EDUCATORS IN RESIDENCE OVERVIEW

The First Peoples For more than two generations it has been widely believed that the first people entered North America along a land bridge connecting Asia to Alaska, and expanded south. Some time after 14,000 BP (years before present) the Late Wisconsinon Glaciation was receding and an ice free corridor existed between the Rocky Mountains and central Canada. Lower ocean levels created by the massive amount of ice still land locked, provided a relatively dry walk from Asia to North America.

[Excavated sites in South America and their currently estimated age]

Evidence of this migration continues to be found, but these were probably not the first people to colonize North America. They may have been the last migrants prior to European contact. Based on recent archaeological discoveries and new techniques in tracing genetic lineage, the first people may have colonized the Americas more than 20,000 years ago and arrived at different times from different continents. Some of the best evidence comes from South America where there is widespread evidence of human habitation with reliable dates extending beyond 13,000 years. Given that there is no evidence of people using the ice free corridor prior to 13,350 years ago, and no access was

possible before 14,000 years how could they reach and colonize South America so quickly? A land bridge to Alaska does not explain the evidence in South America. There is evidence of several very old sites in North America, the best documented and credited currently is the Meadow Croft site in Pennsylvania. This site has good evidence supporting a date of 16,800 years old. Less verifiable evidence suggests much older dates. Another site is the Bluefish caves located in the Yukon. Canadian archaeologists are confident that the area was inhabited more than 20,000 years ago. This area was not glaciated during the Wisconsinon Glaciation, but movement south was blocked by ice. Another problem lies in cultural differences between the eastern Asian cultures that would likely have crossed the land bridge and the people who lived in North and South America. Linguistics can not explain the diversity of languages found in the Americas if all these people came from a single culture, and have been isolated for less than 14,000 years. Discrepancies exist with the earliest skeletons so far found. Skulls dating over 10,000 BP are more closely related in shape to features of people from south and central Asia, Polynesians, and Australians than to modern aboriginal Americans. This suggests that multiple influences in colonization, and a long period of isolation. Stone artefacts of the earliest people in the Americas resemble the same technology used by the Solutrean culture. These people lived near Spain, used boats, and did expand into the Mediterranean region; possibly by water. The Mongoloids of Asia who were originally believed to have crossed Berengia had a very different style of fashioning stone points. Rapid advancements in the field of genetics are beginning to offer new clues about the peopling of the Americas. Initial tests suggest that colonization occurred in waves, different cultures from different continents, over extended periods of time. Based on identifiable traits with different cultures, the DNA evidence suggests that the first people may have arrived 40,000-20,000 years ago. They came from many different regions including Eurasia, East Asia, and Siberia.

The new picture beginning to emerge from this information suggests that the Americas were inhabited earlier than previously believed. Reasonably firm evidence indicates people have been here for at least 15,000 years. Less conclusive evidence suggests that the first people may have arrived 20,000 to as old as 40,000 years ago. They arrived not in one single event, but from different cultures and continents over a period of time. People may have come: 

Across the Pacific ocean to South America ( Australia has been inhabited for more than 40,000 years (by people who arrived by boat).

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From Europe by boat following the coast line and edge of the glacial ice sheets to North America.

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By boat from Asia to North America before the ice free corridor was open.

In the Beginning As the ice age ended, the landscape changed dramatically and new species invaded North America from Asia, over a land bridge connecting Alaska and Russia called Berengia. A minor extinction event occurred in North America. Whether it was caused by a combination of these changes or another event is not entirely known, but it seems reasonable to assume that one or both of these factors was in part responsible for the event. Between 12,000-9,000 BP (years before present) the American Camel, Giant Beaver (size of a black bear), Four Horn Pronghorn Antelope, Wooly Mammoth, Mastodon, Lambes Horse, Woodland Muskox, Long-Horned Bison, Sabre-tooth Cat, Giant Short-faced Bear, American Lion, and Dire Wolf disappeared.

By this time people would have been fairly well established in North America and would have witnessed and possibly participated in this extinction event. With a few exceptions people may not have spent much time in the Rockies. Game was more plentiful on the plains or open forests beyond the mountains. Weather conditions were and are more severe in mountainous areas and travel is much more restricted. These very practical considerations left the mountains relatively empty. People did travel through the mountains, and it is important to point out that virtually every pass and route discovered by the “explorers” had been travelled for generations by natives, and in most cases it was the natives who lead the way for the man credited with the region's discovery.

