Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Anna M. Carr James E. S. Higham Department of Tourism School of Business University of Otago Dunedin, New Zealand

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SALES ENQUIRIES Additional copies of this publication may be obtained from: The Secretary Department of Tourism School of Business University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand Website Telephone Facsimile Email

www.otago.ac.nz/tourism +64 3 479 8520 +64 3 479 9034 [email protected]

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE Authors: Publication date: Title: Place of Publication: Publisher:

Carr, A.M. and Higham, J.E.S. 2001 Ecotourism: a research bibliography Dunedin, New Zealand Department of Tourism, University of Otago

Carr, A.M. and Higham, J.E.S.; (2001) Ecotourism: a research bibliography. Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin. New Zealand.

ISBN: 0-473-08221-7

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

AC K N OW L E D G E M E N T S This bibliography forms one part of a research project funded by the Foundation for Research Science and Technology, titled Ecotourism in New Zealand: Profiling visitors to New Zealand Ecotourism Operations. This is an objective for the Sustainable Tourism programme of research carried out by the Departments of Tourism and Marketing at the University of Otago. The authors duly acknowledge Stephanie Gale and Donna Keen (Department of Tourism) who contributed to the formatting of this document.

THE AUTHORS The research team consisted of Anna Carr and James Higham from the Department of Tourism, University of Otago. Anna Carr holds the position of Lecturer at the Department of Tourism, University of Otago. Anna is currently completing a PhD that examines visitor experiences of the interpretation of cultural landscapes in New Zealand. Her academic career follows over ten years of adventure tourism and ecotourism industry experience based mainly in the central South Island. James is currently Senior Lecturer, Department of Tourism, University of Otago. He was the first PhD graduate from the Department of Tourism in 1996 and was appointed to the teaching staff at the University in 1994 while conducting his PhD research.

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INTRODUCTION The Department of Tourism, University of Otago, commenced a two-year research programme into the environmental values of ecotourists in September 1999. One of the objectives of the research project was the production of an ecotourism bibliography. The papers and publications selected for the bibliography were chosen for their relevance to the study and management of ecotourism and nature tourism activities in New Zealand. It was decided to include, in addition to New Zealand material, relevant literature from Australia, the Pacific and significant international works. The bibliography contains 949 ecotourism references with particular attention to definitions, planning, management, development, environmental values, education/interpretation, marketing and ‘best practice’ ecotourism. This document is organised into three parts and includes a full list of selected references that appear in alphabetical order, a keyword index and an annotated bibliography of material that was influential during the research period. Each reference was entered into a database managed by the Microsoft Endnote Version 4.0 software package. Where possible hard copies of references were collected and catalogued alphabetically in a filing cabinet at the Department of Tourism, University of Otago. The locating and retrieval of each item has been an ongoing process of the research. A variety of sources were consulted to locate items including academic journals, published bibliographies, texts and databases notably the Union List of Higher Degree Theses in New Zealand, New Zealand University Library catalogues, Te Puna and Index New Zealand. Weaver, D.B. (2001) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism was another useful resource. Utilising Microsoft Word provided an accessible means of upgrading the bibliography as the research proceeded. Over 1500 references relevant to the research are filed on the Endnote database. Books, general conference proceedings and published journal articles are referenced. Relevant theses and newspaper/magazine articles from New Zealand are also listed. Specific chapters or sections from books and individual papers from conference proceedings are included if they were of particular significance to the research. There exists a significant number of relevant web sites so a selection of informative, internationally recognised sites pertaining to tourism and travel in general and nature/ecotourism specifically were documented in the process of information and literature search and retrieval. However, electronic publications from the World Wide Web were excluded from this document as addresses often become nonexistent or change making the subsequent location of such items difficult. Please contact the authors through the Department of Tourism, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, with any queries related to this bibliography.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

B I B L I O G R A P H I E S C O N S U LT E D : Australian Heritage Commission (1994) Tourism for the future: a selected bibliography on ecotourism and cultural tourism. Australian Government Pub. Service, Canberra. Bassett, B. (1996) Tourism Research Bibliography, 1994-1996. Tourism Policy Group, Ministry of Commerce, Wellington. Eagles, P.F.J. and Nilsen, P. (1997) Ecotourism: an annotated bibliography for planners and managers. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington, Vermont. Peebles, C.J. (1995) Outdoor Recreation in New Zealand, Volume 2: a bibliography. Department of Conservation and Lincoln University, New Zealand. Twynam, D., Johnston, M., Payne, B. and Kingston, S. (1998) Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Guidelines: an annotated bibliography. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington, Vermont.

K E Y J O U R N A L S C O N S U LT E D I N C L U D E D : Ambio Annals of Tourism Research Australian Geographical Studies Australian Journal of Hospitality Management Biodiversity and Conservation Biological Conservation Conservation Biology Current Issues in Tourism Environment and Behaviour Environmental Conservation Environmental Management Environmental Perspectives International Journal of Hospitality Management International Journal of Tourism Research Journal of Applied Social Psychology Journal of Biogeography Journal of Environmental Education Journal of Interpretation Research Journal of Leisure Research Journal of Parks and Recreation Administration Journal of Sustainable Tourism Journal of Tourism Studies Journal of Travel Research Journal of Vacation Marketing Leisure and Recreation Leisure Sciences New Zealand Geographer Ocean and Coastal Management Pacific Tourism Review Tourism Analyst Tourism Economics Tourism Management Tourism Recreation Research Wildlife Society Bulletin

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Acott, T.G., Trobe, H.L. and Howard, S. (1998) An evaluation of deep ecotourism and shallow ecotourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 6(3): 238-253. Agardy, M.T. (1993) Accommodating ecotourism in multiple use planning of coastal and marine protected areas. Ocean and Coastal Management 20(3): 219-239. Aiello, R. (1998) Interpretation and the marine tourism industry, who needs it? A case study of Great Adventures, Australia. Journal of Tourism Studies 9(1): 51-61. Airey, S. (1995) Ecotourism: a mechanism for selling the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Thesis for MSc in Resource Management, Lincoln University. Akama, J.S. (1996) Western environmental values and nature-based tourism in Kenya. Tourism Management 17(8): 567-574. Albuquerque, K.D. and McElroy, J.L. (1992) Caribbean Small-Island Tourism Styles and Sustainable Strategies. Environmental Management 16(5): 619-632. Alcock, A., Jones, B., Lane, S. and Grant, J. (1994) National Ecotourism Strategy. Commonwealth Department of Tourism, Canberra, Australia. Alcock, D. and Woodley, S. (2000) Collaborative marine tourism research. In: McArthur, S. and Dowling, R. (eds) Australia - the World’s Natural Theme Park Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, National Conference 1999, Fraser Island, Queensland. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 165-170. Alderman, C.L. (1990) A study of the role of privately owned lands used for nature tourism, education and conservation. Conservation International, Washington. Alderman, C. (1994) The economics and the role of privately owned lands used for nature tourism, education and conservation. In: Munasinghe, M. and McNeely, J. (eds) Protected Area Economics and Policy: Linking Conservation and Sustainable Development. IUCN and the World Bank, Washington, DC, pp. 273-305. Aldrete, L. E. (1996) Is ecotourism sustainable development? : a case study in Toledo, Belize. MA Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles. Alexander, S. (1997) Non-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation: applying a conceptual framework to the Royal Albatross colony on Taiaroa Head. Dissertation for Diploma in Tourism, Centre for Tourism. Dunedin, University of Otago. Allcock, A., Jones, B. et al. (1994) National Ecotourism Strategy. Commonwealth Department of Tourism, Canberra, Australia. Almagor, U. (1990) A Tourist’s ‘Vision Quest’ in an African Game Reserve. Annals of Tourism Research 11(3): 31-47. Amante-Helweg, V. (1995) Cultural Perspectives of Dolphins by Ecotourists Participating in a Swim With Dolphins Programme in the Bay of Islands, MA Thesis, University of Auckland, New Zealand. Amante-Helweg, V. (1996) Ecotourists’ beliefs and knowledge about dolphins and the development of cetacean ecotourism. Aquatic Mammals 22(2): 131-140. Amdal, D. (1992) Marketing by adding value. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 253-254. Andersen, D. (1993) A Window to the Natural World: the design of ecotourism facilities. In Ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers. K. Lindberg and D. E. Hawkins. Bennington, V.T., Ecotourism Society, pp. 116-133. Anderson, D. L. (1994) Developing Ecotourism Destinations: Conservation from the Beginning. Trends 31(2): 31-38. Anderson, H. (1993) Tourism to Ecotourism: An emerging philosophy for tourism planning. MA Thesis, Department of Planning, University of Auckland. Anderson, H. (1996) Coromandel guided-tour tourism plan biggest for many years. The Dominion: 1 March 1996, p 22. Anderson, M. (1982) A Winter Tramp of the Heaphy Track. Forest and Bird August 1982, 14(3): 22-24. Anderson, M. (1991) Green Tourism: a study of New Zealand. Dissertation, Post-Graduate Diploma in Tourism, Centre for Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin. Anderson, M. (1996) From sea to sea: ecotourism Trends in Alaska and Canada. Report to Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board, Wellington. Anderson, M. J. (1986) Tourism development in the Baffin region: an examination of tourism development in Canada’s eastern arctic. MA Geography thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa. Anderson, S. (1995) Ethics and green marketing: with a special analysis of the ecotourism industry. Dissertation, Department of Marketing, University of Otago, Dunedin.

Ecotourism: a research bibliography

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

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F 269. Fagence, M. (1997) Ecotourism and Pacific Island Countries: the first generation of strategies: The Journal of Tourism Studies 8(2): 26-38. 270. Fagence, M. (1995) Ecotourism and Pacific Island nations: towards a realistic interpretation of feasibility Centre des hautes etudes touristiques, Series No. 189, Aix-en-Provence, France. 271. Faila, I.O. (1992) Tourism: protecting indigenous cultures from modern cultures by managing the landscape. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 79-85. 272. Farrell, B.H. and Runyan, D. (1991) Ecology and Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 18(1): 26-40. 273. Fennell, D.A. (1998) Ecotourism in Canada. Annals of Tourism Research 25(1): 231-234. 274. Fennell, D.A. (1999) Ecotourism: an introduction. Routledge, New York. 275. Fennell, D.A. (2000) What’s in a name? Conceptualising natural resource-based tourism. Tourism Recreation Research 25(1): 97-100. 276. Fennell, D.A. (2001) Anglo-America. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 107-122. 277. Fennell, D.A. (2001) Areas and needs in Ecotourism Research. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. pp. 639-656. 278. Fennell, D.A., Buckley, R. and Weaver, D.B. (2001) Policy and Planning. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 463-478. 279. Fennell, D.A. and Eagles, P.F.J. (1989) Ecotourism in Costa Rica: a conceptual framework. Journal of Parks and Recreation Administration 8(1): 23-24. 280. Fennell, D.A. and Malloy, D.C. (1995) Ethics and ecotourism: a comprehensive ethical model. Journal of Applied Recreation Research 12: 163-183. 281. Fennell, D.A. and Malloy, D.C. (1999) Measuring the ethical nature of tourism operators. Annals of Tourism Research 26(4): 928-943. 282. Fennell, D.A. and Smale, B.J. (1992) Ecotourism and natural resource protection. Tourism Recreation Research 17(1): 21-32. 283. Field, G. and Shea, S. (1996) Tour accreditation - beyond licences and workshops. In: Richins, H., Richardson, J. and Crabtree, A. (eds) Ecotourism and nature based tourism: taking the next steps. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National Conference, Alice Springs, Northern Territory, 18-23 November 1995. Brisbane, Ecotourism Association of Australia, pp. 211-213. 284. Figgis, P. (1993) Ecotourism: special interest or major direction? Habitat Australia 21(1): 8-11. 285. Filani, M.O. (1975) The role of national tourist associations in the preserving of the environment in Africa. Journal of Travel Research 13(4): 7-12. 286. Fillion, F.L., Foley, J.P. and Jacquemot, A.J. (1994) The economics of global ecotourism. In: Munasinghe, M. and J. McNeely (eds) Protected Area Economics and Policy, Linking Conservation and Sustainable Development, The World Bank, Washington, DC. pp: 235-252. 287. Finlayson, J.D. (1992) Issues in Aboriginal Cultural tourism: possibilities for a sustainable industry. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 66-69. 288. Finucane, S. and Dowling, R.K. (1995) The perceptions of ecotourism operators in Western Australia. Tourism Recreation Research 20(1): 14-21. 289. Fischer, J. (1992) Ecotourism in the South Pacific and the Central European Client. In: Hay, J.E. (ed.) Ecotourism Business in the Pacific: promoting a sustainable experience Conference Proceedings, Environmental Science Occasional Publication No. 8., Environmental Science, University of Auckland and New Zealand and East West Centre, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. 290. Flognfeldt Jnr, T. (1997) Eco-Tourism in remote areas of Norway - just a green makeup? In Byron, R. et al (eds) Sustainable Development on the North Atlantic Margin. Ashgate, pp. 79-86. 291. Foehr, S. (1993) Eco-journeys: the world guide to ecologically aware travel and adventure. Noble Press, Chicago. 292. Font, X. and Tribe, J. (2000) (eds) Forest tourism and recreation: case studies in environmental management. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 293. Font, X. and Buckley, R. (2001) (eds) Tourism ecolabelling: certification and promotion of sustainable management CABI Publishing Ltd, Wallingford, Oxon, UK. 294. Font, X. and Tribe, J. (2001) Promoting Green Tourism: the Future of Environmental Awards. International Journal of Tourism Research, 3: 9-21. 295. Fowkes, J. and Fowkes, S. (1991) Roles for private sector ecotourism in protected areas. Parks 2(3): 26-30.

