaway, G. (2000) 'Introduction: developingprimary practice in the arts' in Kear, M and Callaway, G (eds) (2000) Improving the Teachingand Learning in the Arts, London, Falmer Press.

Campbell, M. R., and Burdell, P. A. (1996) 'Conceptions of Knowledge and Teaching PracticeamongMusic EducationStudentsand ElementaryEducation Students'in McGill Journal ofEducation, Vol. 3 1, No. 3, Fall, pp.231-245. Carlton, M. (1987) Music in Education: A guideforparents and teachers.,London: The Wobum Press.

238

Casey,D. E. (1992) 'Descriptive Research:Techniquesand Procedures'in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook of Researchon Music Teaching and Learning: A Project of the Music EducatorsNational Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 115- 124.

th (4 in Education L. (1994) Research Methods Manion, Cohen, L., ed.) London: Routledge.

th 5 Education, L., Morrison, K (2000) L., Manion, Research Methods in Cohen, and Edition, London: Routledge/ Falmer.

Cohen, L. et al (1996)A Guide to TeachingPractice (40'edition), London: Routledge d Edition), Chan, L-K-S (1994) (2 G. Teaching Principles and Practice, Cole, P. and London: PrenticeHall

Connely, F. M, and Clandinin, D. J. (1990) 'Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry', Educational Researcher,Vol. 19,No. 5, June-July, pp. 2-14. Conway, C. (2002) Terceptions of Beginning Teachers, Their Mentors, and Administrators Regarding Pre-service Music Teacher Preparation',in Journal of Research in Music Education, Spring 2002, Vol. 50, Issue 1, pp. 20 - 37. Cooper, P. and McIntyre, D. (1996) Effective Teaching and Learning: Teachers'and Students'Perspectives,Buckingham:The OpenUniversity Press.

Costa-Giomi, E. (1999) 'The Effects of Three Years of Piano Instruction on Children's Cognitive Development' in Journal ofResearch in Music Education, 47(3), pp. 198-212.

239

Costanza,P. and Russell, T. (1992) 'Methodologiesin Music Education' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook of Researchon Music Teaching and Learning: A Project of the Music EducatorsNational Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 498- 509.

Cox, G. and Hennessy, S. (2001) 'Music in Schools' in Mapping Music Education Research in the UK, BERA Music Education Review Group, Southwell: BERA, pp. 32 -

39.

Craft, A. (1996) Continuing ProfessionalDevelopment: A practical guide for teachers Routledge. London: schools, and Croll, P. and Hastings, N. (1997) 'TeachersMatter' in Croll, P. and Hastings,N. (eds) (1997) EffectivePrimary Teaching,research-basedclassroomstrategies,London: David Fulton Publishers,pp. 1-14. Cullingford, C. (1995) TheEffective Teacher,London: CassellPress.

Dalin, P. (1993) Changingthe School Culture, London: CassellPress.

Davidson J. W. and Smith, J. A. (1997) 'A Case Study of 'Newer Practicesin Music Educationat ConservatoireLevel' in British Journal ofMusic Education, 14:3, pp. 251 269 Dawson, D. and Acay, S (1997) Mazik Oftetimi (Teaching Music), Ankara: Turkey, YOK/DiInya Bankasi,Milli Eg"timi Geli§tirme Projesi, Hizmet Oncesi6gretmen Egitimi

Day, C. (1991) 'Roles and Relationshipsin Qualitative Researchon Teachers'Thinking: ' Teachingand TeacherEducation, Vol. 7. No. 5/6, pp. 537 - 547 A Reconsideration.

240

Leading (2000) J. Beresford, H., Tolley, M., A., Hadfield, Harris, C., Day, and Schoolsin Timesof Change,Buckingham,OpenUniversity Press Research: Qualitative Landscape (1998) The Y. S. Lincoln, K, N. of Denzin, and Yheoriesand Issues,London: SagePublications. Denzin, N., K., and Lincoln, Y., S., (2000) 'Paradigmsand Perspectivesin Transition', nd (2 (eds) Qualitative Research Lincoln, Y., S., K., Handbook N., in Denzin, and of Edition), London: SagePublications,pp. 1-30. DFE (1993) 'Initial Teacher Training of Primary School Teachers: New Criteria For

Courses'Circulars 14/93,London, HMSO.

Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (1995) 'Music in the National Curriculum', London: DFE Press.

Dijkstra, S. (1998) 'The Many Variables that Influence ClassroomTeaching' Issues in Education,Vol 4. No. 1, pp. 105-110. A Research: in 'Using Semi-structured Small-Scale (1995) E. Interviews Drever, Teachers'Guide', Edinburgh, SCRE. Drummond, B. (1999) 'Classroom music teachers and post-primary curriculum: the implications of recent research in Northern Ireland' in British Journal of Music Education, 16:1, pp. 21- 38.

