English Language Learners in the Classroom Leadership should be born out of the understanding of the needs of those who would be affected by it. —Marian Anderson English language learners (ELLs) come from every corner of the globe, represent hundreds of different languages, and can be found in nearly every school district in the United States. They arrive at school, eager to learn, but facing an immense challenge: the need to acquire a new language while simultaneously mastering grade-level curriculum standards. As an administrator, you can help ELLs succeed by understanding their unique needs and by providing support and leadership to those who will teach these students. You can create a culture in which cultural backgrounds, language proficiency levels, and the languagedevelopment process inform teaching. Defining the English Language Learner The terms used to describe them are as diverse as English language learners themselves: English learners (ELs), language minority students, second language learners, and limited English proficient (LEP). Whatever they are called, these students are learning English in addition to their first language, or native tongue. Leaders planning for ELL instruction need specific information about the ELL populations in their schools. The many myths about English language learners may create misperceptions about these students, so you may want to begin by sharing these facts with your teachers and administrators: n Not all ELLs are immigrants. Fifty-nine percent are U.S.-born children of immigrant parents.1 n Nearly 20% of all ELLs have parents who are also U.S.-born but who speak at home a

language other than English. n Some schools and communities have relatively homogenous populations of ELLs, with

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most sharing the same culture and language. In other communities, ELLs may represent a wide variety of languages and cultures. You can support teachers’ instructional planning by providing relevant data about the makeup of ELL populations in their schools. Information that would be useful to teachers includes: n language proficiency level(s) n the language(s) spoken at home n circumstances of arrival and length of time in the United States n first language literacy and prior schooling experiences

Cultural Considerations for Teaching ELLs English language learners often encounter a set of cultural norms and expectations in school that are different from the ones followed at home or in their native countries. The differences must affect the way teachers build on existing knowledge or experiences. Teachers must make efforts to connect new and previously learned information for students who do not share the same cultural background as themselves or their native-born students. The more 1

Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. U.S. Council of La Raza, 2007.

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English Language Learners in the Classroom teachers know about their students’ cultures, the better they will be able to help those students make the transition from home to school and from their first language to English. With knowledge about students’ cultures, teachers can n tailor instructional strategies to accommodate known learning preferences (e.g.,

collaborative vs. independent work) n respect cultural habits (e.g., averting one’s eyes when being spoken to) n avoid cultural taboos (e.g., mixing Muslim boys and girls in the same group) n consider the background knowledge needed to understand a reading selection, classroom

examples, anecdotes, or idiomatic expressions n explain unfamiliar concepts where necessary

Having knowledge about and respect for the various cultures represented in a classroom helps teachers build trusting relationships with students and their families. Knowledge can minimize misunderstandings that arise out of cultural distinctions. It is important, however, to keep in mind that societies are made up of individuals. General knowledge about a culture should not be used to form stereotypes. Rather, this knowledge should be treated as a reference point. Teachers must get to know individual students and their families to make learning accessible to all students. Language Proficiency English language proficiency refers to how well learners speak, listen, read, and write in English. A student’s language proficiency level determines n the level of participation that can be expected during oral discussions n performance tasks appropriate for student work n types of activities best suited to the learner

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n teaching strategies that facilitate learning n learning strategies students can use to support their own learning

Language proficiency will grow continuously, therefore, it is essential that teachers assess each student’s language competency regularly. Proficiency is multifaceted, encompassing the production and reception of oral and written communication.

Oral

Production (speaking)

Written

Reception (listening)

Production (writing)

Reception (reading)

Students’ skills will not develop at equal rates. For example, at a given point in time, a student may possess a higher level of proficiency in speaking than in reading. The Leadership Handbook—An Administrator’s Quick Reference Guide

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English Language Learners in the Classroom Proficiency Levels Defined Proficiency is categorized in progressive stages or levels. Among the states and school districts across the United States, the levels may be defined differently. For the purposes of this discussion, proficiency is described below in four progressive levels. Level One—Beginning

Students are new learners and possess early language skills. In the classroom, these students will rely initially on watching and listening to develop speaking skills and to build English proficiency. Students will begin to grasp small chunks of language.