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G 301. Gardner, J. (2001) Accommodations. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 525-534. 302. Garrett, P. (2000) Perspectives of tourism and the environment in Australia. In: McArthur, S. and Dowling, R. (eds) Australia - the World’s Natural Theme Park Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, National Conference 1999, Fraser Island, Queensland. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, 10-13. 303. Garth, R. M. (1997) Dunedin - Wildlife Capital of New Zealand: a review of the development, future and perspectives of operators and organisations associated with wildlife tourism in Dunedin. Dissertation thesis for Diploma in Tourism, Centre for Tourism University of Otago, Dunedin. 304. Gauthier, D. (1993) Sustainable Development, Tourism and Wildlife. In: Nelson J.G., Butler, R. and Wall, G. (eds) Tourism and Sustainable Development, pp. 97-109. 305. planning. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 2(3): 152-173. 306. Giannecchini, J. (1993) Ecotourism, new partners, new relationships. Conservation Biology 7(2): 429432. 307. Gilbert, J. (1997) Ecotourism means business. Government Press Publications Wellington. 308. Goodall, B. (1995) Environmental auditing: a tool for assessing the environmental performance of tourism firms. Geographical Journal 161(1): 29-37. 309. Goodfellow, D. (1992) Hosts versus guests - the desires and concerns on Society Expedition’s ship ‘World Discoverer’. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp.26-29. 310. Goodfellow, D. (1992) Male black whip snakes are well equipped…or, can Cryptoblepharus Carnabyi compete with sun, sand and sex? In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 224-227. 311. Goodwin, H. (1996) In pursuit of ecotourism. Biodiversity and Conservation 5: 277-291. 312. Goodwin, H. et al. (1998) Tourism, conservation, and sustainable development : case studies from Asia and Africa. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. 313. Gordon, J. Leaper, R., Hartley, F.G. and Chappell, O. (1992) Effects of Whale Watching Vessels on the Surface and Underwater Acoustic Behaviour of Sperm Whales off Kaikoura, New Zealand. Science and Research Series No. 52, Department of Conservation, Wellington. 314. Gould, J. (1991) Nature Tourism takes off in Fiji. Maruia Summer 1991. 315. Grant, J. and Allcock, A. (1998) National planning limitations, objectives and lessons. In: Lindberg, K., Epler Wood, M. and Engeldrum, D. (eds) (1998) Ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers Volume 2. The Ecotourism Society: North Bennington, Vermont, pp. 119-132. 316. Grifone, R. and Weiler, B. (1992) The learning experience on educational travel programs: a case study of TraveLearn Australia. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 265-270. 317. Groom, M., Podolsky, R. and Munn, C. (1991) Tourism as a sustained use of wildlife: a case study of Madre de Dios, southeastern Peru. In: Robinson, J.G. and Redford, K.H. (eds) Neotropical wildlife use and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 393-412. 318. Groome, D. (1991) Is your journey really necessary? Transport and Green tourism. Interpretation Journal (49): 14-16. 319. Grossmith, S. (1998) Ecotourism: a sustainable option for the Solomon Islands. Thesis for Masters of Geography, University of Auckland. 320. Grotta, D. and Grotta, S.W. (1992) The Green Travel sourcebook: a guide for the physically active, the intellectually curious, or the socially aware. John Wiley and Sons, New York. 321. Gurung, G. and De Coursey, M. (1994) The Annapurna Conservation Area project: a pioneering example of sustainable tourism? In: Cater, E. and Lowman, G. (eds) Ecotourism: a sustainable option? John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Chichester, U.K., pp. 177-194. 322. Guy, B., Curtis, W.W. and Crotts, J.C. (1990) Environmental Learning of First-Time Travellers. Annals of Tourism Research (17): 419-431.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

W 824. Walker, S.L. (1997) Perceived impacts of ecotourism development. Annals of Tourism Research 24(3): 743-745. 825. Wall, G. (1994) Ecotourism: old wine in new bottles? Trends 31(2): 4-9. 826. Wallace, D. (1990) The right link between wilderness and tourism. Parks and Recreation 25(9): 6366, 111-112. 827. Wallace, D. (1992) Is ‘Eco’ tourism for real? Landscape Architecture 82(8): 34-36. 828. Wallace, G. (1993) Wildlands and ecotourism in Latin America. Journal of Forestry 19(2): 37-40. 829. Wallace, G. and Pierce, S. (1996) An evaluation of ecotourism in Amazonas, Brazil. Annals of Tourism Research 23(4): 843-873. 830. Wallace, J. (1993) Visitor management: lessons from Galapagos National Park. In: Lindberg, K. and Hawkins, D. (eds) Ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington, Vermont. 831. Ward, B., Wells, J. and Kennedy, M. (eds) (1991) Tourism education in Australia and New Zealand, Conference Papers, Bureau Tourism Research, Canberra. 832. Ward, J. and Beanland, R. (1995) Biophysical Impacts of Tourism. Information Paper No. 56, Centre for Resource Management, Lincoln University, Canterbury. 833. Ward, J. and R. Beanland (1996) Development of environmental indicators for tourism in natural areas: a preliminary study. Information Paper No. 53, Centre for Resource Management, Lincoln University, Canterbury. 834. Ward, J. (2000) Measuring the economic value of recreation and tourism on Fraser Island. In: McArthur, S. and Dowling, R. (eds) Australia - the World’s Natural Theme Park Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, National Conference 1999, Fraser Island, Queensland. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 63-69. 835. Warner, E. (1989) Ecotourism! Can binoculars, cameras and daypacks be the rainforest’s new hope. Environmental Action 21(2): 18-21. 836. Warner, E. (1991) Ecotourism: new hope for Rainforests. American Forests April: 37-40. 837. Warren, J.A.N. and Taylor, C.N. (1993) Under the Microscope - Developing Ecotourism in New Zealand. NZ Science Monthly 6(11): 12-13. 838. Warren, J.A.N. and Taylor, C.N. (1994) Ecotourism development in New Zealand. Paper presented at Tourism Down Under: A Tourism Research Conference, Massey University. Department of Management Studies, Massey University. 839. Warren, J.A.N. and Taylor, C.N. (1994) Whales, penguins, kauri and glowworms: the potential of ecotourism for sustainable resource development in New Zealand. Paper presented at the IAIA Conference, Quebec City, Canada. 840. Warren, J.A.N. and Taylor, C.N. (1994) Developing eco-tourism in New Zealand. NZ Institute for Social Research and Development, Wellington. 841. Watkinson, R. (2000) Visitor management in the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area. In: McArthur, S. and Dowling, R. (eds) Australia - the World’s Natural Theme Park Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, National Conference 1999, Fraser Island, Queensland. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 124-129. 842. Watson, H. (1997) Outlook: Adventure and Culture Naturally. The Dominion. Wellington (28 October 1997): 19. 843. Wearing, S. (1993) Ecotourism: the Santa Elena rainforest project. The Environmentalist 13, 15-135. 844. Wearing, S. (1995) Professionalism and accreditation of ecotourism. Leisure and Recreation 37(4): 31-36. 845. Wearing, S. (2001) Exploring Socio-cultural impacts on local communities. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. pp. 395-410. 846. Wearing, S. and Larsen, L. (1996) Assessing and managing the sociocultural impacts of ecotourism: revisiting the Santa Elena rainforest project The Environmentalist 16: 117-133. 847. Wearing, S. and Neil, J. (1999) Ecotourism: impacts, potentials, and possibilities. ButterworthHeinemann, Oxford. 848. Wearing, S. and Parsonson, R. (1991) Rainforest Tourism. Tourism Management (September): 236244. 849. Weaver, D.B. (1991) Alternative to mass tourism in Dominica. Annals of Tourism Research 18: 414432. 850. Weaver, D.B. (1993) Ecotourism in the small island Caribbean. Geojournal 31(4): 457-465. 851. Weaver, D.B. (1994) Ecotourism in the Caribbean Basin. In: Cater, E. and Lowman, G. (eds) Ecotourism: a sustainable option? John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Chichester, U.K., pp. 159-176. 852. Weaver, D.B. (1995) Alternative tourism in Montserrat. Tourism Management 16(8): 593-604.