Duffy, B. (1999) 'The Analysis of DocumentaryEvidence' in Bell, J. (ed) Doing Your ResearchProject: A Guidefor First-time Researchersin Education and Social Science, Yd Edition, Bucldngham:OpenUniversity Press,pp. 106 - 116.

241

Duke, P. A. (2000) 'The Other Mozart Effect: An Open Letter to Music Educators' in Update:Applications ofResearchin Music Education, Fall/Winter, pp. 9- 17. Durrant, C., and Welch, G. (1995) 'Making SenseOf Music: FoundationsFor Music Education',London: CassellPress.

Edwards, A. and Knight, P. (1994) 'Effective Early Years Education: Teaching Young Children, Buckingham: Open University Press, p. 21 (quoted in Moyles, J (1997), 'Just for Fun? The child as active learner and meaning maker' in Kitson, N. and Merry, R. (eds.) (1997) Teaching in the Primary School: A learning relationship,

London:

Routledge pp. 9- 27)

Eisner, E. W. (1996) 'Qualitative researchin music education: Past, Present,Perils, Promise'in Bulletin ofthe Councilfor Researchin Music Education,No. 130,pp.8-16. Eisner, E. W. (1997) 'The promise and perils of alternative forms of data ' Educational Researcher, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 4- 10. representation.

Farmer, P. (1979) Music in the ComprehensiveSchool, London: Oxford University Press.

Farrell, M. (1999)Key Issuesfor Primary Schools,London: Routledge Fullan, M. (2001) Yhe New Meaning of Educational Change,Third Edition, London: Routledge/ FalmerPress.

Gage,N. (1985) 'Hard Gains in the Soft Sciences:The Casefor Pedagogy,Bloomington: phi delta Kappa (quoted in Loveless et. aL (2001) 'Something old, somethingnew... Is by in ICTT Loveless, A. affected and Ellis, V. (eds) (2001) ICT, Pedagogy pedagogy Subject Change. Curriculum: London: Routledge to & Falmer,pp. 63 - 84. the and

242

Gamble, S. (1998) 'The ElementaryClassroomteacher:An Ally for Music Education' in Music EducatorsJournal, Vol. 75, No. 1, pp.25-28 Galton, M. (1992) Teachingin the Primary School,London: David Fulton Publishcrs Galton, M. (1995) 'Do you really want to copewith thirty lively children and becomean in ' (ed) Moyles Beginnig Learning in Teaching: Beginning teacher? primary effective

Primary Education,Bucldngharn:OpenUniversity Press,pp. 13- 27. Galton, M. (1997) 'Primary Culture and ClassroomTeaching:The learning relationship in context' in Kitson, N. and Merry, R. (eds.) (1997) Teachingin the Primary School: A learning relationship, London: Routledge,pp. 102- 117. Gardner, H. (1985) Frames ofMind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences,New York: Basic Books.

Glover, J. And Ward, S. (1993) 'Changing Music, in Glover and Ward (eds) Teaching Music in the Primary School,London: CassellPress,pp: 1-19 Glover, J. And Young, S. (1999)Primary Music: Later Years,London: Falmer Pres

Goodson, 1. F. (1997) 'RepresentingTeachers' Teaching and TeacherEducation, Vol. 13,No. 1, pp. 111-117. Goodson,1. F. and Hargreaves, A. (1996) (eds) Teachers'ProfessionalLives, London: Falmer

Gudmundsdottir, S. (1996) 'The Teller, the Tale, and the One Being Told: The Narrative Nature of the ResearchInterview' Curriculum Inquiry, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 293 -306

243

Hallam, S. and Lamont, A. (2001) 'Leamers: Their Characteristicsand Development' in Mapping Music Education Research in the UK, BERA Music Education Review Group,Southwcll: BERA, pp. 9- 26. Hammel, A. M. (2001) 'Special Learnersin ElementaryMusic Classrooms:A Study of Essential Teacher Competencies' in Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, Fall/Winter, pp. 9- 13.

Hammersley, M.

(1992) Nat's

Wrong with

Ethnography? Methodological

Explorations.London: Routledge. Hanley, B. (1993) 'Music Teacher Education: new directions' in British Journal of Music Education, 10,pp. 9- 21 Hargreaves, A. (1996) 'Revisiting Voice' Educational Researcher,Vol. 25. No. 1, pp. 12-19.

Hargreaves, A. and Fullan, M. G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London: Cassell

Hargreaves, A., and Fullan, M. (1998) fflat's

Worth Fighting for in Education?

Buckingham:Tle OpenUniversity Press. Hennesy, S. (1995) Music 7-11: developingprimary teaching skills, London: Routledge Press

Hetland, L. (2000a) 'Listening to Music Enhances Spatial-Temporal Reasoning: Evidencefor the Mozart Effect' in TheJournal ofAesthetic Education, Fall 2000,34 (34), pp. 105- 148 Hetland, L. (2000b) Teaming to Make Music Enhances Spatial Reasoning' in The Journal ofAesthetic Education,Fall 2000,34 (3-4), pp. 179 - 238

244

Higgins, F. (1964) Music Education in the Primary School, Melboume: Macmillan Press.

Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1995) Research and the Teacher: A Qualitative Introduction to School-basedResearch,2ndEdition, London:Routledge.

Hodges, P. (1996) 'The new technology', in Plummerridge,C. (ed.) Music Education: Trendsand Issues,London: Institute of Education,University of London Press,pp.77-94

Hope-Brown, M. (1981) Children and Music, Essex: Home and School Council Publications.

Horton, J. (1968) 'The Importanceof Enjoyment andAchievement, in Rainbow, B. (ed.) Handbookfor Music Teachers,London: Novello and CompanyLimited Press,pp. 60-69.

Hoskyns, 1 (1996) 'Music educationand a European dimension' in Spruce, G. (ed.) TeachingMusic, London: Routledgein associationwith The Open University, pp.144152

Husin, T. (1988) 'ResearchParadigmsin Education' in J.P. Keeves (ed) Educational Research, Methodology, and Measurement: An International Handbook, Oxford: PergamonPress,pp.16-22. Jaffurs, S. E. (2004) 'The impact of informal music learning practicesin the classroom, from band', how learned I International how to teach Journal of Music a garage or Education,Vol. 22(3), pp. 188-200.

245

Johnston, C. A., and Johnston, J. Q (1998) 'Achieving Staff Development through Understandingthe Leamer', British Journal ofIn-service Education,Volume 24, No. 1, 47. 31 pp. Jorgensen, E. % (1992) 'Philosophical Method' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook of Researchon Music Teachingand Learning: A Project of the Music Educators National Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 91 -101.

Karakaya, S. (2004) 'A ComparativeStudy: English and Turkish teachers' conceptions Educational Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 195 - 217. their responsibility' professional of

Kempton, C. (1992) Developing Music at Key Stage 2: A Practical Guide for NonSouthgate Devon: Publishers Teachers, Ltd. specialist

Krueger, P. J. (2000) 'Beginning Music Teachers:Will They Leave the Profession?' in Update:Applications ofResearchin Music Education, Fall/Winter, pp. 22- 26

Kwakman, K. H. E. (1998) 'Professional learning on the Job of Dutch Secondary Teachers:in searchof relevant factors.' British Journal ofIn-service Education, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 57- 73.

Kyriacou, C. (1986)Effective Teachingin Schools,Cheltenham:StanleyThornes. Kyriacou, C. (1991)Essential TeachingSkills, Cheltenham:StanleyThornes. Kyriacou, C. (1997) Effective Teachingin Schools: Theory and Practice, (2ndEdition) Cheltenham:StanleyThornes.

246

Laar, B. et A (1989)Effective Teaching,Oxford: OxfordshireLocal Education Authority Press. Lamont, A., Hargreaves, D. J., Marshall, N. A., and Tarrant, M (2003) 'Young in Education, ' 20: 3, 229 in British Journal school. ofMusic pp. out of and people's music -241.

Loughran, J. (1999) 'ResearchingTeaching for Understanding' in Loughran, J. (ed) Researching Teaching: Methodologies and Practices for Understanding Pedagogy, London:FalmerPress,pp. 1 -11.

Loveless,A., DeVoogd, G. L., and Bohlin, R. M. (2001) 'Something old, something in by IM' Loveless, A. Ellis, V. (eds) ICT, Pedagogy Is affected and pedagogy new... London: Subject Routledge Curriculum: & Falmer, 63 84. to change. the pp. and Madsen, K. (2003) 'The Effect of Accuracy of Instruction, Teacher Delivery, and StudentAttentivenesson Musicians' Evaluation of Teacher Effectiveness', Journal of Researchin Music Education, Spring2003,Vol. 51 Issue 1, pp. 38-51, Maguire, Al. and Dillon, J (2001) 'Developing as a StudentTeacher' in Dillon, J. and Maguire, M. (cds) Becoming a Teacher. Issues in Secondary Teaching (2nd Edition), Buckingham:Ile OpenUniversity. Alark, M. L (1992) 'A History of Music Education Research' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning: A Project of the Music EducatorsNational Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 48 - 59.

Mayer, R. E. (2000) 'What is the Place of Science in Educational Research?, August-September,pp.38-39. EducationalRe-searcher,

247

McEwan, E. K and McEwan, P. J. (2003) Making Senseof Research: What's Good, What'sNot, and How to Tell the Difference, California, USA: Corwin Press.

McNamara, D. (1994) ClassroomPedagogyand Primary Practice, London: Routledge. Mills, J. (1991) Music in the Primary School (revised edition), Cambridge University Press Mills, J. (1996) 'Musical developmentin the primary years' in Spruce,D. (ed) Teaching Music, The Open University Press, pp. 108 -123.

