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1-1-1992

Environmental attitudes : a structural developmental model. Jill M. Greenwald University of Massachusetts Amherst

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ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES: A STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL

A

Dissertation Presented

by JILL M.

GREENWALD

Submitted to the Graduate School of the requirements University of Massachusetts in Partial fulfillment of the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 1992 Department

of

Psychology

for

(g)

Copyright by All

Jill

Margot Greenwald 1992

Rights Reserved

ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES: A STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL

A

Dissertation Presented

by JILL M.

Approved as

to style

/.A owers,

- Carl Cariozfn

and content

GREENWALD

by:

ChWr

Member

Gretphen Rossman, Member

Arnold Well,

Member lVv '

S

Departm Berqer, Department Seymoiir vmoiir Berger, Psychology

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First,

thank Sally Powers

I

for being

especially for projecting an unceasing faith

members

my committee

of

for their help, support,

a wonderful advisor and

me and

in

chair,

the project.

in

I

and

thank the

Arnie Well, Gretchen Rossman, and Carl Carlozzi

-

and enthusiasm. Next,

I

thank Marcia Black and

-

my

brother Ricky Greenwald for their time, their persistently challenging questions,

and

my

their loving support throughout this process.

Meg

also appreciate

I

Bitzer,

research assistant, for her optimism, devotion to the project, and hard work.

Many

other people played important roles

research.

in this

thank Bob Kegan, Lisa Lahey, Michael Basseches and the

Developmental January 1990

Hew

Hosmer, Linda Lockwood,

Cummings, the

staff of

For providing

Weinstein, Russell Weigell, Gil Jarvis,

Davis, Barbara Rusmore, John Bean, Jean

the Greenfield

me

with

rooms

Town

Clerk's office,

which

in

to interview, library,

Community College, Rory Carlson and

Ruth Courtnell and the Greenfield participants

in

Noam,

Joanne Garland, Peter Rossi, Trina

Franceschi and the people at Greenfield Public

The

Resource

qualitative research course participants, the Hilltown

Dianne Lynn, David Buran, Arianna

Greenfield

Clinical

1989-1990 consultation group, Nancy Popp, the

Institute's

Management Cooperative, Gerald

study.

wish to

I

Art's Council,

and the I

pilots for the

thank Mike

Donna Barton and

Soul's Unitarian Church,

All

and Super Stop and Shop.

the study were wonderful.

I

appreciate each and

scheduled every one of them for their participation, their arriving as interviews, their friendliness,

deep thanks

to

my

friends

and the great deal which they

and family

for helping

thank the National Wildlife Federation this research.

me

for their very

reach

offered.

this goal.

to the

Special and Finally,

generous support

in

I

funding

ABSTRACT ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES: A STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL

MAY JILL M.

GREENWALD,

1992

B.A.,

WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

M.S.,

PH.D.,

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

Directed by: Professor Sally Powers

Women’s

attitudes concerning their understanding of

the environment were explored

developmental model of

of

Robert Kegan's structural

of

clinical-

40 and 49 from a Massachusetts town. Ways

about the environment were differentiated

ego stage. Extended

relationship to

ego development, using a randomly selected sample

27 women between the ages

of thinking

in relation to

and

illustrations of

qualitatively according to

stage distinctions focused on the women's

feelings of relationship/connection to the environment, including the impact of religion

and

spirituality

on

their attitudes,

concern

for the external

environment

-

that

is,

their

presented rationale

for

Several additional measures were

their environmentally related behaviors. utilized to explore related

and on

questions quantitatively, including the following:

environment related to one's treatment

personal, physical health?

Is

of the internal

Environmental concern as

was measured by Weigel and Weigel's Environmental Concern Scale health care behaviors. significantly correlated with self-reported personal

age be

was

related to

ego stage? Within

this

sample

significantly negatively correlated with

of

women

in their 40's,

ego stage. Explanations

historical context. negative correlation are discussed within a

educational implications and relevance to

v

clinical practice

In

Will

age

for this

conclusion,

are discussed.

2

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

iv

ABSTRACT LIST

OF TABLES

LIST

OF FIGURES

x

j

Chapter 1.

INTRODUCTION

1

Background

1

Kegan's Theory

of

Ego Development

Stage 1 (The Impulsive Self) Stage 2 (The Imperial Self) Stage 3 (The Interpersonal Self) Stage 4 (The Institutional Self) Stage 5 (The Interindividual Self)

Summary

6 7

7 8 1 1

Design 2.

5

1

18

METHOD

Sampling

Criteria

Participant Selection Demographics of Participants :

18 20 22

22

Procedure

24

Measures Environmental Interview (El) Health Questionnaire (HQ) Environmental Concern Scale (ECS) Environmental Subject-Object

Questionnaire (ESOQ) Subject-Object Interview (SOI) Validity of

8

1

Participants

Environmental Data

24 28 25

28 28

Follow 3.

Up

29

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

31

Analysis

31

Health Questionnaire

31

Environmental Concern Scale Health Questionnaire and Environmental Concern Scale Subject-Object Interview Determining Socioeconomic Status

32

Quantitative Results

36 36 36

Health Questionnaire

Environmental Concern Scale Health Questionnaire and Environmental Concern Scale Ego Stage and Its Relationship to Health Questionnaire and Environmental Concern Scale Environmental Subject-Object

37

37 38

Questionnaire

Ego Stage and

33 33 35

Its

Relationship to

Socioeconomic Status and Educational Level

Ego Stage and

4.