49

853. Weaver, D.B. (1997) A regional framework for planning ecotourism in Saskatchewan. Canadian Geographer 41, 281-293. 854. Weaver, D.B. (1998) Ecotourism in the less developed world. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 855. Weaver, D.B. (1998) Strategies for the development of deliberate ecotourism in the South Pacific. Pacific Tourism Review 2: 53-66. 856. Weaver, D.B. (1999) Magnitude of ecotourism in Costa Rica and Kenya. Annals of Tourism Research 26(4): 792-816. 857. Weaver, D.B. (2000) Tourism and national parks in ecologically vulnerable areas. In: Butler, R.W. and Boyd, S. (eds) (2000) Tourism and National Parks: issues and implications. Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 107-124. 858. Weaver, D.B. (ed.) (2001) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 859. Weaver, D.B. (2001) Ecotourism in the Context of Other Tourism Types. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 73-84. 860. Weaver, D.B. (2001) Deserts, Grasslands and Savannahs. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 251-264. 861. Weaver, D.B., Faulkner, B. and Lawton, L. (1999) Nature based tourism in Australia and beyond: a preliminary investigation, CRC Tourism, Griffith University, Queensland. 862. Weaver, D.B., Glenn, C. and Rounds, R. (1996) Private ecotourism operations in Manitoba, Canada. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 4(3): 135-146. 863. Weaver, D.B. and Schluter, R. (2001) Latin America and the Caribbean. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 173-188. 864. Weaver, S. (1991) Taking Tourism to the Bush. Pacific Islands Monthly 61(12): 54-55. 865. Weaver, S. (1991) Wabu Creek Kauri Forest: A Fijian Success Story. Forest and Bird 23(1): 35-38. 866. Weaver, S. (1992) Nature Tourism as a means of protecting indigenous forest resources in Fiji Journal of Pacific Studies 16: 63-73. 867. Weiler, B. (1992) Educating the tourist: who’s responsible? In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 288-292. 868. Weiler, B., (ed.) (1992) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra. 869. Weiler, B. (1993) Nature Based Tour Operators. Are They Environmentally Friendly Or Are They Faking It? Tourism Recreation Research, 18(1): 55-60. 870. Weiler, B. and Crabtree, A. (compilers) (1996) Directory of ecotourism education: a directory of training courses, education resource materials and useful contacts for ecotourism in Australia. Commonwealth Department of Tourism, Canberra. 871. Weiler, B. and Crabtree, A. (1999) Assessing ecotour guide performance: findings from the field. In: Weir, B., McArthur, S. and Crabtree, A. (eds) (eds) Developing Ecotourism into the Millennium. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National Conference 1998, Margaret River, Western Australia. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 50-53. 872. Weiler, B. and Davis, D. (1993) An exploratory investigation into the roles of the nature-based tour leader. Tourism Management 14(2): 91-98. 873. Weiler, B. and Hall, C.M. (eds) (1992) Special Interest Tourism. Belhaven Press, London. 874. Weiler, B. and Ham, S. (2001) Tour Guides and Interpretation. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 549-564. 875. Weiler, B., Johnson, T. and Davis, D. (1992) Roles of the tour leader in environmentally responsible tourism. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 228-233. 876. Weiler, B. and Richins, H. (1995) Extreme, extravagant and elite: a profile of ecotourists on Earthwatch Expeditions. Tourism Recreation Research 20(1): 29-36. 877. Weir, B., McArthur, S. and Crabtree, A. (eds) (eds) (1999) Developing Ecotourism into the Millennium. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National conference 1998, Margaret River, Western Australia. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane. 878. Wells, M. (1993) Neglect of Biological Riches: the economics of nature tourism in Nepal Biodiversity and Conservation 2: 445-464. 879. Wells, M. (1997) Economic Perspectives on Nature Tourism, Conservation and Development. Environment Department Environmental Economic Series Paper No. 55, The World Bank, Washington, DC. 880. Wells, M. and Brandon, K. (1992) People and Parks: linking protected area management with local communities. The World Bank, Washington, DC. 881. Wen, J.J. and Tisdell, C.A. (2001) Tourism and China’s development : policies, regional economic growth and ecotourism World Scientific, Singapore.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

882. Western, D. (1993) Defining Ecotourism. In: Lindberg, K. and Hawkins, D. (eds) Ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington, VT, pp. 7-11. 883. Western, D. (1993) Ecosystem conservation and rural development: the case of Amboseli. In: Western, D., Wright, M. and Strum, S. (eds) Natural connections: perspectives in community-based conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 15-52. 884. Western, D., Wright, M. and Strum, S. (eds) (1993) Natural connections: perspectives in communitybased conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC. 885. Western, D. and Henry, W. (1997) Economics and conservation in Third World national parks. BioScience 29(7): 414-418. 886. Westlake, J. and Diamantis, D. (1998) The application of environmental auditing to the management of sustainability within tourism. Tourism Recreation Research 23(2) 887. Wheeller, B. (1991) Tourism’s troubled times: responsible tourism is not the answer. Tourism Management 12(2): 91-96. 888. Wheeller, B. (1993) Sustaining the ego. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 3(1): 29-44. 889. Wheeller, B. (1994) Ecotourism: a ruse by any other name. In Cooper, C. and A. Lockwood (eds) Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management, Vol. 7. Belhaven Press, London, pp. 311. 890. Wheeller, B. (1995) Egotourism, sustainable tourism and the environment - a symbiotic, symbolic or shambolic relationship? In Seaton, A.V. (ed.) Tourism the State of the Art John Wiley and Sons, Brisbane, pp. 647-654. 891. Wheeler, M. (1992) The emergence of ethics in tourism and hospitality. Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Management 6: 46-56. 892. Whelan, H. (1988) Nature Tourism. Environmental Conservation 15(2): 182. 893. Whelan, T. (1991) Ecotourism and its role in sustainable development. In: T. Whelan (ed.) Nature Tourism: managing for the environment. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp. 3-23. 894. Whelan, T. (1991) Nature Tourism: managing for the environment. Island Press, Washington DC. 895. White, A. (1994) Marine reserves: a whole new world to see. Dissertation for the Diploma of Tourism, Centre for Tourism. University of Otago, Dunedin. 896. White, H. W. (1994) Natural way for tourism to evolve. Sunday Star Times: C9. 897. Wight, P.A. (1993) Ecotourism: ethics or eco-sell? Journal of Travel Research 31(3): 3-9. 898. Wight, P.A. (1993) Sustainable tourism: balancing economic, environmental and social goals within an ethical framework. Journal of Tourism Studies 4, 54-66. 899. Wight, P.A. (1994) Environmentally responsible marketing of tourism. In: Cater, E. and Lowman, G.L. (eds) Ecotourism: a sustainable option? John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 39-56. 900. Wight, P.A. (1993) Sustainable ecotourism: balancing economic, environmental and social goals within an ethical framework. The Journal of Tourism Studies 4(2): 54-66. 901. Wight, P.A. (1996) North American Ecotourism Markets: motivations, preferences and destinations. Journal of Travel Research 35(1) Summer 1996: 3-10. 902. Wight, P.A. (1996) North American Ecotourists: market profile and trip characteristics. Journal of Travel Research Spring 1996: 2-10. 903. Wight, P.A. (1997) Ecotourism accommodation spectrum: does supply match the demand. Tourism Management 18(4): 209-220. 904. Wight, P.A. (1999) Opening the door to market trends in ecotourism accommodation. In: Weir, B., McArthur, S. and Crabtree, A. (eds) (eds) Developing Ecotourism into the Millennium. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National Conference 1998, Margaret River, Western Australia. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 89-93. 905. Wight, P.A. (1999) Bundling, Branding and Bellyaching: where is ecotourism going internationally? In: Weir, B., McArthur, S. and Crabtree, A. (eds) (eds) Developing Ecotourism into the Millennium. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National Conference 1998, Margaret River, Western Australia. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 109-113. 906. Wight, P.A. (2001) Ecotourists: not a homogenous market segment. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 37-62. 907. Wild, C. (1999) Lessons from developing and marketing ecotourism: a view from Canada. In: Weir, B., McArthur, S. and Crabtree, A. (eds) Developing Ecotourism into the Millennium. Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia National Conference 1998, Margaret River, Western Australia. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 100-102. 908. Wilkie, D.S. and Carpenter, J. (1999) Can nature tourism help finance protected areas in the Congo Basin? Oryx 33(4): 333-339. 909. Williams, P.W. (1992) A local framework for ecotourism development. Western Wildlands 18(3): 1419. 910. Williams, P.W. (1992) Tourism and the environment: no place to hide. World Leisure and Recreation 34(2): 13-17.

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911. Williams, W.E. (1994) Ecotourism and interpretation in Costa Rica: parallels and peregrinations. Legacy 5(4) 912. Williams, P.W., Singh, T.V. and Schluter, R. (2001) Mountain Ecotourism: creating a sustainable future. In: Weaver, D.B. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, pp. 205-218. 913. Williamson, D. (2000) Dead men talking: the Griffiths Island nature and heritage trail. In: McArthur, S. and Dowling, R. (eds) Australia - the World’s Natural Theme Park Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, National Conference 1999, Fraser Island, Queensland. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 31-35. 914. Wilson, C. and Tisdell, C. (2001) Sea turtles as a non-consumptive tourism resource especially in Australia Tourism Management 22: 279-288. 915. Wilson, G. (1993) Ecotourism: a sensitive approach to Australia’s natural wonders. Central Queensland Journal of Regional Development 2(1) 916. Wilson, M.A. and Laarman, J.G. (1988) Nature tourism and enterprise development in Ecuador. World Leisure and Recreation 29/30(1): 22-27. 917. Wilson, P.M. (1993) Commercial Wildlife Viewing Tourism in the South Island: A Comparative Analysis. Masters of Geography, Department of Geography. University of Canterbury, Christchurch. 918. Wilson, P.M. (1993) Tourists participating in commercial wildlife viewing in the South Island. In: Proceedings of the 17th conference of the New Zealand Geographical Society, 30 August- 2 September 1993, Victoria University, Wellington: 527-531. 919. Wood, M.E. (1991) Global Solutions: an Ecotourism Society. In: Whelan, T. (ed.) Nature Tourism: managing the environment. Island Press, Washington DC. 920. Wood, M.E. (1992) Ecotourism is tested as global conservation strategy. The Ecotourism Society (Spring/Summer): 1-4. 921. Wood, M.E. (1993) Ecotourism Guidelines for Nature Tour Operators International Ecotourism Society: Bennington, Vermont. 922. Wood, M.E. (1998) New Directions in the Ecotourism Industry. In: Lindberg, K., Epler Wood, M. and Engeldrum, D. (eds) Ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers Volume 2. The Ecotourism Society: North Bennington, Vermont, pp. 45-62. 923. Wood, M.E. (1999) Ecotourism, sustainable development and cultural survival: protecting indigenous culture and land through ecotourism. Cultural Survival 23(2): 25-59. 924. Wood, M.E., and Engeldrum, D. (1993) Ecotourism: a guide for planners and managers. The Ecotourism Society, North Bennington, Vermont. 925. Woods, B. (2000) Using wildlife to attract tourists: the tourists’ perspective. In: McArthur, S. and Dowling, R. (eds) Australia - the World’s Natural Theme Park Proceedings of the Ecotourism Association of Australia, National Conference 1999, Fraser Island, Queensland. Ecotourism Association of Australia, Brisbane, pp. 36-40. 926. Woods, B. and Moscardo, G. (1998) Understanding Australian, Japanese and Taiwanese Ecotourists in the Pacific Rim region. Pacific Tourism Review 1(3): 329-339. 927. World Tourism Organisation and UNEP (1992) Guidelines: Development of National Parks and Protected Areas for Tourism, Tourism and the Environment, WTO, UNEP-IE/PAC Technical Report Series No. 13. 928. World Wildlife Fund, UK (2000) Tourism certification: an analysis of Green Globe 21 and other tourism certification programmes. A report by Synergy for WWF-UK, World Wildlife Fund, United Kingdom. 929. Worrell, R. (2000) Growing Ecotourism: Gerry McSweeney, ecotourism entrepreneur NZ Business July 2001, 14(6) 8-11. 930. Wright, M. (1998) Ecotourism on Otago Peninsula. Science for Conservation Series, Department of Conservation, Wellington.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Y 931. Yee, J. G. (1992) Ecotourism market survey: a survey of North American ecotourism tour operators. Intelligence Centre Pacific Asia Travel Association, San Francisco. 932. Young, D. (1991) Ecotourism: marketing our heritage. Terra Nova: (December) 12: 14-17. 933. Young, G. (1992) Educating the destination community about tourism: information and participation. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 281-284. 934. Young, M. (1992) Ecotourism - profitable conservation? In: Hay, J.E. (ed.) Ecotourism Business in the Pacific: promoting a sustainable experience Conference Proceedings, Environmental Science Occasional Publication No. 8. Environmental Science, University of Auckland and East West Centre, University of Hawaii. Pp 55-60. 935. Young, M. (1992) Should international conservation organisations like WWF be involved in travel clubs? In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: incorporating the Global Classroom: 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 221-223. 936. Young, M. (1999) Cognitive maps of nature-based tourists. Annals of Tourism Research 26(4): 817839. 937. Young, N. (1997) Potentially positive: the Karori Reservoir Wildlife Sanctuary and wildlife viewing recreation in the Wellington region. Dissertation for Diploma of Tourism, Centre for Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin. 938. Yu, D.W., Hendrickson, T. and Castillo, A. (1997) Ecotourism and conservation in Amazonian Peru: short-term and long-term challenges. Environmental Conservation 24, 130-138. 939. Yuan, M.S. and Moisey, N. (1992) The characteristics and economic significance of visitors attracted to Montana Wildlands. Western Wildlands 18(3): 20-24.