Mills, J. (1998) "Music", in OFSTED, TheArts Inspected,Oxford: Heinemann MNE (Ministry of National Education) (1999) 7he Turkish Educational System, Ankara: MEB, Turkey.

Ministry of National Education (MNE) (1995) 17kogretimOkulu Programi (National Curriculum for Primary Schools),Ankara, Turkey, MNE Press.

Morce, J. M. (1994) Critical Issuesin QualitativeResearchMethods,London: Sage Publications.

Mortimore, P. (ed.) (1999) Understanding Pedagogy and its Impact on Learning, London: Paul ChapmanPublishing Ltd.

Mosely, D. , Higgins, S., Bramald, R., Hardman, F., Miller, J., Mroz, M., Tse, H., Newton, D., Thompson, I., Williamson, J. (1999) WaysForward with ICT. Effective Pedagogy Using Information and Communications Technology for Literacy and Numeracyin Primary Schools,Newcastle:University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne

248

Moyles, J. (1992) Organizing for Learning in the Primary Classroom: A Balanced Approachto ClassroomManagement,Buckingham:The Open University Press Moyles, J. (1995) 'A place for everything? The classroom as a teaching and learning (ed) Beginnig Learning in Teaching: Beginning Primary Education, in Moyles context' Buckingham:OpenUniversity Press,pp. 27 - 43. Newman and Benz (1998) Qualitative - Quantitative ResearchMethodology: Exploring the Interactive Continuum, Carbondale:SouthernIllinois University Press. OECD (1994) Quality in Teaching,Paris: OECD.

OFSTED (1995) Music: A Review of Inspection Findings 1993194,London: HMSO Publications

Orlich, D.C., Harder, R.J., Callahan, R. C., and Gibson, H. W. (2001) Teaching Strategies:A Guide to Better Instruction, Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Owen, D. (1998) 'The National Curriculum: background,approach,content', in Cashdan, A., and Overall, L. (eds) Teachingin Primary Schools.,London: CassellPress.

Paynter, J. (1977) 'The Role of Creativity in the School Music Curriculum' in Burnett, M. (ed) Music Education Review,London: Chappel& Co. LTD Press,Volume 1, pp.3-29

Paynter (2002) 'Music in the School Curriculum: why botherT in British Journal of Music Education, 19:3, pp.215-226 Persellin, D. C. (2002) 'Researchon Music Teaching and Learning During Elementary School Years' International Foundationfor Music Research(IFMR), Vol. 1. No. 1, pp. 1-5,URL: btlp://music-researcb. org!Publications/VOINI researcb.btml

249

Philpott, C. (2001) 'Strategies for Teaching and Learning in the Music Classroom: Approaches to listening, composing, performing and appraising' in Philpott (ed.) Learning to TeachMusic in the SecondarySchool, London: Routledge/Falmer,pp. 83 104. Pitts, S. (2000) 'Reasons to teach music: establishing a place in the contemporary Education., 17: 1,33 in Journal 42 ' British ofMusic curriculum. Plummeridge, C. (1991) Music Education in Theory and Practice.,London: The Falmer Press. Plummerridge, C. (1999) 'Aesthetic education and the practice of music teaching.' in British Journal ofMusic Education, 16:2, pp. 115 -122. Plummerridge, C. (2001) 'The justification for music education' in Phillpott, C and Plummeridge,C (eds) Issues in Music Teaching, London: Routledge / Falmer Presspp. 21-32

Pollard, A. (1997) Reflective Teaching in the Primary School: A Handbook for the Classroom,(Yd Edition), London: Cassell

Pring, R. (2000) Philosophy ofEducational Research,London: Continuum Proctor, A., Entwistle, M., Judge, B. and Mckenzie-Murdoch (1995) Learning to Teachin the Primary Classroom,London: Routledge.

Pugh, A., and Pugh, L. (1998) Music in the Early Years,London: RoutledgePress.

250

Quaigrain, K. A. (2001) The Practice of ContinuousAssessmentin the Universities of Ghana: A Case Study Evaluation, The University of Nottingham, Unpublished PhD Thesis.

Reimer, B. (1992) 'Toward a Philosophical Foundationsfor Music Education Research' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook ofResearch on Music Teachingand Learning: A Project of the Music EducatorsNational Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 21 - 37.

Robertson, J. (1996) Effective Classroom Control, understanding teacher-student (3d London: Hodder&Stoughton. edition), relationships

Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner -Researchers, Oxford: Blackwell.

Roe, E. (1971) SomeDilemmasof Teaching,London: Oxford University Press.

Rubin, A. and Babbie, E. (1997) Research Methods for Social Work, 3"d Edition, London: InternationalThomsonPublishing Europe.

Sarason, S. B. (1982) 'The Culture of the School and the Problem of Change, 2nd Edition, London: Allyn and Bacon.