Its Relationship to

Age

38 39

48

DISCUSSION

48

Quantitative

Environmental Concern Scale Item Analysis

Comparison of Original and Current Samples Environmental Subject-Object Questionnaire Relationship to Socioeconomic Status and Educational Level Ego Stage and Its Relationship to

Ego Stage and

Its

Health Questionnaire and Environmental Concern Scale

48

Relationship Between Health Questionnaire and Environmental Concern Scale

Workshop Ego Stage and

Its

Relationship to

Age

Qualitative

54 59 60

03

Environmental Interview Overall Environmental Attitudes Recycling History Global Issues Denial General Level of Awareness What Reaches the Women

in

64 64 65 66 67 67

Across Stages? Environmental Interview Ego Stage

64

Relation to

Notes on Illustrative Examples Major Stage Distinctions Relationship/Connection to the Environment Religion Motivation

69 69 71

78 86 90

Educational Implications

94

Conclusions

96

Clinical

Relevance

Clinical

Psychology and Developmental Theory

Limitation of Kegan's Developmental Theory for Clinical Application

Psychology and Attitudes Toward the Environment

97 97

.102

Clinical

Limitations

.103

105

Self-report

Attitudes Versus Behavior

Conclusions

107

7 1

Final Conclusions

110

APPENDICES A. B.

C. D.

E.

ADDITIONAL EGO STAGE DESCRIPTIONS DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION OF SAMPLE COMPARATIVE DEMOGRAPHICS: GREENFIELD, MA., U.S A WEIGEL AND WEIGEL'S INTERNAL CONSISTENCY, STABILITY, AND VALIDITY DATA FOR THE ITEMS COMPRISING THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN SCALE MATERIALS USED WITH PARTICIPANTS

REFERENCES

1 1 1 1

119

...

120 121 141

LIST

OF TABLES

Table

Page 1.

Design

2.

Health Questionnaire: Scoring System

3.

Health Questionnaire Scale Data: Item Correlations and

of

Environmental Subject-Object Questionnaire

40

Alpha Coefficient 4.

41

Environmental Concern Scale: Item Analysis and

Comparative Correlations 5.

30

42

Comparative Environmental Concern Scale Data: Alpha Coefficient

Summary

6.

Health Questionnaire Results:

7.

Environmental Subject-Object Questionnaire Results: Mean Scores by Ego Stage and Stage of Response

x

Statistics

44 45

46

7

LIST

OF FIGURES

Figure

Page 1

.

2.

Structure of Design

Sample Composition by Ego Stage

1

47

CHAPTER

1

INTRODUCTION

Background For

some

societal issues, sufficient

education of the young. Change

may be

adulthood, they

to society.

will

bring

change

change may be made through

slow, but as the children reach

the consequence of the slow pace of change continuation of a bad status quo. situation.

Human

Such

beings can survive

is

While is

this route

.

of

from optimal,

not the case with the environmental

litter in

the streets, but they cannot survive layer.

the Massachusetts Public Interest Research

Group (1990) describes a few aspects

One hundred and

far

generally limited to a

a continued devastation of the planet's resources and ozone Masscitizen the quarterly report

is

of the current situation:

million Americans currently breathe thousand miles of rivers and streams have been damaged by acid rain and at least 48 billion pounds of toxic chemicals have been sent into our air. Scientists speculate that increases in skin cancer cases may be due in part to the destruction of the ozone layer by CFCs and other chemicals, (p. 4)

unhealthy

air.

fifty

Sixty

National Wildlife (Feb. -March 1991), published by the National Wildlife Federation, further describes the situation:

The world may experience serious effects from global warming much sooner than expected, perhaps within the next 30 or 40 years, warn experts who have concluded that we are already on the verge of environmental damage. An independent group of working under United Nations auspices, has concluded that global temperature cannot rise more than 2 degrees F above scientists,

pre-industrial levels without risk of 'grave

damages

to

ecosystems.' At current emission levels, that 2-degree limit will be reached by 2025, says Peter H. Gleick of the Pacific Institute, who co-chaired the group that determined the limits. Higher

temperatures and rising sea levels may soon begin threatening some sensitive ecosystems, such as coral reefs. fisheries ...plant and animal extinctions are accelerating, the among remaining numbers stocks declining and waterfowl

1

lowest on record

- all due to human interference with natural Water supplies are shrinking in some cases and are laden with toxic substances. Our last remnants of Pacific

habitats.

often

Northwest ancient forests remain in jeopardy of being lost forever. in a major blow to our nation's environmental credibility, the United States became isolated in 1990 among industrial nations after it refused to participate in an agreement to stabilize emissions that cause global warming. ...Whatever occurs during these next few years will largely determine our planet's environmental destiny. One year has slipped by with minimal progress. We have no more time to waste, (pp. 29-30)

And

Environmental consciousness must reach large segments quickly.

It

must not be

limited to

those people whose attitudes are

but must also reach those people

may be

whose

attitudes

the idea that conquering nature, such as

was

filling in

just forming,

have been long formed. This

particularly difficult with our older generations,

into farmland,

of the population

who were

raised under

"swamps" and taming

forests

progress.

Environmentalists such as Denis Hayes, chairman of Earth Day 1990

(New England Environmental Conference, 1990, March), must change people's consciousness; of attitude

and

lifestyle

must

that

rapidly occur.

are advocating that

we

a major, globally sweeping change

Most agree

base

that the

of

involvement must extend beyond the now predominant upper/middle class

White involvement (New England Environmental Conference, 1990). They assert that major changes

must

rapidly

permeate

in

perception must take place, that

society.

Yet

people are currently making sense

major changes are

to

little is

of

many

known about the ways

environmental concepts.

be accomplished

systematic plan. While

is

rarely

principles in

which

How

the desired

approached with any

direct or

educational programs have been developed,

on there has not been sufficient well-researched theory their

new

how people change

programs as they views on which to base such programs. Educational

currently exist

questions of

have had some success, but educators continue

to

grope with

and how

to

do so

how

to reach

all

different sorts of people,

2

in

more

effective

ways use

Some

ways.

environmental information as well as models

to prioritize values are beginning to

permeate society through the recent

of highly publicized clearly stated principles

attempts are the Green Pledge, principles primarily but not exclusively principles, recently

must adhere

in

and behaviors.