Students will be able to n respond with one- to two-word phrases n understand simple questions, statements, or commands n use vocabulary limited to communicating basic needs n use nonverbal forms of communication n begin to apply basic phonemic awareness and phonics when reading

Level Two—Advanced Beginning

Students possess early production skills, but receptive skills still outperform production. At this and all stages, it is critical that students continue to listen to proficient English speakers and that they are introduced to appropriate amounts of academic language for their developmental level.

Students n respond with short phrases and sentences n are developing basic English syntax n display a limited social and academic vocabulary n read and write simple sentences

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Level Three—Intermediate

Students now possess a vocabulary and knowledge of grammatical structures sufficient for full participation, with support, in most classroom activities. Learners are generally more comfortable producing both spoken and written language, though they still require focused language development instruction.

Students are able to n respond using complete sentences n grasp basic English syntax, with interference from the first-language grammatical structures still appearing n use a growing academic vocabulary n read and write more complex sentences, short paragraphs, and brief essays or narratives

Level Four—Advanced

Students possess vocabulary and grammar approaching that of English-proficient peers. Students can be expected to participate fully in class activities and produce gradeappropriate work. Social language skills are now “native-like” and will continue to outstrip academic language proficiency. Daily opportunities to experience, practice, and learn academic language in context continue to be necessary. The Leadership Handbook—An Administrator’s Quick Reference Guide

Students n have command of spoken English n understand and use academic vocabulary n read near grade level with occasional modifications n write more complex paragraphs and essays, with additional supports still required

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English Language Learners in the Classroom Teaching to Different Language Proficiency Levels Teachers may have students at multiple proficiency levels in any single class. However, all levels of English language learners benefit from a language-rich environment that includes both oral and written language. A language-rich environment means n quality literature at all applicable proficiency levels is available for reading n word walls are used regularly to reinforce vocabulary n word cards are used, as appropriate, to label items in the classroom (e.g., door, window,

chair, or desk) n visual aids are abundant, including maps, charts, graphs, timelines, photos, and

illustrations n opportunities for oral discussion in small groups occur frequently throughout the day.

Differentiated instruction should be used routinely to meet the needs of students at various proficiency levels. A teacher who is differentiating instruction for ELLs will n use leveled materials that allow students to work on content mastery at the appropriate

proficiency levels n use mixed-ability groups to allow English-proficient students and ELLs to work together n make time for teacher-led, small groups for targeted skill instruction

(See Appendix G for suggested checklists that you may use during walk-through observations in classrooms.)

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Language Proficiency and Content Standards Proficiency levels reflect where students are in the language-development process. They are used to inform teaching, not to dictate curriculum. In some classrooms, content is watered down and expectations are lowered for ELL students. This approach does not help these students. In your role as a school leader, encourage teachers to maintain the same high expectations for ELLs as for English proficient students. If your teachers understand that a standards-based, rigorous curriculum will create a culture of success, ELL students will have an opportunity to receive a quality education. Language acquisition and instruction should occur in the context of classroom instruction in the content areas.2 Effective teaching of ELL students blends language learning and content teaching to achieve academic proficiency in state standards. Performance indicators should dovetail with grade-level content standards and identify appropriate demonstrations of mastery, based on proficiency level. Thus, expectations for ELLs are rigorous by definition. (For an example of a comprehensive approach to language and content standards, see those created by the WIDA Consortium.3)

2

Chamot, A. U., and O’Malley, J. M. The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994. Echevarria, J., Vogt, M.E., and Short, D. Making content comprehensible for English language learners: The SIOP model. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000.

3

WIDA Consortium. “English Language Proficiency Standards for English Language Learners in Kindergarten through Grade 12.” State of Wisconsin, 2004.