SCAA (1996)A Guide to the National Curriculum, London: HMSO.

251

Scarfe, J. (1993) 'Foundation Subject: Music' in Pumfrey, P. D and Verina (eds) The Foundation Subjects& Religious Education in Primary Schools, London: The Falmer Press,pp: 172- 189. Scott, D. and Usher, R. (1999) ResearchingEducation: Data, Methods and Theory in EducationalEnquiry, London: Cassell. Sevik, M. (2001) Modern Foreign Language TeacherBeliefs, and Practices in Relation Supervision Approach, Clinical School A Correction: Error Questioning of to and Education,University of Nottingham, UnpublishedEd.D Thesis. Simmons, J. N. and Pitman, W. (1994) Teachers:Models of Excellence in Today's Classroom,Ontario, Canada:PembrokePublishers.

Smyth, J., Dow, A., Hattam, R., Reid, A., and Shaclock, G. (2000) Teachers' Work in Press. Falmer The Economy, London, Globalizing a

Southworth, G. (1996) 'Improving Primary Schools: shifting the emphasis and Vol: No: 3, 16 263-280. Organisation, focus'in School the pp. clarifying Stake, % E. (2000) CaseStudies,in Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research,SecondEdition, pp.435 - 454, Sage,London.

Stock, J. P. J. (1996) 'Concepts of world music and their integration within western in (ed. ) ' Spruce, G. Teaching Music, London: Routledgein education. secondarymusic associationwith The Open University, pp. 152-168.

Struthers, D. (1994) WhatPrimary TeachersShouldKnow About Musicfor the National Curriculum, London: Hodder & Stoughton.

252

Sun, M. (1990) CocukSarkilari (Child Songs),Ankara: Turkey, Tas Yayinevi

Suschitzky, W. (1995) 'It's not fair! Equal opportunities in practice' in Moyles, J. (ed.)' Beginning Teaching: Beginning Learning in Primary Education., Buckingham: Open University Press,pp.217-23 1.

Swanwick, V. (1988) Music, Mind, and Education, London: RoutledgePress

SwanwicI4 K. (1996) 'Some observationson researchand music education' in Spruce, G. (ed.) TeachingMusic, London: Routledge in associationwith The Open University, pp.253-263

Swanwick, K. (1999) TeachingMusic Musically, London: RoutledgePress.

Tait, M. J. (1992) 'Teaching Strategiesand Styles' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook of Researchon Music Teachingand Learning: A Project of the Music Educators National Conference,New York: Schinner Books, pp. 525 - 535.

TASC (1994) 'My Teacher: Training to Teachin Primary Schools' (4h edition), TASC (TeachingAs a Career)Press. TTA (Teacher Training Agency) (2002) Qualifying to Teach: Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status and Requirementsfor Initial Teacher Training, London: Intemet Source,URL: www. canteach.gov.u Ucan, A. (1996) 'Ulkemizde Muzik Ogretimine Genel Bir Bakis' (A GeneralOverview in in Turkey) Say, A. (ed.) Muzik Ogretimi, Ankara: Turkey, Music Teaching of of Muzik Ansiklopedisi Yayinlari, pp. 115-134.

253

Ucan, A., Yildiz, G., and Bayraktar, E. (1999) llkdkretimde Mibik 6gretimi (Teaching Music in Primary Education), Burdur, Turkey: Burdur Egifirn Fakilltesi Yayinlan.

Univesity of Westminster (1996) Yhe ValueqfMusic, London: National Music Council.

Vaughn, K (2000) 'Music and Mathematics: Modest support for the Oft-claimed relationship' in YheJournal ofAesthetic Education, Fall 2000,34(3-4), pp. 149-166 Walters, D. L. (1992) 'Sequencingfor Efficient Learning' in Colwell, R. (ed) Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning: A Project of the Music Educators National Conference,New York: SchirmerBooks, pp. 535- 545.

Weinberger(1999) Missing

Winter, N. (2004) 'The learning of popular music: a pedagogical model for music educators',International Journal ofMusic Education, Vol. 22(3), pp.237-247. Woods, P. (1994) 'Managing the Primary Teacher's Role' in Bourne, J.(ed) Thinking ThroughPrimary Practice, London: The Open University Press.pp. 276-288. Woody, % H. (2001) Tearning from the experts: Applying research in expert performance to music education' in Update: Applications of Research in Music Education,Spring/Summer,pp.9 - 14. Wragg, E. C. (1993)Primary TeachingSkills, London: Routledge

Wragg, E.C., and Dooley, P.A. (1984) 'Class ManagementDuring TeachingPractice' in Wragg, E.C. (ed) (1984) ClassroomTeachingSkills, London: Croom Helm.