Two

for the individual that

were

conjunction with Earth

Day 1990, and

formed and highly publicized guidelines

to

such circulated

the Valdez

which industries

order to be favorably considered by environmentally minded

Some work

investors.

in

new

of

religious teachings,

towards

shifting people's attitudes

such as through the

teachings of the 11th

Commandment

is

being done through

religious reinterpretive environmental

Fellowship

(New England Environmental

Conference, 1990), a religious organization which finds and uses quotations from the Bible to promote environmental caring and action.

however, those involved and concerned continue those who are

general,

how

grapple with

to

reach

not.

Many researchers have knowledge,

to

In

attitudes,

striven to understand differences in people's

and behavior regarding the environment.

Initially,

studies

focused primarily on understanding how sociodemographic characteristics individuals influenced their values about the environment. conflicting studies

were able

of political ideologies

of the

(Mazmanian and

research shifted to topics

in

the society (Dunlop and

attitudinal studies to

nuclear plant

necessary

in

Van

in

in

the

Sabatier, 1981), and then, most

recently, shifted to relating environmental attitudes

systems

these often

to explain only a small portion of the differences

values (Van Liere & Dunlap, 1980), much

realm

When

of

and actions

Liere, 1984).

date focus on a single issue

(i.e.

to

broader

belief

Most environmental the development of a

the community; recycling; conserving energy). This specificity

for predicting

behavior from attitude (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1982), and

provides detailed useful information on the topic

3

in

question.

Single topic

is

studies, however,

do not allow

that remain constant within result of a

for

a discovery

of

each person across

common ways

reasoning

different content issues.

comprehensive analysis and synthesis

of ten

Tomera (1986-

987) state that future research needs to examine factors which lead

development

of

a sense

towards the environment. They will

and

of responsibility write,

"...It is

of positive attitudes

not

known

As a

years of empirical

studies on environmental behavior, Hines, Hungerford, and 1

of

at

to the

and actions

what point a person

forego economic and other personal benefits to do what preserves the

and

integrity

stability of

Little is

the environment"

(p. 8).

understood about the ways

in

which people actually think about

mechanisms through which

the environment, the

environment can undergo change, and how

attitudes toward the

we can

account

for interindividual

differences regarding environmental consciousness and responsibility.

Kegan's theory

of

ego development (1982) may provide a

Robert

useful framework for

understanding people's attitudes towards and decision making concerning the environment. The theory describes underlying schemas

which stages

result in of

corresponding

development

prioritizing of values.

that differentiate

of

understanding

Kegan delineates

among ways

five

which people view the

in

world and social relationships. This theory has been used to examine ways

which people make meaning across a wide range to elucidate differential

ways

in

of topics.

which people reason about

(Villegas, 1988), conceptualize marriage (Allison, 1988),

(Goodman, 1983). The theory has been applied both 1989) and

in

in

It

has been

utilized

responsibility

and communicate the workplace (Lahey,

the schools (Levine, 1988) through programs to promote adult

growth. In this

study

I

use Kegan's standardized interview (Subject-Object

Interview) for determining

ego stage, together 4

with

in

my own

environmental

interview (Environmental Interview), to

ego development correspond environmental issues.

examine whether differences

to differences in

ways

levels of

in

of conceptualizing

For example, at one level a person views the world and

other people predominantly as

means by which

to better his or her personal

circumstances. That person might recycle for compensation, or might not be willing to recycle

because

it

is

would also use that reasoning other levels as well. or her partner, or

A

because

may

People

would have the

at times, but

person, then,

global connectedness.

how

inconvenient to do so.

recycle because

of ethical principles, or out of

Kegan's theory, then,

to listen to people, for

how

to

may be

at higher

ability to

it

is

stages

reason

important to his

an understanding

With

understand and respect why

this theory

I

of

a useful framework for different

people

gravitate to different sorts of rationale regardless of the specific content of individual situation.

each

explore the question of whether there

an underlying structure through which people come

at

to

is

form their attitudes about

the environment.

Keaan's Theory Robert Kegan's theory

is

a

of

five

Eao Development

stage (not including transitional stages

between the major stages) clinical-developmental incorporates social,

much

of

Kohlberg and Piaget, and which centers on

and cognitive meaning making

construct of the theory

corresponding and primary

new

which was subject

By

is

in

of the

evolving

based on subject-object

differential abilities

ability of

structural theory

each stage

is

and

we

affective,

The primary

differentiation, with

limitations at

each stage. The

that of being able to take as object that

the previous stage.

"subject"

self.

which

Kegan and Rogers

(1989) explain.

refer to the principle of reality-organizing by

which the knower knows, with which the knower

5

is

identified.

By

we refer to structures of knowing which can be integrated, reflected upon, coordinated, operated upon, subsumed by the subject. "Subject" refers to a systematic way of knowing; "object"

"object"

a formal sense, is element of the system. "whole;" object is "part." Subject is "ground," object is "figure." see the process of development as involving differentiation from subject or system making it into object or element which is then integrated into a new subjectivity or system. refers to what, in

Subject

is

We

Development is thus a process of successive embeddedness, disembeddedness, and qualitatively new embeddedness, continually subsuming the prior system into a more complex system (p. 5).

One can

exercise control over and take perspective on that

been embedded

in

stage that a person understanding,

the previous stage. is

when

It

is

able to look back "objectively at the previous

way

that previous

is

ways

of

self.

A

is

described with the model of a spiral of

1

movement between stages

connectedness and stages

of

new

no longer experienced as the

connectedness/separateness,

is

which one had

only after progressing to a

related dimension to that of subject object differentiation

theory

in

of

separateness. The

translated by stage as follows:

Stage

The

child

is

in

(The Impulsive

part of mother.

undifferentiable; they are one.

embedded,

1

In

her experience, she and mother are

Being connected/merged,

the relationship, she

object as an outsider could.