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Z 940. Zeinert, O. (1984) Forest and Bird Summer Camp. Forest and Bird 15(2): 12-13. 941. Zell, L. (1992) Ecotourism of the future - the vicarious experience. In: Weiler, B., (ed.) Ecotourism: Incorporating the Global Classroom 1991 international conference papers, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Bureau of Tourism Research, Canberra, pp. 30-35. 942. Zeppell, H. (1998) Land and culture: sustainable tourism and indigenous peoples. In: Hall, C.M. and Lew, A. (eds) (1998) Sustainable tourism: a geographical perspective. Addison Wesley Longman Ltd, Harlow, UK. 943. Ziffer, K. A. (1989) Ecotourism, the uneasy alliance. Conservation International, Washington, DC.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

MISCELLANEOUS 944. 945. 946. 947.

(1995) Outlook: tourism to the rescue. Dominion. Wellington (26 Sept 1995): 12. (1995) Talk of Tourism for Tomorrow. Pacific Way February: 18. (1996) Islands to Become a Nature Tourism Venture. Te Maori News: Feb 1996 5(2): 13. (1997) Whale Watch - the Kahurangi of the Ngai Tahu waka huia. Te Karaka: The Ngai Tahu Magazine Spring 1997(6): 8-12. 948. (1998) Tourism Award for Mount Bruce. The Dominion. Wellington, 18 December 1998: 6. 949. (1999) Fijian Ecotourism Gets NZ Govt Aid. Travel Trade April 16 1999, p 1.

55

K E Y WO R D I N D E X Keyword

Reference number

Aborigine

134, 145, 271, 287, 296, 371, 534, 847.

Accommodation (ecolodges)

29, 37, 38, 39, 53, 193, 301, 307, 357, 434, 587, 597, 709, 774, 805, 847, 903, 904.

Accreditation: see ‘certification’ Africa

5, 14, 47, 180, 221, 255, 285, 312, 371, 392, 393, 397, 400, 401, 411, 419, 430, 464, 475, 524, 596, 612-614, 613, 660, 711, 727, 741, 757, 758, 767, 794, 795, 823, 847, 856, 883, 908, 909.

Albatross

12, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 388.

Antarctica

45, 63, 133, 162, 171, 173, 174, 328, 329, 331, 334, 335, 336, 710, 763, 771, 780, 790, 847.

Arctic

24, 25, 335, 336, 383, 531, 532, 533, 610, 681, 754, 900.

Australia

3, 7, 8, 13, 65, 67, 83, 84, 122, 128, 133, 134, 135, 137, 142, 152, 182, 188, 201, 237, 238, 239, 241, 255, 268, 288, 302, 307, 316, 333, 338, 354, 365, 369, 371, 412, 427, 445, 478, 482, 517, 534, 536-546, 549, 555, 556, 567, 578, 582, 590, 591, 618-630, 649, 668, 671, 675, 688, 703, 730, 734, 735, 737, 782, 805, 806, 807, 822, 831, 834, 841, 847, 861, 868, 869, 870, 873, 876, 877, 913, 914, 915.

Belize

11, 70, 95, 156, 161, 209, 394, 440, 500, 502, 608, 633, 664, 769.

‘Best Practice’

193, 343, 355, 421, 652, 668, 814, 847, 928.

Bird life

12, 22, 29, 54, 55, 136, 138, 182, 184, 251, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 388, 405, 408, 442, 448, 585, 590, 591, 599, 706, 715, 775, 839, 847, 865, 930.

Borneo

181

Canada

24, 25, 47, 106, 107, 108, 151, 162, 207, 246, 252, 253, 259, 264, 273, 355, 370, 408, 409, 454, 479, 610, 682, 713, 787, 847, 853, 862, 907.

Caribbean

6, 11, 40, 69, 70, 150, 156, 161, 209, 225, 279, 394, 414, 424, 425, 440, 472, 473, 484, 500, 501, 502, 515, 565, 608, 632, 633, 654, 656, 658, 664, 698, 729, 730, 750, 769, 847, 849, 850, 851, 854, 856, 911.

Certification

7, 24, 53, 94, 191, 220, 223, 283, 293, 355, 420, 421, 425, 479, 511, 538, 599, 604, 632, 676, 688, 797, 844, 847, 870, 871, 886, 928.

China

429, 796, 801, 881

Coastal

2, 118, 136, 186, 201, 203, 246, 372, 405, 426, 570, 588, 817, 819.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Community

30, 67, 78, 87, 93, 120, 150, 160, 178, 183, 188, 197, 209, 235, 240, 242, 305, 352, 353, 357, 394, 494, 503, 512, 517, 535, 558, 595, 608, 632, 652, 716, 734, 750, 764, 823, 845-847, 880, 883, 884, 933.

Conservation

5, 86, 95, 96, 97, 101, 114, 126, 130, 132, 133, 134, 136, 144, 150, 166, 168, 170, 172, 179, 184, 195, 199, 212, 239, 241, 306, 311, 312, 317, 321, 361, 362, 368, 376, 378, 379, 380, 395, 396, 397, 398, 406-409, 413, 425, 429, 431-433, 446, 451, 464, 466, 467, 470, 474, 489, 500, 517, 561, 562, 594, 596, 602, 608, 611, 612, 632, 635, 636, 645, 664, 669, 684, 687, 692, 706, 708, 711, 741, 751-753, 759, 765, 767, 770, 772, 798, 802, 820, 821, 847, 879, 883, 884, 885, 920, 934, 935, 938.

Coromandel

21, 28.

Costa Rica

40, 69, 95, 150, 279, 414, 424, 425, 472, 473, 484, 501, 515, 565, 632, 654, 656, 698, 847, 854, 856, 911.

Department of Conservation

12, 52, 170-176, 194, 195, 312, 313, 375-380, 388, 602, 603, 706, 775, 833, 838, 839, 930.

Dolphins

7, 15, 16, 51, 52, 68, 72, 133, 194, 195, 395-398, 453, 521, 618, 619, 620, 623, 625, 636, 702, 730, 731.

Education

9, 14-16, 59, 64, 66, 72, 195, 203, 204, 218, 227, 259, 316, 326, 345, 347, 348, 406, 409, 417, 425, 511, 529, 536, 575, 615, 616, 618, 620-622, 624, 626-628, 630, 632, 671, 700, 714, 715, 763, 797, 831, 867, 870, 872, 933. See ‘Interpretation’.

Ethics

26, 208, 230, 280, 281, 370, 390, 441, 468, 526, 531, 532, 609, 691, 721, 744-746, 753, 793, 814, 891, 897, 898, 900.

Falkland Islands

680.

Fiji

36, 307, 314, 351, 352, 458, 842, 864-866, 949.

Galapagos Islands

212, 451, 830, 847.

Geology

330, 427.

Guatemala

70, 608, 664.

Guides: see Guiding Guiding

14, 15, 21, 95, 96, 119, 145, 238, 283, 393, 412, 425, 494, 536, 632, 790, 869, 871, 874, 876. See ‘Interpretation’.

Hawaii

307, 360, 564, 779.

Himalaya

321, 611, 635, 669, 878.

Impacts

26, 49, 51, 59, 62, 68, 86, 88, 94, 95, 107, 119, 130, 131, 137, 176, 177, 181, 193, 195, 198, 206, 213, 220, 256, 328, 331, 334-336, 368, 381, 382, 390, 391, 407, 424,442, 451, 458, 477, 483-485, 494-500, 525, 529, 531, 532, 534, 547-554, 578, 588, 599, 601, 613, 619, 622, 627, 639, 650, 655, 656, 673, 683, 684, 688, 690, 692, 700, 706, 710, 722, 729, 741, 755, 762, 767, 768, 775, 795, 805, 809, 813, 819-821, 824, 830, 832, 833, 845, 846, 847, 887, 908, 939, 943.

57

Indicators

178, 527, 543, 549, 621, 644, 673, 690, 748, 775, 832834, 847.

Indigenous people

14, 61, 62, 76, 115, 134, 145, 158, 160, 178, 187, 226, 268, 271, 287, 296, 313, 352, 366, 383, 384, 405, 407, 438, 449, 457, 534, 576, 610, 660, 662, 750, 796, 808, 847, 923, 941, 942, 946, 947.

Indonesia

312, 381, 695, 708, 847.

Interpretation

3, 14-16, 64, 66, 72, 110, 112, 198, 203, 204, 227, 270, 316, 318, 326, 330, 344-348, 357, 412, 417, 425, 426,453, 447, 460-462, 467, 511, 528, 530, 536, 539, 575, 586, 589, 615, 616, 620-622, 624, 626, 629, 630, 632, 642, 661, 671, 700, 714, 763, 779, 797, 799, 822, 831, 847, 867, 870-875, 911, 932, 933. See ‘Education’.

Islands

6, 15, 24, 25, 36, 54, 55, 91, 97, 117, 118, 122, 145, 163, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 184, 194, 195, 198, 212, 213, 225, 251, 269, 270, 307, 314, 319, 331, 341, 351, 352, 371, 410, 451, 458, 463, 488, 534, 562, 569, 585, 590, 591, 659, 667, 672, 680, 692, 710, 730, 740, 757, 770, 775, 783, 830, 833, 834, 842, 847, 850, 864-866, 894, 913, 946, 949.

Kaikoura

51, 52, 57, 87, 195, 313, 371, 405, 407, 588, 946, 947.

Kapiti Island

775, 833.

Lincoln University

4, 352, 364, 439, 442, 577, 588, 611, 636, 646, 672, 701, 775, 832, 833.

Malaysia

181, 798, 847.

Management

2, 18, 20, 21, 32, 37, 39, 43, 95, 98-100, 113, 152, 170176,183, 186, 187, 195, 206, 213, 229, 231, 233, 242, 255, 257, 258, 260, 262, 266, 267, 278, 292, 293, 305, 315, 328, 331, 336, 338, 352, 357, 380, 381, 389, 393, 395, 400, 415, 419, 444, 445, 460, 498, 500, 503, 505, 507, 512, 537, 539, 547, 556, 557, 579, 580, 594, 607, 619, 620, 624, 627, 634, 637, 638, 652, 668, 671, 690, 697, 712, 722, 728, 730, 793, 821, 830, 833, 840, 841, 847, 853, 880, 886, 924, 927, 928.

Marine

2, 3, 8, 68, 72, 118, 156, 163, 195, 203, 225, 246, 341, 343, 463, 534, 551, 567, 570, 590, 591, 618, 619, 620, 623, 627, 636, 671, 684, 708, 731, 737, 770, 819, 820, 834, 839, 847, 895, 914. See ‘Islands’ and ‘Coastal’.

Marine Mammals

15, 16, 72, 194, 195, 246, 618, 619, 620, 623, 636, 730, 731, 895. See ‘Dolphins’ and ‘Whales’.

Marketing

122, 128, 129, 162, 248, 294, 364, 367, 506, 569, 583, 592, 676, 685, 686, 723, 724, 847, 897, 904, 905, 906, 907, 925.

Massey University

838.

Mexico

29, 49, 95, 164, 165, 446, 466, 519, 608, 664, 792.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Micronesia

269, 307, 319, 410, 756, 757, 783, 820, 821.

Motivation

47, 59, 84, 252, 253, 259, 261, 435, 454, 566, 588, 647, 672, 715, 798, 901, 902, 918, 926.

Mountains

49, 392, 600, 665, 765, 912.

National Parks

90, 119, 130, 131, 146, 168, 179, 181, 244, 286, 312, 330, 362, 406, 408, 409, 424, 436, 489, 549, 573, 594, 606, 607, 613, 614, 639, 660, 672, 707, 711, 735, 742, 765, 778, 794, 815, 830, 833, 847, 857, 885, 927.