254

Wragg, E.C., Haynes, G.S., Wragg, C.M., Chamberlin, R. P. (2000) Failing Teachers? London:Routledge. Yarbrough, C. (2003) 'Multiple methodsof research:Possibilities for the study of music teachingand leaming' in ResearchStudiesin Music Education, No.2 1, pp. 3-15

Yigit, N. (1998) Voice Training and VoiceRInesses,Ankara, Unpublished PhD. Thesis

Yildiz, G. (2002) l1k6§retimdeMazik 6gretimi (TeachingMusic in Primary Education), Ankara: Ani Yayincilik. YOK (Higher Education Council of Turkey) (1998) E§itim Fakfiltelerinin Yeniden YapdandinImasi(Restructuring of TeacherEducation in Education Faculties), Ankara: Turkey, Council for Higher Education(YOK) Press.

Young, S. and Glover, J. (1998)Music in the Early Years,London: Falmer Press.

Young, V. (2001) 'TeacherDevelopmentin Music' in Philpott, C. and Plummeridge,C. (eds)Issuesin Music Teaching,London: Routledge/Falmer,pp. 209 - 224.

Yourn, B. R. (2000) 'Learning to Teach:perspectivesfrom beginning music teachers'in Music EducationResearch,Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 181- 192.

Zeren, A. (1998) Mfizi§in Fiziksel Temelleri (The Physical Basics of Music), Ankara: Turkey

255

APPENDICES

A. THE TURKISH EDUCATION

SYSTEM

B. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS C. OBSERVATION CHECKLIST D. AN EXAMPLE FOR OBSERVATION TRANSCRIPTS E. AN EXAMPLE OF LESSON PLANS

256

APPENDIXA THE TURKISH EDUCATIONSYSTEM Source: Ministry of National Education Website: wfvjv.meb.g-ov.fr Turkish Education System has democratic, modem, scientific secular and co-educational characteristics.The purpose of the Turkish Education System is to increase the welfare and happinessof the Turkish citizens and Turkish society, to support and facilitate economic, social integration in development and to make the Turkish nation a and national unity and cultural constructive,creativeand distinguishedpartnerin modem civilization (MNE, 2002). Formal educationis the regular education of individuals in a certain age group and given in schools at the same level with programs prepared for definite purposes. Formal education includesPre-Primaryeducation,primary, secondaryand higher educationinstitutions. Pre-SchoolEducation Pre-Primaryeducationincludesthe optional educationof children between36-72 months who are under the ageof compulsoryprimary education.Pre-Primaryeducationinstitutions, independent nurseries are opened as nursery classes and practical classeswithin formal and non-formal The Pre-Primary institutions capacity. purpose of physical educationis to with suitable education development habits, the of children and acquisition of good ensurephysical,mental and sensory to preparechildren for primary education,to createa common atmosphereof growth for those living in inconvenient circumstancesand to ensure that Turkish is spoken correct and well. Servicesrelatedto Pre-Primaryeducationare given by nurseries,kindergartens,practical classes openedfirst and foremost by the Ministry of National Education and by day-centres,nursery institutions houses houses, day and child care opened by various child care schools, care based institutions for on the provisions of ten laws, two purposes ministries and careor education statutesandten regulations. In the academicyear 2001-2002,256.400 children are being educatedand 14.500 teachersare being employedin 10.500pre-primary educationinstitutions. 92% of Pre-Primaryeducationinstitutions, 93% of studentsand 87% of teachersare in the public sector. Primary Education

The purposeof primary educationis to ensurethat every Turkish child acquiresthe basic knowledge,skills, behaviours,and habitsto becomea good citizen, is raisedin line with the nationalmoralconceptsandis preparedfor life andfor the nexteducationlevelparallelto his/her interestsandskills. Primary educationis compulsory for all citizens, boys or girls, and is given free of charge in public schools. Primary education institutions are schools that provide eight years of uninterruptededucation,at the end of which graduatesreceivea primary educationdiploma.

257

Primary educationcoversthe educationand teaching directed to children between6-14. Primary is free in institutions. boys for is or girls, and of charge public citizens, all education compulsory In the academicyear 2001-2002,10.3 million studentsare being educatedand 375.500 teachers in being employed 34.900schools. are In primary education,98% of schoolsand studentsand 96% of teachersare in the public sector. 98% of the public primary schoolsoperateunderthe GeneralDirectorate of Primary Education. SecondaryEducation The purposeof secondaryeducationis to give studentsa minimum common culture, to identify individual and socialproblems,to searchfor solutions,to raise awarenessin order to contributeto the socio-economicand cultural developmentof the country and to preparethe studentsfor higher for business in line for life interests for their and with profession, and sIdlls. education, Secondaryeducationincludes all of the general,vocational and technical education institutions that provide at least three years of educationafter primary school. Secondaryeducation aims to knowledge, individuals'and level to them get acquainted common with of give studentsminimum help look for to them acquire the awarenessto contribute to to solutions, society'sproblemsand the socio-economicand cultural developmentof the country and to prepare them for higher in line for business interests, life for for their with and skills and abilities. education, a vocation, In the academicyear 2001-2002;"23 million studentsare being educatedand 134.800teachers " institutions. 92% 97% in 6.000 94% being of schools, of students education and employed are 64% 43% 52% in the schools, teachers of of students and sector. of teachersare in are public of generalsecondaryeducation. Higher Education Among higher education institutions are universities, faculties, institutes, higher education higher education schools and application-researchcentres. conservatories, vocational schools, The purposeof higher educationis to raise the studentsin line with their interestsand skills, in conformanceto the sciencepolicy of the country and in considerationof qualified manpower levels, do in to at several researches of society scientific areas,to arrangefor all kinds of needs facilitate that the and show research examination results and publications advancementof science finalize to the researchesand examinationsdemandedby the governmentand to technology, and make comments,to make written or oral public announcementsexplaining the scientific data that shall increasethe general level of Turkish society and enlighten the public, and to give nonformal education.