Self)

is

or, in

Kegan’s terms,

unable to look at the relationship as an

Rather, she

is

subject to the relationship.

Kegan

single pointed (1991) refers to this stage as that of immediate atomistic

perceptions, as the child

1

is

subject to her impulses and perceptions and

is

from a spiral of recently replaced this aspect of his theory comparison of connectedness to a similar but to me less compelling

Kegan (1991) has

separateness and stages.

He now describes stages 2 and 4 as

and 5 as involving interpenetration

of forms.

6

involving self- containment,

and stages 3

unable

to coordinate

Appendix A

more than one perception

for further elaborations of

stage

or impulse at a time (See

as well as of the other stages).

1,

Stage 2 (The Imperial

Self)

stage 2 the person differentiates herself, saying "I'm me.

In

have wants, the world focuses around me." The

I

independent, self-contained being. At

this

needs, such that central concerns are to

self is

have needs,

I

a separate,

stage the point of view

A

get, to take, to win.

is

based on

stage 2 person

is

defined by her needs, has those needs, but cannot reflect on neediness. That is,

she cannot look

need." Conceptual this

at herself abilities

and say,

"I

am somebody who

are limited to the concrete.

stage as that of durable categorieses, as there

categories of elements. likes

and

ability to

feelings

dislikes.

For example, the

The primary

is

focused on what

Kegan (1991)

refers to

a capacity to understand

is

can now contain categories

self

I

limitation of this stage

is

that there

is

of

not yet an

take other people's feelings into account, except to the extent that their will

have an impact on the

self

("I

feel

bad

that he's

punished." Kegan (1982) describes the stage 2 to stage 3

mad because

I'll

get

shift in attitudes

towards others:

...you are

an instrument by which

I

satisfy

my needs and work my

are the other half of what, from the next balance, recognize as my own projected ambivalence. In the move to the new evolutionary grammar of stage 3, claim both sides of this

will.

You

I

I

ambivalence and become

internally 'interpersonal' (p.

Stage 3 (The Interpersonal Stage 3

is

an integration again

interpenetration (Kegan, 1991)), a

now encompasses

(or, to

use

his

1

00)

Self)

more recent term, an

becoming one again,

with others.

Her

self

around her the people she cares about and the institutions

7

that provide her with values.

She

is

relationship with her children, she

is

she

is

her job, she

is

her relationship with her partner, she

what her

newspaper man

local

her church. Ideas between

is

her

tells her,

and other are fused.

self

Using Kegan's terms, ideas and values are co-constructed, co-authored. The stage 3 person might This

right!

what

is

I

move

from,

"My church believes

believe" with no process

She

is

unable to look

can she do? She has gained the her various needs "I

hate people

in

who

at her

ability to

"Yeah! This

is

between the two statements.

Defined by the relationships themselves, the person relationships.

this" to

own

is

subject to her

What

relationships as object.

contemplate, discuss, and coordinate

the short and long-term, such that she might even remark,

She has gained

are selfish."

the

ability to

care about

another person's feelings. Kegan (1991) refers to

this

stage as that of cross-

categorical construction because the person can

now

link

together the durable

categories of stage 2 and can hold multiple categories simultaneously.

take

in

She can

simple abstract ideas such as basic ideals and values from an external

source and form categories

for

them. The example Kegan used

is

that

she can

create the category of what constitutes a good mother. Using external sources,

she co-constructs her

about what being a good mother

She

entails.

as meaning

is

defined on the basis

what transpires between them. What she cannot do

is

to take perspective

relies

of

beliefs

on others

and

for support

validation,

these ideas or on her relationships with people or

Stage 4 (The

institutions.

Institutional Self)

person, a Stage 4 involves being defined again as a separate to selfhood

on the

spiral.

A

on

stage 4 person has her

8

shift

own unique sense

back

of self

and can construct her own

reality. 2

Kegan (1991) describes

what he terms the system stage as follows

(the quotation,

this

new

ability of

from a presentation,

is

not an exact replication of Kegan's words):

The new

ability is that of

elements

of a

taking categorical constructions as

more complex organization, or system. The self becomes institutional. The self has become an organization that one is administrator of. The self can now take ideals and integrate, hierarchize, and resolve conflict between them and form them into a system. The self is now the source and creator of inner life,

of inner thoughts.

The stage 4 person may be that

the graduating college student,

she herself can think about, challenge, and reconstruct the ideas

teachers and texts. She has operations, able to

woman who

I?

in

my

in

a

Do

I

life?"

fully

reached the Piagetian stage

comprehend the most complex

has been a stereotypical housewife

beginning a transition

am

who has

into

stage 4

when she

realized of her

of formal

abstractions.

Or

can be the

it

many years who may be

for

starts to ask, "Wait

a minute.

Who

have my own needs and thoughts as separate from the other people There

is

a

new

defining of self which

still

involves relationships but

new way.