New Zealand

12, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 28, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 67, 68, 71, 72, 87, 94, 106, 120, 134, 145, 163, 170-176, 187, 194, 195, 201, 202, 227, 237, 251, 299, 303, 307, 313, 326, 327, 330-336, 338, 360, 364, 371, 372, 375-380, 388, 389, 390, 401, 403-405, 407, 416-418, 435, 439, 442-445, 447, 456, 494, 514, 518, 520, 551, 563, 564, 574-577, 583, 584, 588, 602, 603, 629, 636-638, 643, 644, 646, 659, 663, 677, 684, 697, 702, 706, 710, 714, 715, 718, 739, 755, 761, 763, 775, 777, 778, 785, 831-833, 837-840, 847, 896, 917, 918, 929, 930, 932, 934, 937, 940, 944-948.

Northland

15, 16, 72, 194, 195, 577.

Operators

14, 15, 21, 24, 28, 67, 123, 128, 140, 142, 148, 152, 194, 195, 200, 230, 264, 288, 289, 296, 303, 307, 316, 360, 367, 368, 370, 373, 374, 383, 386, 393, 403, 412, 413, 479, 490, 536, 538, 555, 556, 557, 564, 582, 599, 641, 668, 686, 709, 718, 728, 743, 744, 745, 746, 762, 777, 785, 788, 791, 793, 797, 805, 806, 838, 840, 844, 847, 853, 862, 869, 871, 917, 921, 924, 929, 931.

Otago

12, 59, 303, 375-380, 388, 403, 447, 518, 663, 714, 715, 777, 930.

Pacific

36, 154, 212, 237, 246, 269, 270, 289, 307, 314, 333, 366, 351, 352, 387, 438, 451, 458, 463, 485, 488, 490, 491, 492, 504, 508, 563, 564, 572, 585, 617, 732, 740, 756, 756, 757, 783, 784, 817, 830, 842, 847, 855, 864, 865, 866, 926, 949.

Panama

178

Papua New Guinea

62, 269, 270.

Penguins

599, 714, 715, 839, 930.

Planning

2, 18, 20, 21, 32, 37, 39, 43, 67, 95, 98, 99, 100, 106-108, 113, 150, 152, 183, 186, 187, 206, 213, 229, 231, 233, 242, 255, 257, 258, 260, 262, 266, 267, 278, 292, 293, 304-306, 315, 328, 331, 336, 338, 352, 357, 370, 380, 381, 389, 395, 400, 415, 419, 425, 444, 445, 460, 498, 500, 503, 505, 507, 512, 535, 537, 539, 547, 556, 557, 567, 577, 579, 580, 582, 590, 591, 607, 619, 620, 624, 627, 634, 637, 638, 649, 652, 668, 671, 690, 697, 708, 709, 712, 722, 730, 737, 793, 805, 806, 821, 830, 833, 841, 847, 853, 880, 886, 924.

Policy

10, 88, 116, 234, 274, 278, 351, 355, 445, 471, 594, 634, 651, 668, 710, 833, 847, 943.

Research method

1, 8, 15, 82, 133, 142, 198, 203, 278, 412, 524, 577, 632, 639, 643, 695, 822, 832, 833.

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Samoa

269, 270, 488, 740.

Solomon Islands

145, 269, 307, 319, 410, 756, 757, 783.

South America

178, 317, 434, 475, 477, 607, 608, 680, 699, 734, 735, 759, 791, 828, 829, 830, 863, 916, 938.

Sub-Antarctic

170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 251, 329, 331, 334, 335, 336, 710.

Thailand

119, 232, 406, 409, 464, 561, 854.

Training: see ‘Certification’ United States

24, 90, 95, 123, 136, 138, 145, 153, 276, 362, 448, 450, 487, 566, 569, 639, 705, 718, 726, 738, 901, 902, 931, 939.

University of Auckland

15, 20, 289, 319, 360, 366, 438, 485, 488, 550, 563, 564, 732, 757, 934.

University of Canterbury

102, 917.

University of Otago

12, 23, 26, 51, 59, 68, 186, 187, 298, 303, 377, 389, 401, 435, 443, 447, 520, 551, 579, 663, 677, 715, 895, 937.

University of Waikato

120, 121, 206, 213, 381, 390, 494, 755.

Victoria University

45, 94, 918.

Visitors

3, 9, 14-16, 33, 47, 59, 65, 75, 81, 83, 84, 115, 133, 136, 138, 139, 164, 169-175, 181, 182, 205, 218, 219, 230, 252, 259, 261, 300, 347, 348, 373, 378, 383, 406, 424, 435, 436, 454, 461, 478, 487, 514, 516, 529, 530, 536, 566, 582, 604, 614, 615, 620, 626, 628, 630, 633, 644, 663, 670, 676, 704, 707, 708, 710, 714, 715, 730, 738, 760, 770, 781, 814, 818, 830, 841, 847, 876, 901, 902, 903, 904, 906, 917, 918, 925, 926, 936, 939.

Values

5, 83, 149, 399, 423, 450, 512, 514, 523, 609, 644, 647, 653, 657, 681, 691, 714, 719, 720, 721, 773, 753, 811.

Wetlands

44, 73, 182, 442, 467, 580,

Whales

51, 52, 56, 57, 64, 86, 87, 187, 195, 246, 313, 371, 383, 395, 396, 397, 398, 405, 407, 416, 417, 418, 588, 599, 628, 681, 839, 947.

Wildlife

5, 12, 14, 15, 16, 29, 30, 50, 51, 52, 56, 57, 59, 64, 68, 69, 72, 76, 86, 87, 93, 95, 99, 104, 108, 118, 119, 133, 136, 138, 150, 180, 182, 184, 186, 187, 194,195, 210, 245, 246, 265, 303, 304, 310, 313, 317, 353, 361, 362, 371, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 383, 395-399, 405, 407, 408, 416-418, 424, 435, 442, 448, 453, 464, 495, 500, 521, 588, 590, 591, 596, 598, 599, 612, 618, 619, 620, 623, 624, 625, 628, 636, 644, 660, 667, 673, 681, 684, 687, 690, 697, 702, 714, 715, 726-732, 741, 758, 770, 771, 775, 777, 794, 795, 814, 815, 819-821, 823, 829, 830, 836, 839, 840, 843, 847, 856, 857, 860, 866, 869, 879, 880, 884, 894, 895, 908, 914, 917, 918, 924, 925, 927, 928, 930, 937, 938, 943, 947.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

A N N O TAT E D R E F E R E N C E S Author: Akama, J. S. Year: 1996 Title: Western Environmental Values and Nature-Based Tourism in Kenya Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 17 Issue: 8 Pages: 567-574 Abstract: Akama’s paper evaluates Western environmental values and discusses how these values influence wildlife conservation and the development of nature-based tourism in Kenya. Comparisons are made between Western environmental values and the perceptions of members of rural communities. The author provides suggestions for diversifying Kenya’s tourism product and the marketing of this product.

Author: Amante-Helweg, V. L. Year: 1995 Title: Cultural Perspectives of Dolphins by Ecotourists Academic Department: Psychology City: Auckland University: Auckland Abstract: This study explored the relationships among beliefs, knowledge, demographic characteristics and personal values of 306 tourists who participated in a Swim with Wild Dolphins programme in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand. The visitors surveyed were unfamiliar with scientific knowledge about marine mammals and limited understanding of the diverse values for wildlife. The author concluded the need for further research to assist with the management of human-animal interactions, visitor and guide educational programmes.

Author: Anderson, M. Year: 1991 Title: Green Tourism: A Study of New Zealand Academic Department: Centre for Tourism City: Dunedin University: University of Otago Thesis Type: Diploma dissertation Abstract: The aims of the study were to consider the potential for ‘Green Tourism’ in New Zealand, focusing on Dunedin and the backpacker market as a case study. The study relates the findings of a survey that generated 144 responses from backpackers in Dunedin.

Author: Anderson, S. Year: 1995 Title: Ethics and Green Marketing: With a Special Analysis of the Ecotourism Industry Academic Department: Marketing City: Dunedin University: University of Otago Thesis Type: BComm. (Hons) Abstract: Anderson’s research examines the ethical issues involved in green marketing, bringing together the two fields of marketing ethics and green marketing. Anderson pays particular attention to issues in green marketing such as false product claims, codes of ethics and industry standards. Ecotourism is examined to determine whether the realities of the industry have lived up to the ideals and principles espoused by the concept of ecotourism. Anderson discusses how the issues impact on the future of green marketing.

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Author: Ballantine, J. L. and Eagles, P.F.J. Year: 1994 Title: Defining Canadian Ecotourists Journal: Journal of Sustainable Tourism Volume: 2 Issue: 4 Pages: 210-214 Abstract: Ballantine and Eagle explore the various definitions of what constitutes an ecotourist in articles and studies that apply typologies of common characteristics typifying ecotourists. The authors propose that while these characteristics may be useful in forming a general description of an ecotourist, they do not necessarily serve as a basis for a prescriptive definition. They apply a set of three criteria to define ecotourists and apply this to a survey of Canadian tourists visiting Kenya. 120 respondents were surveyed. The study found the visitors did qualify as ecotourists based on the criteria - a social motive (travelling to learn about nature), a site attraction motive (visiting wilderness or undisturbed areas) and time commitment (33% of trip). Author: Barton, R. Year: 1994 Title: Characteristics and Motivations of International Tourists Experiencing Ecotourism in New Zealand Academic Department: Tourism Thesis Type: Diploma dissertation City: Dunedin University: University of Otago, Dunedin Abstract: To manage ecotourism successfully an understanding of visitors to ecotourism/nature attractions is essential. This study aimed to provide insights into the demand side of ecotourism by examining the characteristics and motivations of international tourists participating in ecotourism ventures in New Zealand. The majority of the respondents (n=203) were well educated and originating from the UK, USA and Germany. Both younger, (many of whom were students) and older (often retired) people were surveyed, although the majority of tourists were middle aged or older. Two factors, namely Seek, learn and capture nature and Unique outdoor environment were seen to be the most important motivating factors. To Be as Close to a Variety of Nature/Wildlife and Attributes of the Business were of equal importance in individual decision making to go to an ecotourism venture. The research findings were presented in Juric, B., Cossens, J. and Barton, R. (1996) Ecotourism: an examination of the motivations of ecotourism visitors to New Zealand. Proceedings of Towards a More Sustainable Tourism, Tourism Down Under II Conference, Centre for Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, pp. 207-222. Author: Beeton, S. Year: 1998 Title: Ecotourism: A Practical Guide for Rural Communities City: Collingwood, Vic. Publisher: Landlinks Press Abstract: This book is a useful introduction for rural and semirural communities or individuals entering the nature/ecotourism industry. It describes who ecotourists are, how to work with the local community and the environment, whilst highlighting some of the constraints and pitfalls. Advice is given to prospective operators of ecotourism businesses. Author: Bjork, D. P. Year: 2000 Title: Ecotourism from a Conceptual Perspective: An Extended Definition of a Unique Tourism Form. Journal: International Journal of Tourism Research Volume: 2 Issue: 3 Pages: 189-202 Abstract: The article provides an insightful commentary on developing ecotourism and defining the concept of ecotourism. The author uses research in Finland as a case study and separates ecotourism from farm tourism, nature tourism or adventure tourism. He sees ecotourism as resulting from ‘the greening of markets, increasing knowledge of the fragility of the environment, better informed managers, and the recognition that there is a close relationship between good ecology and good economy.’ To be sustainable ‘Ecotourism requires cooperation between the local community, local authorities, tourists and companies involved in tourism. Ecotourism has been so contentious that Bjork finds that in Finland ‘sustainable tourism’ is preferable to the concept of ecotourism.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Author: Blamey, R. K. and Braithwaite, V.A. Year: 1997 Title: A Social Values Segmentation of the Potential Ecotourism Market Journal: Journal of Sustainable Tourism Volume: 5 Issue: 1 Pages: 29-45 Abstract: Research findings of a social values segmentation of the potential Australian ecotourism market are presented in this paper. A questionnaire was mailed to 3500 Australians and there were 1680 (48%) valid responses. Results indicate that the majority of potential ecotourists do not have particularly green values. Those with greener values tend to be least in favour of the use of park entrance fees. The paper advocates the use of social values in segmenting leisure and travel markets involving social goods, as an alternative to segmentation based on personal values.