Prior to European contact there were several different bands living in or around the Rockies. These people were fairly nomadic and could travel great distances over extended periods of time. There may have been considerable overlap of territories, and common areas may have been used by other tribes passing through. North of the Athabasca River small loose bands of the Dene nation travelled through the Rockies. Sarcee travelled from roughly the current town of Jasper through the Prince George region. Sekani inhabited areas in the northern Rockies. Southern Jasper and into northern Banff were inhabited by the Kootenays who lived on both sides of the Rockies and are one of the few people who may have inhabited the mountains on a fairly permanent basis. To the south lived the powerful Blackfoot nation which controlled the plains and land up to the front ranges. Blood, Blackfoot, and Peigan tribes were all part of the Blackfoot nation. People from the Northern plains, Central BC plateau (probably Sushwap), and boreal forest, passed through the Jasper region. Currently there is only limited evidence of discontinuous use of the Athabasca Valley dating back 9,500 years. The Vermillion Lakes are has sites that may extend 11,000 years. The Kootenay Plains also has strong evidence of very long term and possibly semi-permanent use. Indigenous Peoples in Alberta Within Jasper National Park archaeological evidence indicates that there was discontinuous use of the Athabasca valley for the last 9,500 years. Because of the high quality of habitat for game species, and mild climate there is a strong suspicion among some archaeologists that the Athabasca Valley may have been used much more intensively than the evidence currently suggests. Very little work has been done to search for and excavate possible encampments in Jasper. Future excavations may provide new evidence to support or substantially change our understanding of early human use in the region. Indigenous people from the northern plains, Central British Columbia Plateau, and surrounding boreal forest used the Jasper area prior to any European influence. It is not known if these people were simply passing through or stayed for significant periods of time, for they were highly mobile. Even before the traders and explorers arrived, the presence of European culture reached western Canada. One of the first influences may have been the horse. Often thought of as a native species, horses were introduced to North America by the Spaniards centuries earlier. Horse populations increased and expanded across the continent, reaching western Canada by perhaps the early to mid 1700s. This was only a generation or two before the first European contact. Horses radically changed the mobility and distances indigenous people could travel. Naturally enough, European influence was first felt by the tribes indigenous to the eastern lands of North America. Some of these tribes acquired weapons and expanded their territory west well in advance of the fur trade. Others began trading with western tribes, selling European

goods at highly inflated prices. In principle they became middle men. Of these middle men, the Cree were the largest and most successful eastern tribe to move west. Cree The Cree were one of the largest tribes in Canada. There were four distinct groups based largely on geography. The Plains Cree extended into central Alberta, Woods Cree extended into northern Alberta, Swampy Cree lived in northern Manitoba, and the Moose Cree lived near Moose factory along the Hudson’s Bay. These people had a reputation of being fierce warriors and the Blackfoot were among of their enemies. Cree, especially the woodland were very active traders, and became the mainstay of the fur trade for the Hudson's Bay Company. They often served as middlemen, trading with other tribes at highly inflated prices the European goods they had acquired. As their land became barren of commercial furs the Cree moved west from their traditional territory, in part to meet the demand for pelts in trade. Well armed with European weapons, they had little difficulty expanding their territory and displacing other tribes. Though a rich and powerful tribe, the Cree were hard hit by disease and alcohol, which wiped out much of their wealth from trade. Nakoda (also known as Stoney or Assiniboine) The Nakoda have their origins among the Sioux Nation, but they became enemies and the people eventually migrated west. In the mid 1600s Nakoda are recorded living north of Lake Superior. They had First Nations allied with the Cree and drifted towards the west. Nakoda were among the first to trade with the HBC. With European weapons and the alliance with the powerful Cree nation, the Nakoda pushed west and acquired new territory. Together with the Cree they succeeded in driving the Blackfoot south and the Gros Venture north. Anthony Henday found Nakoda all along his journey into western Canada in 1754. Blackfoot Nation The Blackfoot refer to themselves as Prairie People. They were a predominantly plains nation for generations prior to European contact. Three tribes lived under the Blackfoot nation, the Peigan, Blood, and Blackfoot. They were a large and powerful nation shortly prior to contact, but like all indigenous people change happened quickly. Between 1700-1725, they obtained feral horses. One of or perhaps even the first European to mention the Blackfoot was Anthony Henday in 1754 (probably the first European to see the Rockies). Henday records that the Blackfoot were already accomplished horsemen, and had acquired knives, kettles, and guns through eastern tribes. The Blackfoot were not trappers, giving them limited access to European goods. This left them at a distinct disadvantage when the well armed Cree and Nakoda moved west. The Blackfoot were forced south after a series of battles and raids. When the traders did arrive, the Blackfoot traded primarily pemmican, a staple food in exchange for goods.