A

stage 4

able to look at relationships and analyze them from outside,

is

having an understanding of what they aren't so political

much

ideology.

relationships,

relationships. individual

I

happening within the

They can be outside

am

who has

relationship,

because

the relationship, or the connection to the church or to a

can look

I

is

at

of

it

and look

these relationships, but

I

in.

am

"I

care about these

no longer these

an individual who has these relationships. And her

own

thoughts about things

in

I

am

an

the relationships and

philosophical discourse in this paper on stage is The degree of self-authorship of reality discussed by constructionism. stages, and as socio-cogmtive intended to be understood as relative to other what is truth in the universe and possible abilities, not as decrees as to what is

2

I

will

not be including

a

9

about things

general.

in

and evaluate

and integrate

it

A stage 4 can

my

How do

values?

now have an

I

pull

it

my own

with

somebody says

values."

two discrepant ideas and say, "How do these

these

fit

with what's right for me, for the

The stage 4 has a way she

believe?

look at what

ability to

something else, but rather

is

thinks

derived from

and believes That

self.

is,

way

However, her reasons

for that valuing

of utilizing the information are different.

because

that

is

how she knows what she

because she has a stage 4 value informed about current

such information may

She would

If

it

is

and

ideas are no longer co3,

she values

and her corresponding way

she values information,

it

believes, but rather

valuable

it

is

is

not

important to be educated and

value not exclusive to stage

affairs (a

facilitate

that

think

I

with

that isn't derived from

constructed, but are individually constructed. Like the stage information.

fit

4’s),

and because

her making improved decisions on her own.

not be arriving at an opinion by combining unaltered

heard from her primary sources

it,

evaluates

she had

that

Rather, she judges the

of information.

information, thinks critically about

all

it

against her

own assumptions

may

or

may

not correspond to anything she has previously heard articulated. That

is,

she

and values, and

can

arrives at ideas

own

articulate her

topic,

she

will

Her

for doing so. internally,

be able

and

to

A

If

to create

ability to

own

stage 4 person

particular

one without a dependence on external sources

coordinate a variety of potentially discrepant ideas for ideas

as

well, results in her also being

motivations and feelings, and to take responsibility for is

invested

in

maintaining her system; her

making sense

of things, using information to

to transform

altogether.

it

that

she does not have a theory on a

be her own source

able to critique her

them.

theory.

and conclusions on her own

10

fix

a faulty element

of

way it

of

rather than

Stage 5 (The

Interindividual Self)

Stage 5 involves a reconnection, but as

identity

back

With stage 5 the connection

to feeling like

an interrelated

may

in

in

person

well.

question

order to

5 person would not be invested

is

from a place

part of the world.

her system where

fix

in

time with sense of separate

this

self,

Whereas a stage 4 not yet perfect, a stage

is

it

any one system. Kegan (1991) therefore

refers to stage 5 as cross-systemic, as the entire

taken as object. The person’s goal

she does not need

having a

of

not that

is

system

she

be

meaning can be

one

find the

to solve discrepancies in order to

contrary, discrepancies are stimulating.

of

at

correct system,

ease. To the

She would be comfortable

holding and

understanding what might seem to be contradictions, as her ultimate investment is

not

in

having a

final resolution;

would be questioning as differently.

Her

interest

questioning and of opening

not

of

exploring the ideas;

new

her system. Rather, she

in fixing

an exploration

part of

is in

is

it

possibilities for

how she it

is in

ways

might run her system

the process of

of understanding;

it

is in

continuously growing.

Summary This theory describes a

movement back and

separateness and a connectedness, modeled by a

when

in

a "separate" part

caring about others.

of the spiral there are

Particularly with

life

question of emphasis and perspective taking

connected/merged separation to an

to

In

over time between a

spiral.

It

does not mean

sum, the

(Gilligan, 1982). in

that

no valued relationships or

women, connection and

tend to be of major importance throughout

experienced and approached.

forth

ways

in

self involves

relationships It

is

more a

which relationships are a movement from being

being separate to being reconnected/merged to a second

ability to

be more

fully

connected while maintaining

separateness. The definition of

who

definition of

self

is

self,

and who

is

then,

other

is

largely in relation to other,

and the

neither stable nor steady throughout

is

life.

Each stage,

too, represents the

complexity.

In turn,

ideas, result

in

the

new ways

new bases

development

of thinking, the

with which to evaluate

Earlier abilities are not lost.

Prioritizing,

learning multiplication. addition was, that

it

what

may

however,

I

believe

new

difficult to

and

conceive

may

ability to

of.

You

became

able to reflect on your old method, to see

became more

it

is

times you

still

incorporated by your

likely to multiply

of

ability to

take

or

of

may (It

not be

may

help to recall

number manipulation than

manipulate large numbers

did not lose your ability to

to add,

at

making sense

important or relevant.

will likely shift.

count or

understand how

may

As a more complex means

provided you with the

were previously

is

of

continue to draw on those

Correspondingly, old concerns

useful.

supplanted.

new ways

Rather, the person gains the

perspective on her old ways of thinking, and

ways when

of increased capacity for

turn to those abilities. its

limitations,

new method. As a

However, you

and

result,

to

you

8 sets of 6 objects than to count them

individually.)

Based on the

theoretical implications of this theory,

what

relevant for people with regard to the environment ought to vary differentiating features of the

developmental stage

at

is

important and

in line

with the

which they are functioning.

Design

The primary

goal of this study

was

to gain a greater understanding of

ways

in

which people think about the environment. The focus was on exploring

ways

in

which Kegan's theory

measured by the

sixty- to

of

ego development informs

this

knowledge, as

ninety-minute standardized interview that Kegan

12

developed

measuring stage

for

qualitative data from

range

of topics

Central to this exploration are

an additional semi-structured interview covering a wide

concerning the participant's thoughts about the environment.

These data are examined

primarily for

were evidenced as

differences

of thinking.

particular are addressed. their relationship with

ways

which commonalities and

in

ego stage. Two themes

differentiated by

These were:

and connection

1

.

How

to the

did the participants

environment?

participants describe the reasons behind their

own

behavior? The results of the qualitative data are well

relation to areas of content

in

2.

in

speak about

How

did the

environmentally oriented

briefly

commented upon as

which were commonly expressed across

stages.

Several additional measures were

utilized

and then analyzed

quantitatively to address supplemental questions (see Figure

overview of

all

How

the following chapter.). participants in this study in

17, for

an

the measures. The arrows indicate possible relationships

between instruments. Further

measured

1, p.

the past?

detail

concerning the instruments can be found

in

did the level of environmental concern of the

compare

with that of people

Environmental concern

will

whose concern has been

be measured with Weigel

and Weigel's Environmental Concern Scale (1978) and scores contrasted with those from Weigel and Weigel's samples.