Author: Blangy, S. and Neilsen, T. Year: 1994 Title: Ecotourism and Minimum Impact Policy Journal: Annals of Tourism Research Volume: 20 Issue: 2 Pages: 357-360 Abstract: This research note discusses the need for environmental guidelines and suggests eight strategies for dealing with minimising impacts and ensuring visitor satisfaction. The research was conducted by employees of Discovery Tours, American Museum of Natural History, and involved a survey of tour operators and environmental organisations.

Author: Bottrill, C. G. and Pearce, D.G. Year: 1995 Title: Ecotourism: Towards a Key Elements Approach to Operationalising the Concept. Journal: Journal of Sustainable Tourism Volume: 3 Issue: 1 Pages: 45-54 Abstract: Bottrill and Pearce provide a classification for ecotourism using elements that explore the roles of the participants, the operators and resource managers. This paper describes the results of a survey of 22 nature-based tourism operators in British Columbia - only five of the participating operations were classified as providing ecotourism based on the classification system.

Author: Boyd, S. W. and Butler, R.W. Year: 1996 Title: Managing Ecotourism: An Opportunity Spectrum Approach Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 17 Issue: 8 Pages: 557-566 Abstract: Boyd and Butler outline a new visitor management framework based on existing approaches (ROS; TOS; LAC; VAMP; VIMP), within which opportunities for ecotourism may be set. Ideas from the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and Tourism Opportunity Spectrum (TOS) are combined to address ecotourism specifically. The new framework is called the Ecotourism Opportunity Spectrum (ECOS) in which there are eight key components that result in products that will satisfy the needs of diverse ecotourists ranging from eco-specialists to eco-generalists. The need to incorporate viewpoints of decision makers and stakeholder groups is also discussed.

63

Author: Brockelman, W. Y. and Dearden, P. Year: 1990 Title: The Role of Nature Trekking in Conservation: A Case Study in Thailand. Journal: Environmental Conservation Volume: 17 Issue: 2 Pages: 141-148 Abstract: This article discusses the importance of protected areas, the needs of locals and finding a solution for successful management. The case study provides examples of how the situation in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, has improved since guided nature treks began and discusses the requirements for a successful programme involving community groups and the constraints that exist.

Author: Buckley, R. Year: 1994 Title: A Framework for Ecotourism Journal: Annals of Tourism Research Volume: 21 Issue: 3 Pages: 661-665. Abstract: Buckley provides a preliminary exploration of the interrelationships between nature-based tourism, sustainable tourism, conservation supporting tourism and environmentally educational tourism. In doing so he provides a framework that has at its centre point an operational form of ‘ecotourism’ in it’s purest, but most strictly defined, form.

Author: Budowski, G. Year: 1976 Title: Tourism and Environmental Conservation: Conflict, Coexistence or Symbiosis? Journal: Environmental Conservation Volume: 3 Issue: 1 Pages: 27-31 Abstract: This is one of the earlier papers to explore the relationship between tourism and conservation of natural resources. Budowski discusses the idea that there are three different relationships existing between those promoting tourism and those advocating conservation of nature. These relationships are particularly important when tourism is partly or totally based on values derived from nature and its resources.

Author: Bulbeck, C. Year: 1999 Title: The ‘Nature Dispositions’ of Visitors to Animal Encounter Sites in Australia and New Zealand Journal: Journal of Sociology Volume: 35 Issue: 2 Pages: 129-148 Abstract: Findings of a visitor survey conducted at nine animal encounter sites in Australia and New Zealand are presented in this paper. The research determines whether visitors’ orientations to nature are related to the extent of ‘naturalness’ or ‘authenticity’ of the animal encounter. Bulbeck adapted a concept of ‘nature dispositions’ base on work by Bourdieu on aesthetic dispositions. Bulbeck’s research found that the 384 respondents’ experiences went beyond how authentic or natural their encounters with animals were. The educational messages at the sites depicted through the operators’ programs and interrelationships between animals and visitors were also influences on visitor experiences and behaviour on site.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Author: Burton, R. Year: 1998 Title: Maintaining the Quality of Ecotourism: Ecotour Operators’ Responses to Tourism Growth Journal: Journal of Sustainable Tourism Volume: 6 Issue: 2 Pages: 117-143 Abstract: Definitions of ecotourism and an exploration of Australian research into both ecotourists and operators are presented in this paper. A continuum of ecotourism operators displaying differing degrees of environmentally responsible behaviour, from ecotourism at one end of the spectrum to exploitative nature based tourism at the other, is presented by Burton. The results are discussed in the context of ecotourism operators’ possible role in the process of destination development as described by the Butler tourism destination life cycle.

Author: Campbell, L. M. Year: 1999 Title: Ecotourism in Rural Developing Communities Journal: Annals of Tourism Research Volume: 26 Issue: 3 Pages: 534-553 Abstract: Campbell considers the ad hoc development of ecotourism at Ostional, Costa Rica, and the potential benefits for the local community in the absence of government planning or intervention. Nineteen Ostional residents were interviewed and 76 of 84 households (91%) were surveyed. The residents were dependent on marine turtle egg harvests for income and very few residents perceived tourism as a source of alternative revenue. Lack of awareness amongst the community, along with increased activity by outside investors, suggest that, in the absence of formalised planning or intervention, the possibilities for the community at Ostional to benefit from tourism development will be limited.

Author: Ceballos-Lascurain, H. Year: 1987 Title: The Future of ‘Ecotourism’ Journal: Mexico Journal Pages: 13-14 Abstract: This classical paper discusses the potential of ‘ecotourism’ to enhance social and economic improvement whilst conserving the environment. Ceballos-Lascurain identifies who ecotourists are, provides one of the earliest definitions for ‘ecotourism’ and discusses the Ecotourism industry in the context of Mexico’s tourism attractions. This article is one of the earliest to utilise the term ‘ecotourism’ but it must be remembered that nature based tourism businesses have operated according to the principles embodied by Ceballos-Lascurain’s definition of the term, prior to the term’s adoption by the wider tourism industry.

Author: Cessford, G. R. and Dingwall, P.R. Year: 1994 Title: Tourism on New Zealand’s Sub-Antarctic Islands Journal: Annals of Tourism Research Volume: 21 Issue: 2 Pages: 318-332 Abstract: Cessford and Dingwall’s research was instigated by the need for the Department of Conservation to improve management of tourism in the Sub-Antarctic islands. The paper presents the findings of a survey of ship borne tourists during the 1990-91 season. Pre-visit and post-visit surveys were administered and a total of 148 pre-visit and 132 post-visit questionnaires completed. The majority of respondents were highly educated, American in origin, from older age groups and females were dominant. The need for further research into Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic visitors is expressed particularly in the light of such visitors being advocates for conservation in the areas. Follow-up research is further discussed in Cessford, G. R. and P. R. Dingwall (1996) Tourist visitors and their experiences at New Zealand’s Sub Antarctic Islands. Science and Research Series 96 published by Department of Conservation.

65

Author: Chin, C. L. M., Moore, S., Wallington, T. and Dowling, R. K. Year: 2000 Title: Ecotourism in Bako National Park, Borneo: Visitors’ Perspectives on Environmental Impacts and Their Management Journal: Journal of Sustainable Tourism Volume: 8 Issue: 1 Pages: 20-35 Abstract: This study examines the visitor experiences of Bako National Park, Borneo, Malaysia, and their perspectives of impacts from ecotourism activities in the area. The research suggests management could utilise such research when deciding where resources should be directed when maintaining the park. Visitor concerns for soil erosion, litter and destruction of vegetation highlights the awareness ecotourists have for negative impacts on the landscapes within which they are travelling.

Author: Chirgwin, S. and Hughes, K. Year: 1997 Title: Ecotourism: The Participants’ Perceptions Journal: The Journal of Tourism Studies Volume: 8 Issue: 2 Pages: 2-7 Abstract: This paper reports on an assessment of tourists’ understanding of the term ‘ecotourism’. Research was carried out at Fogg Dam in Australia’s Northern Territory with the administration of a survey, which generated 358 respondents. Fogg Dam is an artificially created wetland that attracts wildlife in numbers rarely seen in most natural venues. 90% of visitors surveyed regarded this venue as a natural area and 94% of respondents regarded their visit as ecotourism. The survey findings suggested, to the authors, that a pristine area is not necessary to the ecotourist as long as an area is aesthetically pleasing and provides the opportunity for learning about or just viewing wildlife.

Author: Commonwealth Department of Tourism Year: 1995 Title: Best Practice Ecotourism: as guide to energy and waste minimisation City: Canberra Institution: Commonwealth of Australia Abstract: Best Practice Ecotourism is based on research investigating Australian ecotourism and naturebased tourism operations, energy and waste minimisation practises. The booklet provides reference sheets, which provide practical solutions for conserving energy and minimising waste. Examples of Australian ‘best practice’ operations identified during the research are present in the form of ‘success stories’ for each reference sheet.

Author: Constantine, R. and C. Scott Baker Year: 1997 Title: Monitoring the Commercial Swim-with-Dolphin Operators in the Bay of Islands City: Wellington Institution: Department of Conservation Date: August 1997 Report Number: Science for Conservation 56 Abstract: This comprehensive report provides the findings of research, including observations, of interactions between swimmers and Bottlenose and Common dolphins in the Bay of Islands from March 1994 to March 1995. 156 commercial trips were observed. 32% of bottlenose dolphins changed behaviour when approached by operators’ boats in comparison to 52% of common dolphins. A total of 163 swim attempts were observed. Dolphin reactions, including sustained interaction with swimmers, avoidance and neutral behaviour, were observed by the researchers. The report includes a useful reference list and an appendix with the data sheet used for collecting observations.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Author: Constantine, R. Year: 1999 Title: Effects of Tourism on Marine Mammals in New Zealand City: Wellington Institution: Department of Conservation Pages: 60 Date: 1999 Report Number: Science for Conservation 106 Abstract: Constantine’s report provides a valuable analysis of New Zealand’s tourism operations that focus on marine mammals, Constantine found that a total of 74 Marine Mammal Viewing permits had been issued by the Department of Conservation for 26 areas nation-wide. Department of Conservation concerns included lack of documented evidence of the positive and negative impacts resulting from this tourism. Research was needed to address this issue and also the effectiveness of tourism operators in providing an educational experience for the visiting public. Constantine calls for further revision of New Zealand’s Marine Mammals Protection Regulations to ensure operators receive suitable guidelines from the Department for both general and species-specific marine tourism.

Author: Eagles, P. F. J. and Cascagnette, J.W. Year: 1995 Title: Canadian Ecotourists: Who Are They? Journal: Tourism Recreation Research Volume: 20 Issue: 1 Pages: 22-28 Abstract: Eagles and Cascagnette present findings from the combination of four previous research projects exploring Canadian ecotourists. They explore the similarities and differences of characteristics for the Canadian ecotourists on four different trips including one to Costa Rica and one to Kenya. This data was then compared with data on general Canadian Tourists compiled by Statistics Canada in 1983. Eagles and Cascagnette identify that Canadian ecotourists are more highly educated, older and with higher income levels than general tourists. Whilst general tourists travelled for social motives Canadian ecotourists had identifiable motivations relating to the natural features of the destinations visited. and an ‘ecologistic’ attitude as opposed to ‘utilitarian’ attitude is revealed.