Beaver They were originally known as 'dwellers among the beaver” apparently in context to the Peace river which was then called “River of Beavers”. The Beaver hunted from Ft. Vermilion to the Rocky Mountains. They probably had a much larger territory, but when the well armed Cree advanced they were pushed further west and north. When the Beaver obtained guns, they were able to prevent the Cree from further incursions on to their traditional territory, and also attacked the more westerly Sekani tribe to acquire new territory. Sarcee These people had a reputation of being very fierce and warlike. They were allied with the Blackfoot but had their origins among the Beaver tribe. As they are regarded mostly as being resident on the plains, perhaps when the Cree drove westward, Beaver moved north, Sarcee went south to the prairie and into the foothills near the Rocky mountains. Early fur traders sometimes referred to them as the bravest of tribes. Never large in numbers, Sarcee populations suffered heavily from European diseases. Chipewyan These people lived in a much harsher and desolate land than most of the other tribes. As a result, they were known as a very hardy people who could survive in difficult conditions. They have since adopted the name Dene in association with other northerly tribes. They lived in the region between Hudson's Bay and Great Slave Lake at the time of European contact. Initially, they limited their trade to practical goods and avoided alcohol. Eventually they developed intertribal trade with the Dogribs. The purchase of guns gave the Chipewyan a tremendous advantage in battle. With new weapons the Chipewyan pushed north, attacking their traditional enemies, the Inuit, and expanded their territory. They appear to have been an aggressive or assertive nation, and battled with the Cree, and even their trading partners to control trade in their area. Slavey These were the most northerly people to inhabit Alberta. A generally peaceful tribe, they moved farther north and west with the advance of armed Cree. Shoshoni These people were known to the Blackfoot and other tribes as the Snake Indians. The Shoshoni were a traditional mountain tribe with populations in the northern United States, and into regions south of the First Nations Bow River. It is believed that the Shoshoni and Blackfoot were originally friendly, but later became enemies. The people were pushed out of Alberta prior to European contact; with the exception of a story in Jasper, where a group were killed in a deception. The Snake Indian River is named after this legend. Kootenays

The Kootenays lived predominantly on the western side of the Rockies and along the eastern slopes, in the plains extending into the front ranges. By the time of European contact they had retreated from the eastern slopes, but on occasion did return to trade with the Europeans. It is not known whether they left to protect themselves from small pox, or were driven out by better armed Blackfoot warriors. Some native people travelled west under the employ of the North West Company to serve as boatmen, guides, and trappers. Iroquois These people were not indigenous to western Canada, but moved with the Northwest Company as it progressed west. These people were especially skilled in trapping, and were encouraged by the company to expand and trap. Their success led to the rapid depletion of beaver, forcing the Iroquois to push further north and west. The Iroquois became hated by many tribes for the loss of beavers in a region and the profits it offered in trade. Several times Iroquois were murdered by indigenous tribes in retaliation for “stealing” their beaver and other fur bearing animals. To the traders however, the Iroquois were considered loyal and valued employees. Iroquois often served as boatmen, hunters, and guides to the early explorers. Treaties In order to develop the land and avoid conflicts between settlers and indigenous people the Canadian government promoted the use of treaties throughout much of Canada to clearly define ownership of the land. The Indigenous peoples were not particularly interested in the idea at first, but with devastating effect of the loss of bison and decline of beaver on their traditional livelihood, and the impact a series of small pox epidemics, they were left with little choice. By signing a treaty, these groups of Indigenous people became eligible for government assistance including food rations, and secure land. The first treaty addressing land within the Alberta region was signed in 1876. It was called Treaty Number Six and negotiated with the Cree, and Ojibwas. The treaty involved the surrender of all land in central Alberta. The second treaty, Treaty Number Seven, was signed by Blackfoot, Blood, Peigan, Sarcee, And Stoneys in 1877. This treaty involved the surrender of all land south of treaty number six. Treaty Number Eight was signed by the Beaver, Cree, Slavey, and Chipewyan in 1899. This surrendered the land of northern Alberta. All three treaties were similar in that: 

The size of the reservation was based on 5 people per sq. mile at the time of signing

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Natives were provided with farm equipment, livestock, and nets! Treaty payments of $5 per person per year, chiefs received $25, minor chiefs and councillors received $15.

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Provisions were made for hunting rights, education, and health care

The First Americans, Sharon Begley Newsweek" (Special Issue, Fall/Winter 1991, pp. 15-20) After the Ice Age, E.C. Pielou, University of Chicago Press 1992 D. Gentry Steele, The Skeletons' Tale, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 James Dixon, Coastal Navigators, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 James Dixon, Coastal Navigators, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 Jack L. Hoffman, The Clovis Hunters Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 Stuart Fiedel, The importance of context proving pre-clovis, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 Michael B. Collins, Clovis Second, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 Ruth Gruhn, The South American Twist, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 Dennis Stanford and Bruce Bradley, The Solutrean Solution, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 Theodore G. Schurr, The Story in the Genes, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. D. Gentry Steele, The Skeletons' Tale, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1 James C. Chatters, A First American Saga, Scientific American, February 2000, Vol 2, No. 1