Higher educationincludesall levelsof institutionsgiving educationpastthe secondaryschool level for a periodof at leasttwo years.Highereducationaimsto train studentsin line with their interests,sIdllsandabilities,andaccordingto thenationalsciencepolicy andthe requirements of the societyfor qualifiedmanpowerand for labourat all levels;to do scientificresearches; to indicate Idnds that of publications all researchandinvestigationresultsandfacilitatethe produce to finalizethe examinations of scienceandtechnology-, advancement andresearches requiredby the government andcommenton them;to announcein oral andwritten form scientificdatathat shall improvethe generallevel of Turtish societyand enlightenthe public; and to give nonformaleducationservices.In the academicyear2001-2002: 53 There 76 universities, of whichbelongto the stateand23 to foundations. are * 258

66.700personnelareworldng, 63.000in stateuniversitiesand 3.700 in others. 95.5%of the university studentsare enrolled in stateuniversities Instructor/studentratio is 1114.7in foundationuniversitiesand 1/18.3in stateuniversities. Conservatories Conservatoriesare higher educationinstitutions that train music and dramaartists as per the Law no 2547. In the academicyear 1999-2000,3.400 students (1.700 females, 1.600 males) were educatedand 615 instructorswere employedin 14 conservatoriesworking under universities. Teacher Training As part of the National Education DevelopmentProject (NEDP), the teachertraining processin the educationfaculties has been reorganisedwith the cooperation of the Ministry of Education andthe Higher EducationInstitution. Considering the teacher requirements in relation to the eight-year of primary education implementedby the Law no 4306, teacher training programs have been reorganisedwith the cooperationof the Ministry of Education and the Higher Education Institution in order to meet the short- and long-term teacher requirements of the primary and secondary education institutions.The new systemthat has beenimplementedsince 1998-1999academicyear is based on the principles of; 1. Training Pre-primaryand primary schoolteacherswith bachelor's degrees 2. Training secondaryschoolteachers; bachelor's degrees four for Foreign Language, Music, Art, Physical Education, with of years Specialeducation,ComputerTeachingTechnologiessubjects degrees (3.5+1.5=5 4+1.5=5.5 for Science, non-dissertation with graduate years or years) Mathematics and Social subjects. Also, in order to employ one teacher in several areas, the practiceof a compulsorysecondsubjecthas beenintroducedin the teachertraining programsfor primary educationschools. The implementationof teachercertification programshas begun as of the academicyear 19971998as; Certification Programfor Pre-primaryTeachers(29 credits/hour) Certification Programfor Primary School(Class)Teachers(33 credits/hour) Certification Programfor English Teachers(31 credits/hour)."

259

APPENDIX B

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

A. GENERAL BACKGROUND

INFORMATION

1. Gender 2. Age 3. Teachingexperience 4. Subjectspecialism 5. Year group 6. Classsize 7. Institute graduatedfrom 8. Have you had any music educationduring your first degree? 9. Have you attendedany formal or informal coursesrelatedto music education? 10. Do you play any musical instrument? B. ATTITUDES/PERCEPTIONS

TOWARDS MUSIC EDUCATION

1. Do you think whethermusic educationnecessary/important for children?Why? 2. Do you think that music is paid enoughattentionin Turkey? Why? C. PROBLEMS

3. What types of problemsdo you experienceduring your music teachingactivities? a. Problemsrelatedto your own educationalbackground; b. Problemsrelatedto your own competenciesand confidencein music teaching; C. Problemsrelatedto physical conditions; d. Problemsrelatedto curriculum; e. Problemsrelatedto children; f. Others,if, any?