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English Language Learners in the Classroom Language Dimensions Intermediate and advanced ELLs may display sophisticated social language skills. They can be seen in hallways, on the bus, and on the playground conversing fluidly with peers in English. However, in class, these same students struggle to discuss, read, or write academic content. It is helpful when trying to understand the discrepancies between these dimensions of language to look at some theories behind language acquisition. Language researcher Jim Cummins4 suggests a framework in which the cognitive and contextual demands of language and discourse play a role in acquisition. Cummins describes a continuum in which language learners move from (and between) situations that are less cognitively demanding because understanding is supported by meaningful contexts and situational cues, to those that are more cognitively demanding because contextual support is scant and the learner must rely primarily on linguistic clues to determine meaning. Social language (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) may be acquired more rapidly because it is less cognitively demanding than academic language (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). Cummins5 also describes a third dimension of language proficiency that is important in academic situations—Discrete Language Skills. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) BICS are used in everyday conversations and social interactions occurring outside of the classroom, interactions such as those between friends on the bus, in the lunchroom, on the playground, communication about essential needs such as food or shelter, or discussions about shared experiences. Social language skills are developed in the learner’s primary language, and thus they may translate to another language rapidly. These skills take English language learners, on average, 2–3 years to develop.6

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Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) CALP is the form of academic language needed for success in the classroom. It is used by teachers and students to communicate ideas about subject area content. It occurs in the more formal setting of the classroom and is often read by the student or presented by a teacher or peer. Vocabulary that is content-specific is rarely used outside of the context of school or possibly even outside of an individual lesson. In academic situations, ELLs must learn a variety of complex terms, including: n multiple-meaning words n content-specific (technical) vocabulary n academic language, such as compare, summarize, and analyze

4

Cummins, J. Bilingualism and Special Education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters., 1984.

5

Cummins, J. “Reading and the bilingual student: Fact and friction.” English learners: Reaching the highest level of English literacy, (2003): 2–33.

6

Cummins, J. “ Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada. A reassessment.” Applied Linguistics 2 (1981): l32–l49.

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English Language Learners in the Classroom Cummins hypothesizes that having academic language proficiency in the first language may predict greater success for acquiring proficiency in the second language. CALP develops at the same time as BICS but usually more slowly. Although some researchers believe CALP can take five or more years, depending on the student’s first-language academic experiences, others feel that appropriate programs and rigorous instruction may hasten its development. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

Competence develops between years 1–3. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

Competence develops between years 1–5+. Discrete Language Skills (DLS) Developed concurrently with BICS and CALP are Discrete Language Skills, which refer to a learner’s knowledge of how the more discrete aspects of language function in English. These are skills in areas such as punctuation, grammar, phonology, and written language. Knowledge of these skills is essential, and success in school will be dependent, in part, on their acquisition. Students’ knowledge of DLS should grow with exposure to English, but direct instruction and opportunities to practice them will support their development. Addressing Academic Language Proficiency The distinctions among these language dimensions sheds light on the differing types of language proficiency that teachers often observe in their ELLs. It also points out the need for teachers of ELLs to focus on the academic language and discrete language skills needed by their students.

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Encourage your teachers to take the time to n teach, directly and indirectly, academic and content-specific vocabulary, prior to starting

a new unit n provide reinforcement and frequent opportunities for practice throughout the unit n teach, directly and indirectly, students rules for grammar, punctuation, and text (Note,

that this should not be overemphasized at the expense of other aspects of language.) Teachers can support academic language development in many ways. Ensure that they choose strategies that are dynamic and involve students in an active examination of new language. Teachers can n preteach vocabulary prior to starting a new unit or assigning a reading selection n include frequent small group discussions throughout the day n incorporate word-study activities (e.g., word sorts, finding synonyms, or word analysis)

into regular instruction n use concrete examples, realia (real-life objects), and hands-on activities n teach strategies for dealing with unknown vocabulary (e.g., context clues, root words,

affixes, and prefixes) The Leadership Handbook—An Administrator’s Quick Reference Guide