Was

will

be

such concern

for

the external environment related to one's treatment of the internal environment that

a

is,

brief

personal, physical health?

Health Questionnaire

I

Health care behaviors

created for this purpose.

will

be measured with

In turn,

were

either of

these factors related to ego stage? With a stage 4 system comes the critical thinking.

reassurances

This

may

of safety

result in increased

may no

ability for

environmental concern, as

longer be accepted without questioning.

therefore hypothesized that those

who had a 1

3

-

full

I

stage 4 system operating

(3/4,

4/3, 4)

would score higher than those who did not on a scale measuring

environmental concern.

system have the capacity

who have an

those

In addition,

for self analysis.

Also, as individual constructors

rather than co-constructors of meaning, they tend to

themselves. They

may

question and analyze their

own

responsibility for improving

on

that those

those

who

who had a did not

full

version of an intrument

Object Questionnaire,

their

own

is

than others would be to

behaviors.

I

therefore hypothesized

am

positive health behaviors.

study took a

first

step at addressing, using the

first

developing called the Environmental Subject-

was whether

extent with an instrument that

interview that

responsibility for

stage 4 system operating would score higher than

this

I

likely

assume

non-healthful behaviors and to take

on a scale measuring

A question which

some

more

therefore be

operational stage 4

or not stage could is

be approximated

to

substantially shorter than the extensive

currently utilized for determining a valid score, by making use of

simple forced choice stage-specific responses to dilemmas.

Until this point

there has been no such attempt to create a tool that simplifies Kegan's theory for application.

Does the stage

formats used for

eliciting

level of

a higher developmental

at

which

choose, than when having

One spread

of

differ

between the two

stage data? (James Rest, 1976, asserts that people

respond to

responses

additional question

was

when provided

level to

with responses from

generate the responses on

that of

their own.)

whether or not age, within the small

40-49 year olds who were studied, correlates with ego stage. Within

such a small age range

of mid-adulthood,

Or,

between age and developmental stage. tends to take place during the course of relationship.

one might expect no if

a great deal

this ten

of

correlation

development

year period, there could be a

Steward and Gold-Steinberg (1990) write about how,

growth. 40's and 50's are often a time of great generativity and

14

in fact,

They

the

explain

that as

one

starts to

approach awareness

of

leave behind a meaningful imprint of one's

grows stronger. Energy rearing.

If,

do so

to

is

that of those

in their

beyond having

March, 1991). That

in their later

one might expect

40's to be slightly higher than

of the study a third hypothesis

is,

about a major change

War

was

for the particular

study (Joanne Garland, personal communication,

in this

a small piece of the literature relating societal change to

events was brought

the post-World

children,

freed up from other places, such as child

me, as perhaps more relevant than the others,

to

generation of people

in

identity,

the need to

life,

early 40's.

However, during the course

historical

piece of

final

then, the 40's are a time of growing and changing,

the developmental stage of people

presented

a

attention, describing

and hypothesizing

and behavior perceived as being

thinking

in

II

my

to

first

reflected

baby boomers (Ferguson, 1980; Reich, 1970). These

would be the people born during and

after 1946.

some

described parallels very closely

This change

of the differences

in

thinking as

between stage 2-3 and

stage 4 reasoning. Ferguson and Reich write about how prior to the war, doing

as one was

conforming

told,

government and

common and changes

in

general

to

norms, maintaining the status quo, trusting

living

by external standards

respected values. Then

that followed

its

end. As the

came

life.

It

no longer

consequences

was suggested

made sense

of

to

them

acceptance were

new generation developed

who

own thoughts and

to

into adults in

challenged mainstream

their

own new approaches

to follow blindly, as their

model

that

I

to

for the

such behavior was Nazi Germany. Based on these ideas,

me

the

the war, along with the multitude of

the 1960's, they grew into questioning beings

conformist ideas, valuing their

of

in

it

consider looking at possible developmental

with the differences between people born prior to versus during or after 1946,

hypothesis that the younger group would be

at

a higher stage

of

development

than the older group.

It

was hoped

that this

initial

exploration of these various and related

questions would provide useful information about environmental thinking, as well as a

framework out

of

which further research could be developed

future.

16

in

the

El: In

SOI:

a semi-structured

El

=

Environmental

This

Interview

interview about the

semi-structured

environment, the

interview,

women

not about the

which

is

SOI =

Subject-Object

say what they think, respond to questions, and

environment, is the instrument

apply reasoning to

utilized for

Subject-Object

issues.

determining

Questionnaire

Interview

ESOQ

= Environmental

ego stage.

HQ

=

Questionnaire

A sub-component of this interview

ECS =

requests socio-demographic information such as education and occupation.

ESOQ: This

questionnaire of

environmental for

the

calls

women

to

respond to arguments representative of different

stages,

Environmental

Concern Scale

A

dilemmas

Health

ego

when

provided with the various choices.

Figure

1

Structure of Design

CHAPTER

2

METHOD

Participants

The sample

for this study

was

selected and

Sampling Participants

composed as

follows.

Criteria

were 27 randomly selected women between the ages

and 49 from Greenfield, Massachusetts. The sample was drawn from a town

for four reasons.

town, drawing

all

the

responding to the

responses

First,

women

same

40

of

single

as most programs such as recycling are done by

from one

policy

in

locality

means

such matters. With

to policy across stages

become

of

that they

would

all

be

this parallel, contrasting

increased relevance. Greenfield

has had voluntary recycling since 1970, and mandatory curb-side pickup since

November

of 1987.

Second, environmental education

conducted by town. Results from a that

town

to utilize in

facilitates the

its

process

particular

is

similarly often

town might therefore be

use

to

educational planning. Third, sampling from one town

of obtaining

space

for interviewing

as well as

obtaining participants, as people have loyalty to their town.