260

D. STRATEGIES

4. What types of strategieshave you developed to overcome the problems you have mentioned? 5. How did you developthesestrategies? " 6. Did you get any support either from inside or outside of your school to overcome theseproblems?

u

(At this point of the interview, the researcher will raise a specific problem and teacher's action to overcome this particular

problem within the classroom which

was observed during the observation, in order to discuss teacher's strategy) 7. Why do you think that you facedwith this problem? did (if NOT takcn) why not you takc any action? a. any action was b. (if any action was taken) Why did you usethis strategy? 8. How/wherefrom did you developedthis strategy? E. FUTURE PROSPECTS

9. What do you think aboutthe future of music educationin Turkey? 10. How do you think that the quality of music educationcould be improved? 11. Do you have any suggestionfor the teacher educationprogrammesto improve the quality of music education? 12.What would be your recommendationsfor newly qualified teachersin this field? 13. Is there anything that you would like to add or commenton it?

Thanksfor Your Co-operation

261

Blank I

Pag

e*

ein %0 r4

u 41 c lu

0

S M

u

,Z2

fi ,0 .Zu* 1-4

Z

p c.. cn

Q

* ;... "aA

m=

lid

,

'm

cn

m

w "a C6 a =

U01jusluggio tuoojssL,L3 44

a14S3ulq3vaj,

II

uossa-Ioqj jo w1v pug 31 0j,

SIMOH

I

I

I OS N

Sa'I'l

SINHNNO: )

APPENDIXD: AN EXAMPLE OF OBSERVATION TRANSCRIPTS

SCHOOLA Teacher No: I (Tl) Grade (Year group): 2 (8 years-olds) Topic (Task) of the Lesson: Listening,Singing + Learning a song Classroom Activities (summarised): At the beginning of the lesson the teacher explained topic of the lesson and task to be done. The topic For traditional 'learning lesson the motivation teacher asked students to sing one song'. a new was of 'Postman' learned the Teacher learned song called which was selected earlier. songs. of previously Whole class sang the song altogether. Teacher did not intervene to the performance at any point. After praising them, teacher told a story about a small river to the class. Then explained that the name learn to that First told that they to the the students were going song. and river related was new song of teacher wrote the lyrics of the song on the board and told students to write it down to their music followed this. Students its loudly lyrics the Reading the melody were song without of notebooks. its Then the teacher the the to the sang song with melody and song. of all words memorise reminded times The teacher the listen to song several and students performed carefully. asked students listened. On the lyrics of the song the teacher pointed and underlined the places where to take a breath, where to be silent, and where to lengthen syllables. After teacher giving a rhythm with his hands whole class sang the song with the teachers. This has been practiced 5-6 times. Then the teacher told students to clap their hands with the rhythm of the song while singing and this has been repeated several times.

In the second lesson group singing activities (groups of boys and girls, row groups) took place. Teacher tried to create a chorus and asked boys' group to sing some parts of the song and girls to Then teacher times. This the some performed repeated several parts activity of parts. other complete followed this to the activity reversed children sang sing parts of class song and asked whole and song first and the teacher in some parts. Towards end of the lesson, a small competition between row groups have been arranged and carried out. One group ranked by the teacher as the group who sang the song best and other groups applauded them. This activity repeated several times. The newly learned son was sung by the whole class one more time at the end of the lesson.

264

APPENDIXE: AN EXAMPLE OF LESSON PLANS (TURKISH ORIGINAL)

265

lei

em -Poe fiI ol

vw

4,1

10 ii,

Oil

*

I Vol

1

11

oo

i I.

-ol

;:; ooi

Li Will,

0-1

'.

114

all:

cell

It

Or roo, A-

011/-Oo 00

ror

1111,11 jjýý

.II.

1-7

-

ol

pol

I-4,

of,

#060 ze

00,10

, ': 4ý16.4

; %-, 1--, 1ý

V-

J

lk

_ý FX

I

#I

r,

p.

40 5! 6i ; .

7t-

_L-1

'i

0.

;'? 'o

tj

;

Ile

aw

0- or

!

eeZ iIý I opt.

00

I&

is

.

".

p ý

4. -

7, u; vý

ý,14 I

I

J4

go;ýie_* WZ14 W--

0

/«'(E

rz !J1 [ II1iJiTt . _LLJJ..!.

dr V,

I

Wý

i

e ,14

e _, 441 .1 -

- I-

Pf"o

ý

/ ol

- f,1

Z O!)If

1.0,

00"

oil

ft

2rA

;74 ZL_ T

lk

qi*

lo .

01

_ 0 1144

6

IF

1

11" ,-

tge w, 17

4 v oo

v f *4 ;w aw

op A

F4

- .

-

,, I

---

.. - ..

-4

-

1-4.

- ow

--.

-

--

1 1

--

ol

;

,. w I -, W

-

qW.

1,

T% r

1,1 0

.

r-

I-

.I

I

ý

1".

1

I.

-

. 01

I &

3

1

4 6e

a ý ý 'I,

-

-

7-

04

.4j I 4jý.

1:5

C]

-

ý'z Oe L -ý

()

V 4-

4 0

e I ýý A 1#

*

-

4 .

1 10

q