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English Language Learners in the Classroom To achieve academic success, English language learners need frequent opportunities to practice academic language. Teachers should keep in mind that academic language development can be a lengthy process, a process that demands their constant attention. Summary Even in schools with small numbers of English language learners, students benefit from effective planning and collaboration among teachers. Supportive and encouraging leadership from you and other school and district administrators is critical. School leaders must ensure that classroom teachers understand the issues and the instructional solutions. For ELLs, language acquisition is a journey that ranges from social expression to academic exploration and discourse. Understanding that ELLs need high expectations for learning and deserve a rigorous curriculum will improve outcomes for these students. Teachers must differentiate their instruction to help ELLs master grade-level content standards. Fortunately, the strategies and activities teachers use for ELLs can benefit all learners, who also bring to the classroom a range of needs and abilities. English language learners have much to offer American classrooms, from making cultural contributions to academic achievements. Their attendance in our schools offers an opportunity to create a culture of success for all. References Chamot, A. U., and O’Malley, J. M. The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Cummins, J. “Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada.” A reassessment. Applied Linguistics 2 (1981): l32–l49. Cummins, J. Bilingualism and Special Education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1984. Cummins, J. Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 2000. Echevarria, J., Vogt, M. E., and Short, D. Making Content Comprehensible for English Language Learners: The SIOP Model. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2000. Kohler, Adriana, and Lazarin, Melissa. “Hispanic Education in the United States.” Statistical Brief. National Council of La Raza, 2007. Snow, M. A., & Brinton, D. M. (Eds.) The Content-Based Classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content. White Plains, NY: Addison-Wesley, 1997. WIDA Consortium. “English Language Proficiency Standards for English Language Learners in Kindergarten through Grade 12.” State of Wisconsin, 2004.

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English Language Learners in the Classroom Discussion Points and Questions When you meet with your faculty, ask discussion questions such as the following to begin a dialogue on the needs of English language learners: n What are some challenges you face for providing effective instruction to your English

language learners? n What background data or cultural information would help you in your classroom? n How do you judge the level of English proficiency of each of your ELL students? n What strategies are helpful for developing academic and content vocabulary

knowledge, both of which are critically important for success? n What are some ways that we can maintain a rigorous curriculum for ELL students and

provide the language support they need to achieve success? Over the next week, observe how your ELL students respond to different instructional strategies and consider where they need the most support. Additional Resources See Appendix G: n Handout: Observational Checklist for Student Language Proficiency Level n Handout: Observational Checklist: Instructional Strategies Appropriate to

Each Proficiency Level n Activity: A Language-Rich Experience

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n Activity: Social Communication and Academic Language Skills

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Observational Checklist for Student Language Proficiency Level This checklist can be used to assess informally a student’s level of language proficiency. These are general guidelines for competencies that students may display at each level. Level One—Beginning Students may display one or more of the following competencies: ____Responds with one- to two-word phrases ____Uses nonverbal forms of communication, such as pointing or gesturing ____Understands short phrases or questions when accompanied by visuals, gestures, etc. ____Uses vocabulary limited to communicating basic needs ____Begins to develop basic phonemic awareness ____Begins to grasp alphabetic principles of English Level Two—Early Intermediate Students may display one or more of the following competencies: ____Listens and understands short sentences and commands ____Is developing basic understanding of English syntax ____Uses a growing social and academic vocabulary ____Uses short word phrases when speaking (may be difficult to understand) ____Uses nonverbal forms of communication when needed ____Writes simple sentences ____Writes legibly ____Decodes short sentences containing key words Level Three—Intermediate

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Students may display one or more of the following competencies: ____Listens and understands stories and information ____Responds using complete sentences ____Grasps basic English syntax ____Uses more complex vocabulary ____Experiences a gap between social and academic language ____Writes short paragraphs legibly ____Reads sentences and short paragraphs ____Reads with limited fluency Level Four—Early Advanced/Advanced Students may display one or more of the following competencies: ____Writes paragraphs, essays, and longer passages ____Understands and participates in discussions ____Has command of spoken English ____Continues to make minor errors when speaking ____Understands and uses social language close to English-proficient ____Continues to make grammatical errors in written work ____Reads near grade level The Leadership Handbook—An Administrator’s Quick Reference Guide

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Observational Checklist: Instructional Strategies Appropriate to Each Proficiency Level The checklist below can be used to record informally the instructional strategies being used to support English language learners in the classroom. These are general guidelines for strategies appropriate for students at each level of language proficiency. Checkboxes appear under the levels for which a strategy is most effective. Gray boxes indicate that a strategy is inappropriate for that level of student. (Note: Some strategies may be appropriate at additional levels, depending on the individual student.) Strategy

Level 1

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Create a language-rich environment (e.g., maps, photos, pictographs).

❑

❑

❑

❑

Match pictures to words.