Greenfield Public Library would

likely

control over the sample.

Finally,

for

In particular,

have been less accessible

had not been with Greenfield residents.

some

of

if

the

the study

sampling from one town allows

Greenfield, with a population of 19,500,

is

a

predominantly white working class community but with a socioeconomic range.

While

some such

diversity

was needed

in

order to have a high probability of

obtaining participants of a wide range of ego stages, a relatively

sample was important

for this

initial

study

confounding variables be minimized. For

1

8

in

homogeneous

order that variability from

this initial study, therefore,

participants

were

be white, American born women. Greenfield was chosen

to

part to minimize the likelihood of sampling other

Women

were selected because they continue

shoppers, as well as the primary educators, collectively

of that particular

a strong cohort

whose

attitudes are

most

solidified

educational level. level,

it

In

ego stages.

on environmental for several

currently the

segment

it

was important

At the

same

difficult to

a sample that was is

same

correlated with

educational levels. Within the selected age group, high is

the case

groups. Yet by their forties

many women may have reached

ego development, perhaps

in

part instigated by the

home. Another reason

in

younger

higher levels of

changes faced when

for selecting this

age was

that the

women

adults with at least partially formed ideas before the

were already

environmental movement began to strengthen twenty years ago.

women

First,

to find a population that included participants at varied

education levels were less commonly attained than

children leave

reasons.

of the population

to find

time, stage

attitudes.

order to reduce the confounding effect of educational

would be optimal

stages within the

The age range was

and who are therefore the most

reach with new information. Second, well distributed across

As such, they

quality.

age bracket were chosen

were chosen because they are

adults

effect

of the population.

be the primary

to

culture.

in this

have a strong impact on environmental

limited in order to control for

Women

segments

in

Now

these

are being exposed to increased information and changing societal

values concerning the environment.

age are newly becoming group, then,

may be

to

change, and

to

ego stage.

In addition,

adults, bringing

new

many

children of

women

of this

ideas to the household. This age

optimal for looking at attitudes currently being challenged

at the nature of the influencing factors

19

and the change

in

relation

Participant Selection

Participants

were selected

forties in Greenfield.

attempt

was made

the spread

The

only limitation to the

introduction

at

Each

Appendix

intent (see

contacted by telephone,

random

many

apparent, ages with

for the next mailing.

and

street

list

of

selection

potential

E, p. 121)

to 7

1

days

77 names were selected. Two

the telephone book: Either they did not

telephone, had

moved

out of Greenfield, or

changed addresses and were

listed

once

were

of the listings did

own a

lived in Greenfield but

still

had

under their husband's names. These two

not contacted. Without these 2, 75 letters were mailed over a

period of several weeks. From the to participate.

After this

of the

moved and 4

75

batch of 9

letters,

contacted, 33

women

women agreed

said yes, 34 said no, 4 had

others were not reached. Most of the

the family.

7 of the

group, the participation rate dropped substantially.

first

women

first

indicated that they did not have the time.

Some

A few would say no more

women who

said no

referred to illness or recent

than that they were simply not

Of those who were not reached, one was a

interested.

is,

some

which time both interviews were arranged with

listing in

in

that

prior to being

not match any

death

in their

participant received a letter of

In total,

Out

was

participants

interested participants.

women were

women

an age range across the ten years. That

to obtain

was becoming

screened out

random from a

at

woman

with no

answering machine who did not answer the telephone over a several week period.

The remaining 3 were 3

numbers.

the letters to these 5

In

your number

my name. agreed

I

of

is

unpublished.

I

5

women

with unpublished telephone

women had

really

I

hope

you'll call

did not follow up with an additional

to participate,

I

said no to 4:

enclosed a note saying,

One was

me. Thanks.

letter.

Of the

And

I

I

notice

signed

women who

willing to participate but only in

prior to the end her hectic home, 2 were interested but had no available times

20

of

data collection, and

with an unpublished telephone

1

participate after data collection

number contacted me

to

was complete. One woman scheduled

interviews but had to drop out due to medical complications. Twenty-eight

women

participated

in

the study.

All

28 completed the study

One,

in full.

however, was disqualified, as she was from another country. This

27

left

participants.

That the response remaining batches

While

this

difference

from the

rate

may be

some relevance

of

in

my

higher than for

to the nature of the

were two differences

tone, there first

group and those

received their letters almost a

more common

week

that did exist

of the other groups.

between the

First,

the

initial

prior to being contacted, in contrast to the

to get comfortable with the idea of participating,

such as by

The second

retrospect

In

one

seems

it

that this

participant mentioned, that no

difference

was

time of recruitment; namely, the war

one else there was

the larger context of society at the specific

in

in

the Gulf.

The

a time when the war was particularly frightening.

It

initial

was

group was contacted unclear at the time

whether or not a ground war would begin and scud missiles had begun it

felt

strange to be calling

women

at

such a time

to talk

actually provided these

powerlessness. That

calls,

women

is, in

for society, they

people's fear

were taking

life.

to alleviate

some

fly.

may have

of their feelings of

doing something good for another person, and

Time

By the second group

action.

was subsiding and

hecticness of everyday

women who chose

way

with a

to

about the

environment, while people's primary concern was the war, the study

perhaps

group

given them

finding out at work, as

While

all

sample.

may have

1-3 days.

ample opportunity

at

was

batch of letters

discrepancy could have been by chance, or possibly by some

situations of the

invited.

first

their

phone

energy was returning to the

constraints

not to participate.

of

were

cited

by almost

all

the

Demographics Most

and owned

of the their

women were

married, had lived

own homes. On

see Appendices B and C. Although it

during and

in

mind

after,

women

with 13

some

of

those

the older group and 14

who

In

in

at

evenly

likely

In

sample, I

did not

into

those two groups,

who

it

is likely

that

did not consider

the developmental domain,

Many

screen themselves out:

participated in something like this.

was

the younger.

elected not to participate were those

stage 3 would

years,

1946 with those born

the environmental domain,

participated reported that a couple of years

who

prior to

split

environmental issues to be of particular import.

women

many

at the time of participant selection

be comparing women born

screened out?