Author: Ecotourism Society. Year: 1993 Title: Ecotourism Guidelines for Nature Tour Operators City: North Bennington, V.T. Publisher: The Ecotourism Society Abstract: This publication provides guidelines for ecotourism operators produced by leading conservationists, tour operators and academics. The document delivers a comprehensive view not only on what guidelines should be observed by tour operators working in natural areas, but also how these services should be delivered, with what objectives and for whose benefits.

Author: Fagence, M. Year: 1997 Title: Ecotourism and Pacific Island Countries: the first generation of strategies Journal: The Journal of Tourism Studies Volume: 8 (2) Pages: 26-38 Abstract: Fagence reports on the ecotourism strategies of twenty-one Pacific Island governments. He provides a useful overview of the nature and definition of Ecotourism before analyzing the development of ecotourism initiatives in islands including Fiji, Vanuatu, Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Cook Islands, Western Samoa and Tuvala. Fagence concludes that ‘best practices’ are not common with confusion prevailing as to what ecotourism is and how ecotourism strategies should be prepared and implemented.

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Author: Fennell, D. A. Year: 1999 Title: Ecotourism: An Introduction City: New York Publisher: Routledge Abstract: A comprehensive text that addresses multiple issues in ecotourism with emphasis on community development, social impacts, ecological impacts, policy, marketing and planning. Photographic illustrations, tables and short case studies are interspersed throughout the chapters resulting in interesting material for operators, academics and students.

Author: Gilbert, J. Year: 1997 Title: Ecotourism means Business City: Wellington Publisher: Government Print Publications Abstract: This book provides a general introduction to ecotourism and useful guidelines for people interested in setting up an ecotourism business in New Zealand or the Pacific. Chapters examine definitions and characteristics of ecotourism, case studies of operations in Fiji, Hawaii, Shark Bay, Western Australia, and Anne Saunders and Gerry McSweeney’s operation at Lake Moeraki Wilderness Lodge, South Westland, New Zealand. Issues relating to planning and operating an ecotourism venture; the role of host communities; education, training and research are also addressed.

Author: Hall, C.M., Mitchell, I., Springett, B. and Springett, D. Year of Conference: 1991 Title: Interpreting the geological heritage of Moa’s Ark: the ice and fire trail Conference Name: Ecotourism: incorporating the global classroom Conference Location: University of Queensland, Australia Publisher: Bureau of Tourism Research, Australia Pages: 44-51 Abstract: The value of interpretation in the development of an ecotourism product is explored within this paper which focuses on the development of a geological tour ‘Ice and Fire”. The research for development of this product was achieved through the combined efforts of the New Zealand Natural Heritage Foundation and ‘Southern Heritage Trails’. Incorporating both western scientific perspectives with Maori interpretations of how geological features and landscapes are formed was one of the aims of the project.

Author: Hall, C. M. Year: 1994 Title: Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and the South Pacific: Appropriate Tourism or a New Form of Ecological Imperialism Editor: Cater, E.; Lowman, G. L. Book Title: Ecotourism: A Sustainable Option? City: Chichester, U.K. Publisher: John Wiley and Sons Abstract: Hall addresses the concerns of exploiting the physical environment and provides visitor statistics to natural areas in both Australia and New Zealand for impact management in those areas.

Author: Hall, C. M. and McArthur, S. Year: 1993 Title: Ecotourism in Antarctica and Adjacent Sub-Antarctic Islands: Development, Impacts, Management and Prospects for the Future. Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 14 Issue: 2 Abstract: The environmental impacts of tourism activities in the sub- Antarctic and Antarctica are considered in this article. Particular attention is paid to the Australian Antarctic Territory and aspects of the MacQuarie Island Management Plan aimed at reducing negative impacts from tourism. The Antarctic Treaty System and future of tourism in Antarctica is also discussed.

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Author: Hawkins, D. E. and Wood, M. E. Year: 1995 Title: The Ecolodge Sourcebook for Planners and Developers City: North Bennington, VT Publisher: The Ecotourism Society Edition: 1st Abstract: A collection of targeted papers from the ecotourism industry’s leading practitioners provide indepth guidance for creating an ecolodge that is culturally, environmentally and financially successful. Papers include discussions on community involvement, environmental architecture and energy efficiency.

Author: Herremans, I. M. and Welsh, C. Year: 1999 Title: Developing and Implementing a Company’s Ecotourism Mission Statement. Journal: Journal of Sustainable Tourism Volume: 7 Issue: 1 Pages: 48-76 Abstract: This paper explores how an Alberta mountain biking company, Treadsoftly incorporated environmental considerations within its management planning since the early establishment phase. An Environmental Management Strategy (EMS) implemented by the company ensured that the local Canadian Land and Forest Department enabled the company to access trails on public land. This paper is useful to operators and land managers by providing a case study of the processes by which the company went about stakeholder consultation and evaluating methods to reduce it’s own potential impact on the environment within which it operated.

Author: Higham, J. E. S. Year: 1998 Title: Tourists and Albatrosses: The Dynamics of Tourism at the Northern Royal Albatross Colony, Taiaroa Head, New Zealand Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 19 Issue: 6 Pages: 521-533 Abstract: Higham utilises the case of the North Royal Albatross Colony, Taiaroa Head, New Zealand, to examine the development of visitor types to a wildlife tourism attraction. Secondary data sources at the Colony were analysed and applied to Duffus and Dearden’s (1990) conceptual framework. Higham’s findings highlighted that in the absence of deliberate management intervention, wildlife tourism attractions evolve over time to the detriment of both the visitor experience and the focal wildlife species. The need for research of this nature to be both site and species specific according to individual cases and the advantages of longitudinal monitoring of the impacts of tourism operations on wildlife were advocated.

Author: Honey, M. Year: 1999 Title: Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? City: Washington, DC. Publisher: Island Press Abstract: Honey’s book begins with three chapters exploring the development of ecotourism, with attention to how true ecotourism can be defined. Questions of sustainability and where tourism has gone wrong are issues that are discussed. The following seven chapters utilise case studies from Central (Latin) American and East African ecotourism and nature based tourism operations to explore whether the ecotourism movement is contributing towards a more sustainable tourism industry. The need to ensure community ownership and participation in ecotourism ventures is discussed throughout the book.

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Author: Hvenegaard, G. Year: 1994 Title: Ecotourism: A Status Report and Conceptual Framework Journal: Journal of Tourism Studies Volume: 5 Issue: 2 Pages: 24-35 Abstract: Hvenegaard administered a questionnaire survey evaluating perceptions, activities and motivations to visitors at Doi Inthanon National Park, Thailand. Five main tourist types were identified amongst the 857 respondents - ‘birding ecotourist, general ecotourist, highlights general tourist, highlights traveler and trekker’. Birding ecotourists were primarily motivated by viewing wildlife whilst general ecotourists were motivated by the natural environment. Birding and general ecotourists were older than the other three groups and birding ecotourists tended to be more highly educated than other visitors. The ‘ecotourists’ contributed more to conservation than the other four groups but usually in their countries of residence and there was no differentiation amongst the five groups in terms of financial contributions to conservation.

Author: James, J.A. Year of Conference: 1991 Title: Geological tourism, the under-utilised Australian tourist resource Conference Name: Ecotourism: incorporating the global classroom Conference Location: University of Queensland, Australia Publisher: Bureau of Tourism Research, Australia Pages: 38-43 Abstract: James discusses various interpretive techniques that can add value to visitors’ experiences of geological formations and landscapes, including panoramic signs, maps, road signage, interpretive centres and publications. Mention is made of interpretive centres and techniques used to interpret geology in New Zealand with reference to specific locations including Rotorua, Moeraki Boulders and the Buller Gorge.

Author: Lawrence, T. B., Wickens, D. and Phillips, N. Year: 1997 Title: Managing Legitimacy in Ecotourism Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 18 Issue: 5 Pages: 307-316 Abstract: This paper explores whether Canadian ecotourism operations do in fact offer a legitimate ecotourism product. The authors discuss what actually constitutes ecotourism and observe the growing complexity arising from the diverse economic and environmental goals pursued by operators. The role of stakeholders in determining whether an operation is legitimate or not is also discussed. A theoretical framework devised by the authors for determining the legitimacy of operations at operational, organisational and wider industry levels is included.

Author: Lew, A.A. Year: 1998 Title: Ecotourism Trends Journal: Annals of Tourism Research Volume: 25 Issue: 3 Pages: 742-746 Abstract: Presents survey findings of 44 tourism operators working in the Asia-Pacific region. The operators identified trends such as the broadening of the clientele for ecotours and an increase in independent, non-group or free and independent travellers (FITs) Characteristics and problems associated with the industry are addressed.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography

Author: McArthur, S. Year: 1997 Title: Introducing the National Ecotourism Accreditation Program Journal: Australian Parks and Recreation Volume: 33 Issue: 2 Pages: 30-34 Abstract: This article discusses the issues regarding the definition of ecotourism and the subsequent need for an ecotourism accreditation program. It outlines the benefits to the many operators, communities and nations should they comply. The article also provides guidelines on how the accreditation program can be implemented and they types of ecotourism best suited to it as well as the measurement and monitoring procedures of effectiveness.

Author: McKercher, B. Year: 1998 Title: The Business of Nature-Based Tourism City: Melbourne Publisher: Hospitality Press Abstract: Business planning, visitor profiles, ethics, marketing and development issues for nature-based tourism businesses are addressed in the fourteen chapters of Bob McKercher’s book. The practical focus towards the operational aspects of eco-, adventure and general outdoor tourism ventures is aimed at appealing to nature based tourism operations, particularly in Australia. Each chapter incorporates research examples with those references consulted strengthening the advice given to operations.

Author: Neale, G. Year: 1998 Title: The Green Travel Guide City: London Publisher: Earthscan Publications Ltd, London Abstract: Produced as a resource for environmentally aware travellers this book offers the reader a blend of practical travel advice combined with several chapters discussing the increased need for sustainable travel practises. The first section of the book includes a general history of travel, environmental codes of conduct for the tourism industry and travellers, environmental accreditation schemes and insights into ecologically sound destinations and activities. The second section presents an international directory, compiled by Robert Lamb, divided into thirteen geographical areas including Southeast Asia, the Pacific and Australasia. The book finished with other sources of information, including websites and the British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Roll of Honour, which mentions New Zealand businesses - The Oamaru Blue Penguin Colony, Whale Watch Kaikoura Ltd, Southern Heritage Expeditions and Paparoa Nature Tours

Author: New Zealand Tourism Board and Dept. of Conservation. Year: 1993 Title: New Zealand Conservation Estate and International Visitors City: Wellington Publisher: The NZ Tourism Board Abstract: This report takes stock of New Zealand’s natural resources, analyses likely patterns of future use by international visitors and recommends appropriate management strategies to respond to changes in international visitor numbers. It has been produced through the joint effort of the Department of Conservation and the New Zealand Tourism Board. It addresses one component of the overall visitor strategy, which is required for managing visitors to lands administered by the Department of Conservation. The suggestions embodied in the report need to be combined with similar suggestions regarding New Zealanders visiting these lands so that a comprehensive, equitable strategy is prepared.

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Author: Orams, M. B. Year: 1997 Title: The Effectiveness of Environmental Education: Can We Turn Tourists into ‘Greenies’? Journal: Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research Volume: 3 Pages: 295-306 Abstract: Orams researched the effectiveness of an environmental education programme directed at visitors to Tangalooma resort, Australia. The opportunity to hand-feed wild dolphins is a major attraction for visitors to the resort. Orams’ research examined a control group, which was not exposed to an environmental education programme developed by the author and a group of visitors who experienced the programme. The programme consisted of a Dolphin Education Centre and public address system presenting information about dolphin behaviour, biology and encouraging responsible behaviour amongst visitors. A self-reply questionnaire resulted in a sample of 317 respondents from the experiment group and 308 respondents from the control group. Orams concluded that visitors exposed to the programme became significantly ‘greener’ in terms of environmental behaviour than the control group participants.