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❑

Use visuals to represent task directions.

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❑

Label classroom objects with the proper names.

❑

❑

Use Total Physical Response to establish meaning.

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❑

Use gestures to clarify meaning.

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

Use Visual Supports.

❑

Reinforce Language with Movement or Objects.

Use pantomime or skits. Use realia or real-life examples.

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❑

❑

Use manipulatives.

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Use hands-on activities.

❑

❑

❑

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❑

❑

Focus on Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax. Have students explore words with spelling patterns similar to their first language. Use sentence/paragraph frames.

❑

❑

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Teach vocabulary directly.

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Provide daily opportunities to practice academic vocabulary.

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Emphasize key words orally and in writing.

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Use picture dictionaries.

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❑

Identify cognates and false cognates.

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Use think–pair–share.

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Ask students to restate or paraphrase ideas presented by others.

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Ask students to defend their positions on content-related issues.

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Have students make presentations with visual supports.

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❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

❑

Develop Oral Skills.

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Provide daily opportunities for student interaction and discussion.

❑

Provide Input and Feedback that Build Understanding. Use slower rate of speech and simple sentence constructions.

❑

Elaborate on student responses to scaffold language.

❑

Provide written directions, in addition to oral directions for tasks. Model accurate language by rephrasing. Build Content Knowledge through Reading and Writing. Use rhymes, jazz chants, and poems to develop phonemic awareness. Teach comprehension strategies directly. Conduct Think Alouds to clarify difficult vocabulary and model effective reading-comprehension strategies. Include choral readings that focus on fluency.

❑

❑

❑

❑

Use graphic organizers to represent concepts and facts.

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❑

Make connections to background knowledge.

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Use interactive writing activities.

❑

❑

❑

Teach text structures.

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❑

❑

Use advance organizers to prepare students for reading.

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❑

❑

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A Language-Rich Experience n Distribute to participants the activity page titled “A Language-Rich Experience.” n Conduct a discussion about the various kinds of ELLs present in the classrooms in

your school. n If there is a cultural gap between most teachers and students, how might it affect ELLs

in the classroom? n How can teachers and fellow students help English learners feel they are an asset to

their classrooms? n Have participants work in small groups to discuss each question on the workshop activity

page. Ask one participant from each group to volunteer to record the answers. n Ask a volunteer from each group to share at least one response to a question on the

workshop activity page. Ask remaining groups if anyone came up with a different response or wants to add anything. Think and Discuss Establishing a supportive and nurturing environment to offset affective filters is very important. Ask participants to form small groups to discuss why establishing this kind of environment is important for ELLs. How can teachers and students create an environment where ELLs feel safe to take risks.

WORKSHOP CONCEPT

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Affective filter—a term coined by second-language researcher Stephen Krashen to refer to the psychological factors that can interfere with processing a new language

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A Language-Rich Experience Directions Discuss and record your answers to the following questions about a language-rich classroom to an important component of successful ELL teaching. What is a language-rich experience?

Why and how do ELLs benefit from language-rich experiences?

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What strategies or activities can teachers use to create a language-rich experience?

Think and Discuss Establishing a supportive and nurturing environment is important for counteracting affective filters. In your group, discuss why this is important for ELLs. How can teachers and students create an environment where ELLs feel safe to take risks?

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Social Communication and Academic Language Skills n Have participants view the video segment “Author Overview.” n Direct participants to the activity page titled “Social Communication and Academic

Language Skills.” n Ask participants to read the lists of conditions that typically apply to social language

development and academic language development. n Ask participants if they have noted students who seem to excel in social language but

lag behind in academic language development. Discuss the reasons that this development is common. n Have participants work in pairs to consider how to create a classroom that is optimal for

academic language development. Encourage them to look to the social language conditions to find inspiration. n Give participants 10–15 minutes to discuss and record their ideas in the My Strategies box. n Ask various participant pairs to share with the whole group their ideas and strategies.

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Think and Discuss Have participants discuss situations in which they have felt considerable anxiety because of language barriers. These experiences could include traveling in a foreign country and could extend to situations where an unfamiliar technical language was used. Then, have participants consider specific ways that language anxiety could be reduced for English language learners.

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