Greenfield for

of the characteristics of the

the distribution happened to

in

Who was

to

in

other socio-demographic variables there

a wide range. For a detailed description

yet have

of Participants

of the

women who

ago they would never have

But now, they are just beginning to figure out

they are, to reach out, and to consider what they have to say to be

important, so as part of that

change they

did decide to participate.

Procedure

Each before.

interview

Interviews

was preceded by a

"reminder" phone

were conducted between the hours

of 7:00

P.M. Monday through Saturday based on the schedules

second meeting followed the place immediately after the the interviewing

payed $5.00 of the

at

second

first

first

for

of the

interview,

1 1

A.M. and 10:30

of the participants.

days.

by preference

the night

In

3 cases

it

of the participant.

were

two meetings, as well as a $10.00 bonus

at the

within a 5

completion of both.

22

week

period.

The

took

Participants

was conducted each

by no more than

call

All of

end

The Interview.

first

meeting involved an introduction, followed by the Environmental

The Health

Questionnaire, the Environmental Subject-Object

Questionnaire, and the Environmental Concern Scale were administered

towards the end

of the interview.

was administered

prior to

The

majority of the Environmental Interview

any other environmental scales

in

order to obtain

responses that would not be influenced by those other measures. The Health Questionnaire

was administered

after rapport

had been established due

personal content. The Environmental Interview Subject-Object Interview for three reasons.

was administered

First, in

the case of

to

its

prior to the

women

not

attending the second interview, the Environmental Interview could potentially still

be

would

of

some,

offer

if

only minimal interest, whereas the developmental interview

no useful data. Second,

it

was considered

would be more comfortable beginning with the environment than the topics probed

in

who had

written to

man

to

In

each

in five

site

-

all

participant

was

interviewed

in

-

the contact with less likely to

woman

trained male interviewer.

comparable

relatively neutral sites in

Greenfield Public Library, Greenfield

Community College, the supermarket Super Stop and Shop, Church, and the Arts Council

third

the second meeting, then, Kegan’s

was administered by a

In

have had

they had never spoken with than with a

Interviews were conducted

the town of Greenfield.

The

be administering the

The women may have been

and spoken with them.

Subject-Object Interview

women

less personal topic of the

to

environmental interview, and was also the one

attend an interview with a

the

the developmental interview.

reason was that the principal investigator was

the participants prior to the interviews.

likely that

conference rooms were used.

the Unitarian In addition,

one

the conference room of her place of work, and

two, by neccessity, were interviewed at their

23

homes (one

did not drive

and one

was

disabled).

Sessions were audiotaped, with permission,

for later

transcription.

Measures Five

measures were

utilized,

as follows.

Environmental Interview

The

meeting entailed administering a semi-structured interview that

first

explored ways E, p. 123).

explore

in

women

which the

think about the environment (see Appendix

There were three primary components

how

One was

to the interview.

to

the participants understand and view the environment and their

relationship to

what comes

(El)

to

environment,

Questions included, "When you hear the word 'environment'

it.

if

mind?" and "What do you see as your relationship

any? Do you

you explain how you mean

feel

connected, or

that?".

A second

to the

environment? Can

not, to the

area was to establish how the

Questions

participants think about environmental issues.

in this

section

included "During this past week, have you had any thoughts about

environmental issues?" and "What thoughts,

if

any, do you have about any

national or international or global environmental issues?"

component

of the interview

be instrumental caring.

in their

was on what

included,

do you understand how you came think

back

to

any

incidents,

think would

far

to

I

would

have the

way you

like to talk

attitudes

likely to

about now

will

is

how

you have? Can you of information, that

think about the environment?

as you want. We're kind of taking a

be most

major

with regards to environmental

any memories, any learning

believe had an impact on the

go back as

"What

third

the participants think has been and

own change process

These questions

The

You can

and What do you

history.'

have an impact on you now?

you

I

mean,

if

someone

were

to

approach you

five

minutes from now with the goal

one more step towards being environmentally be most effective

for that with

active,

you

of getting

what do you

think

to take

would

you?"

Health Questionnaire (HQ)

For a measure of personal health behaviors, a

developed and administered inquiring about the frequency

of

personal

behaviors commonly considered to be positively or negatively related

and long-term physical health (see Appendix

was

brief self-report scale

E, p. 130).

to short

These behaviors were

smoking

cigarettes, drinking alcoholic beverages, excercising, wearing a

seatbelt,

and obtaining mammograms and medical or gynecological

examinations.

Environmental Concern Scale (ECS) For a standardized, commonly used measure of beliefs and feelings

about the environment,

I

administered Weigel and Weigel's (1978)

Environmental Concern Scale (see Appendix E,

developed cities of

in

New

England towns and tested

the United States.

in

p. 136).

The ECS was

Eastern and Western towns and

Each community sampled had a population

than 100,000. The samples had socioeconomic, but limited ethnic,

Each

of

these factors

The ECS has been reliability,

and

is

fewer

diversity.

consistent with the conditions of the proposed study.

satisfactorily tested for internal consistancy, test-retest

validity

(see Appendix D). Weigel and Weigel obtained an

internal consistancy alpha coefficient of .85

and a homogeneity

the six year interval during which the surveys were conducted. correlation obtained with a six validity with

of

week

interval

was

.83.

ratio of .26

The

25

test-retest

The scale was

a known-groups comparison test contrasting scores

of

over

tested for

randomly

sampled adults with Sierra Club members. As expected, the mean concern score

was

higher (p 12 Mo's < 18 Mo's

>18 Mo’s