Author: Orams, M. B. Year: 1999 Title: Marine Tourism : Development, Impacts and Management City: London Publisher: Routledge Abstract: This book examines successful and unsuccessful tourism with regard to the marine environment. Providing an overview of the history and development of tourism centred on the marine environment, the author moves on to examine the characteristics of marine tourism and considers the roles of ‘vendors’ of marine tourism activities and opportunities. The final section examines the impact of tourist activities on marine ecosystems and coastal-based communities and explores management techniques that may be appropriate in reducing negative impacts and maximising the benefits of marine tourism.

Author: Orams, M. B. Year: 2000 Title: Tourists Getting Close to Whales, Is It What Whale-Watching Is All About? Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 21 Pages: 561-569 Abstract: Oram’s identified that previous research involving the whale-watching industry had revolved around the impacts on whales whereas the experience of whale-watchers has been neglected. Oram’s rectified this situation by conducting a survey of visitor satisfaction of participants in 12 whale-watching cruises at Tangalooma, Queensland. This paper presents the research findings based on questionnaires returned by 704 respondents. There is a focus on visitor satisfaction and a major finding was that 35% of the respondents were satisfied with their experience even if whales were not sighted.

Author: Pearce, D. G. and Wilson, P. M. Year: 1995 Title: Wildlife-Viewing Tourists in New Zealand Journal: Journal of Travel Research Volume: Fall 1995 Pages: 19-26 Abstract: This article profiles wildlife-viewing tourists in New Zealand, establishing how their characteristics differ from other international visitors to that country and examining a range of behavioural and attitudinal factors. Wilson compared 474 respondents from her research study with the findings of the NZ Tourism Board’s 1992-93 International Visitor Survey. Participating wildlife viewing operations were White Heron Sanctuary Tours, Okarito Nature Tours, Penguin Place (Otago), Black Stilt Kaki Viewing Centre (Twizel), Paparoa Nature Tours, Kaikoura Tours, Dolphin Encounters, Banks Peninsula Coastal Tours, Catlins Wildlife Trackers, Canterbury Cat Cruises and Monarch Otago Harbour Cruises. Results indicate that these tourists have above average total expenditure, high levels of education, longer lengths of stay and spread the expenditure more widely though New Zealand than general visitors. One third of visitors surveyed in Wilson’s study were from New Zealand. Wilson suggested that for most people engaging in wildlife-viewing tourism this is only one activity among many, suggesting that ‘ecotourism’ is becoming ‘mainstream’ - a finding of Wight’s North American research (references 901, 902).

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Author: Reynolds, P. C. and Braithwaite, D. Year: 2001 Title: Towards a Conceptual Framework for Wildlife Tourism Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 22 Issue: 1 Pages: 31-42 Abstract: Previous research of wildlife tourism is explored in this paper to determine common focuses of research projects and also the variety of categories of wildlife tourism. A framework is developed incorporating two dimensions - the ‘effect on wildlife’ and ‘richness’ of the visitor experience - within which a variety of wildlife-tourism experiences can be located.

Author: Roe, D., Leader-Williams, N. and Dalal-Clayton, B. Year: 1997 Title: Take Only Photographs, Leave Only Footprints: The Environmental Impacts of Wildlife Tourism Series Title: Applied Wildlife and Development Series, No 10 City: London Publisher: Environmental Planning Group, International Institute for Environment and Development Abstract: The place of wildlife tourism within a sustainable context is critically examined in the five chapters of this book. The development of wildlife tourism is illustrated with case studies of destinations (particularly Africa, Central America, Asia) and individual tourism ventures. Wildlife tourism ranges from non-consumptive activities (viewing of wildlife) to highly consumptive activities (trophy hunting) The successes and failures of community based wildlife tourism projects are reviewed followed by an analysis of the environmental impacts of tourism activities and how management techniques can diminish negative consequences. The main conclusion of the book is that much research is anecdotal or descriptive and there is a strong need for on-going environmental monitoring and research to document the environmental effects of tourism activities on wildlife.

Author: Salm, R. V. Year: 1985 Title: Integrating Marine Conservation and Tourism Journal: International Journal of Environmental Studies Volume: 25 Pages: 229-238 Abstract: Salm’s 1985 paper discusses the planning of protected tropical reefs and beaches utilising two Indonesian case studies. Techniques for controlling visitor use are presented including designing specific activity zones, using viewing chambers or glass bottom boats, providing underwater trails and moorings.

Author: Sanson, L. Year: 1994 Title: An Ecotourism Case Study in Sub-Antarctic Islands Journal: Annals of Tourism Research Volume: 21 Issue: 2 Pages: 344-354 Abstract: The Sub-Antarctic islands are a fragile ecosystem of great interest to visitors with eco/nature tourism interests. Sanson analyses the development of New Zealand government policy and management to ensure that protection of the natural conservation values remain paramount. The contributions of tour operators and a visitor monitoring program assist with assessing impacts and visitor expectations.

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Author: Schaenzel, H. Year: 1998 Title: The Effectiveness of Environmental Interpretation: Understanding the Values Gained from Wildlife Viewing Tourism Experiences Journal: Environmental Perspectives Volume: 21 Issue: December 1998 Pages: 10-13 Abstract: This research paper seeks to understand the values gained from wildlife viewing tourism experiences and explains the lack of research into the effectiveness of environmental interpretation programs in changing tourists’ attitudes and behaviour, both during the tourism experience and in the longer term. Schaenzel conducted in-depth interviews with forty visitors to Penguin Place and twenty-one visitors with Wings of Kotuku. Both operations allowed visitors to view penguin species on the Otago Peninsula, Dunedin, New Zealand. Schaenzel found that visitors gained “enhanced environmental awareness and mood benefits”. “Contributing to conservation efforts”, “simplicity and naturalness of the setting” and a preference for “personal interpretation through an experienced guide” were other important findings from the interviews.

Author: Sirakaya, E., Sasidharan, V. and Sonmez, S. Year: 1999 Title: Redefining Ecotourism: The Need for a Supply-Side View Journal: Journal of Travel Research Volume: 38 Issue: November 1999 Pages: 168-172 Abstract: The authors surveyed 282 ecotourism operators based in the United States, Canada and Ecuador to determine operator behaviour and what these suppliers perceived as being an ‘ecotourism’ experience. The Ecotourism Society (TES) guidelines were incorporated into the survey instrument. 127 operators returned the questionnaire. It was found that operators’ views of ecotourism reflect definitions found in literature. The article is useful for researchers and operators seeking definitions of ecotourism and includes a table of ecotourism definitions dating from Ceballos Lascurain (1987) to Kinnaird and O’Brien (1996).

Author: Thomas, T. Year: 1994 Title: Ecotourism in Antarctica: The Role of the Naturalist-Guide in Presenting Places of Interest Journal: Journal of Sustainable Tourism Volume: 2 Issue: 4 Pages: 204-209 Abstract: Tourism in Antarctica has seen rapid development over the last ten years, based mainly on the American market, and on special interest environmental discovery tours. This report discusses the key role of the naturalist-guide in Antarctic tourism, and the importance of leadership, scientific knowledge, conservation and social skills in the work of a guide. The report suggests that the profession needs greater recognition: they have a critical role to play in developing sustainable tourism in environmentally fragile areas.

Author: Ward, J. and Beanland, R. Year: 1996 Title: Development of Environmental Indicators for Tourism in Natural Areas: A Preliminary Study Series: Information Paper No. 53. Publisher: Centre for Resource Management, Lincoln University Abstract: This paper investigates methods for determining human impacts at natural visitor attractions in New Zealand. An analysis of previous research monitoring visitor activities was undertaken by surveying Department of Conservation conservancies, local and regional councils. Based on impacts identified by existing research and in literature Ward and Beanland developed a framework of environmental indicators which was then applied to three case study areas - Kapiti Island Nature Reserve, the Royal Albatross Colony Taiaroa Head, and Speight’s Coast to Coast route through Arthur’s Pass National Park. Lists of environmental impacts are provided as are suggestions for further research.

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Author: Warren, J. and Taylor, C.N. Year: 1994 Title: Developing Eco-Tourism in New Zealand City: Wellington Publisher: NZ Institute for Social Research and Development Abstract: The authors begin by suggesting that ecotourism embodies a set of principles and business characteristics that help separate it from other tourism activities. Then they look at three definitions from which they draw seven characteristics, which market or set aside ecotourism from other forms of tourism. The book suggests areas for further research to be explored and is a useful resource for tourism students and researchers in terms of the literature that is reviewed.

Author: Wearing, S. and Neil, J. Year: 1999 Title: Ecotourism : Impacts, Potentials, and Possibilities City: Oxford ; Boston Publisher: Butterworth-Heinemann Keywords: Definition, statistics, sustainability Abstract: Wearing and Neil’s book consists of eight chapters addressing ecotourism definitions; tourism development; protected areas and visitor management; the role of interpretation; impacts on communities; marketing and characteristics of ecotourists. Major case studies focus on Costa Rica and policy issues in Australia.

Author: Wight, P. Year: 1993 Title: Ecotourism: Ethics or Eco-Sell? Journal: Journal of Travel Research Volume: Winter 1993 Issue: 31:3 Pages: 3-9 Abstract: Wight discusses varying views of ecotourism from ‘the greening’ of the tourism market to the awareness that tourism can contribute to conservation. The misuse of the term ‘ecotourism’ by industry members who adopt ‘eco-labelling’ to sell their products is explored. Wight also examines an ‘environmental action model’ which identifies firms as being inactive, active or proactive in their approach to improving the environment whilst adopting an environmental marketing approach. She concludes with observations on the need for ethical considerations and standards in the industry.

Author: Wight, P. A. Year: 1996 Title: North American Ecotourists: Market Profile and Trip Characteristics Journal: Journal of Travel Research Volume: Spring 1996 Pages: 2-10 Abstract: Wight explores definitions of ecotourism and ecotourists then presents results of research into North American ecotourism markets. Wight surveyed three groups. Firstly residents of seven metropolitan areas (Los Angeles, Seattle, Chicago, Toronto, San Francisco, Winnipeg and Dallas/Fort Worth) resulted in 1400 usable survey returns. An ecotourism travel trade operators survey yielded 120 returns and client lists from these operators contributed to the third sample of 1200 ‘experienced’ ecotourists (424 usable returns). Information on originating markets and trip characteristics gathered through the research identified that ‘experienced ecotourists’ were more highly educated, predominantly in the 25-54 years age group and likely to take part in specific nature based tourism activities (fishing, cycling, trail riding, viewing northern lights, bird watching, etc). Wight identified that many of the specific characteristics of ecotourists were found in the mainstream market. A second paper, Wight, P. (1996) North American Ecotourism Markets: Motivations, Preferences and Destinations, Journal of Travel Research, Summer 1996: pp 3-10, continues the above article. Wight identifies two main segments - ‘general consumers interested in Ecotourism’ and ‘experienced ecotourism travellers’.

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Author: Wight, P. A. Year: 1997 Title: Ecotourism Accommodation Spectrum: Does Supply Match the Demand Journal: Tourism Management Volume: 18 Issue: 4 Pages: 209-220 Abstract: In this paper Wight examines the range of accommodation preferred by general visitors interested in ecotourism and more experienced ecotourists. Whether suppliers are meeting visitor demands for intimate accommodations, luxury, wilderness and environmentally sensitive operations is discussed.

Author: Wright, M. Year: 1998 Title: Ecotourism on Otago Peninsula Series Title: Science for Conservation City: Wellington Publisher: Department of Conservation Abstract: This study examined the impact of humans on penguin behaviour at Sandfly Bay and Hooker’s sea lions behaviour at Papanui Beach, Otago Peninsula. Wright concluded that human presence on the beach has little short-term behavioural effect on yellow-eyed penguins. Habituation may have occurred at Papanui Beach in previous studies of Hooker’s sea lion but none was observed here and further research would be required to determine ongoing impacts.

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Ecotourism: a research bibliography