ECOLOGICAL BALANCE AND INDIAN ETHOS 4.1 INTRODUCTION Environmental pollution may be traced back to the evolution of Homo Sapiens on the earth and it was realized 2500 years ago during the time of Plato1. In the process of metamorphosis of primitive man into a civilized man, environment was neglected; importance was given to science and technology, resulting in environmental pollution. When life of human being on planet Earth was in the stage of embryo, a stage where he was one with nature, he had no moral relations or determinate obligations. When human being was roaming in the forests, he knew neither good nor bad. Human being without any knowledge of shelter, cooking, speech, and industry, he did not need his fellow creatures and could have no desire to hurt them. Thus when man was uncivilized and unpolluted, it was said that nothing was more pure than the state of nature and nothing was more polluted than man in the state of nature.2 4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL JURISPRUDENCE-ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD

India being socialist and secular country a good environmental sense has been one of the fundamental features of Indian philosophy. The civilization of India has grown-up in close association with nature. There has always been a compassionate concern for every form of life in the Indian mind. 1

2

Hambro, E. “The Human environment Stock and After”, year book of world affairs, 1974, 20. Rouse all, Jean Lalques) “Discourse on Arts and Science and Discourse on Origin of Inequality”1750.

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India being rich in its culture and heritage, inherited the values like tolerance, non-violence, equity, and compassion for animate objects, apart from this, nature is the common heritage of human beings. To preserve and protect nature human being must make sincere efforts. Ecological imbalances and environmental destructions are good examples to say that human being failed in his duty voluntarily then compulsory action must take over it. It is this process of human negligence and careless ness dealing with the environment gave birth to environmental jurisprudence.

Ancient India was the richest county, where in the gold was said to be sold and the streets. India has been rich not only financially but also intellectually. The scientific knowledge which now discovered is not new for India even with least pollution. But now India after invasion by many foreigners is suffering from poverty which is the main cause for environmental degradation and is striving for development. Since development and degradation, progress and pollution, economics and environment go together, development cannot be stopped, as it is being a natural instinct of man. Similarly, there is no escape form pollution because human being himself is the generator of pollution. The examples are the air he respires and emits, the odor he emits etc. Industry is the other cause for pollution and if industry is necessary evil then pollution is surest sufferance. The pollution is unsolved problem which has been termed as „slow poison‟ and is as old as human civilization itself3. But this does not mean that India has no concern for

3

Krishna Iyer. V.R, “The Dialectics and Dynamics of Human Rights in India”, 7 1999.

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environment at all. The instinct of protection of environment is inherent among Indians which motivated them to lay down certain religious precepts and rules and to take corresponding measures in an attempt to protect environment4. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF INDIAN LAW The significance of environment and environment protection are not new to India. It is traced to 300 B.C. The principles of environment protection are found in Arthashastra written by Kautilya, the prime minister of the Magadha dynasty during the period of Chandra Gupta maurya. Arthashastra also deals with environment protection and lays down various rules in all angles minutely with great detail5. The Arthashastra is divided into 14 books which provide in detail the law, administration, industry, commerce and foreign policy, book two contains provisions relating to environment. The Arthashastra provides rulers to protect preserve and improve forests and animal species (protection of wild life). Killing animals and birds, cutting trees are forbidden, if any harm is caused or pollution is caused in city, then penalty is prescribed. Even the person maintaining slaughterhouse shall pay severe fine. Even if the wild animals from forests are seen where people live, they shall not be killed or inflict injury to them, they shall be driven out7. This was based on principles of

4

5

7

Sunderlal Bhahuguna, “Technology V. Ecology”, The Hindusthan Times, Feb 9, 1986. Armin RosenScanz, Shyam Divan and Martha L. Noble, “Environmental Law and Policy in India- Cases, Materials and Statutes”, 1991, p.27. Supra note 28

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Manusmruti. During the period of Ashoka the 5th pillar edict lays down that killing different species of animals and birds which are harmless, which are of utility and are not eaten. Those animals which are with younger ones and are giving milk should not be killed and during fast days and full moon days deforestation must be prohibited. The forests maintain ecological balance; they are reserve of food, and to sustain cultivation on hilly areas and products of medicinal plants.

The great emperor Chatrapati Shivaji also ordered not to injure animals and plants. Plantations were made by the road sides to help travelers to have rest. He commanded the people to protect forests and preserve the water resources with out polluting.

This kind of gratitude was shown towards nature anciently which disappeared now. Despite of all ancient wisdom, with the development of science and technology the environment is damaged and ecological balance is disturbed. To control these ecological imbalances and to protect environment, India has developed a form of environmental jurisprudence which is unique. The Indian environmental jurisprudence has relied on three inter-connected elements. First, it manifests the new Indian Constitutional law rationale which clearly accords importance to public concerns rather than to protecting private interests. Secondly, it reflects certain aspects of Indian legal culture through implicit and explicit reliance on autochthonous values based on ancient, precolonial indigenous nations and concepts of law. Thirdly, it bears testimony to

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the uniquely activist role of the higher Indian judiciary in promoting this new rationale. These three elements characterize the manner and approach adopted in the recent development of Indian environmental jurisprudence. The Indian environmental jurisprudence proceeds closely in line with legal ideologies towards creating a human right for a clean environment which has been frequently voiced in international fora8. After discussing a traditional approach towards environmental jurisprudence of India there is need for discussion of Indian environmental jurisprudence regarding early legislations.

Environmental Care in Pre Indian Era: The cultural and religious heritage of India has concern for protection and preservation of environment; it has realized the relationship of human being with nature. Environmental ethics in ancient India can be studied under the following heads. (1)Religious and cultural or spiritual traditions.

1. Religious and Cultural or Spiritual Traditions of India: The religion and culture awakes the human being and make him realize that human life is not just the material possessions but is beyond conspicuous consumption. Spiritual traditions recognize divinity in nature and worship nature. The instinct of self-preservation and desire to multidimensional perfection motivated all religions and cultures to conserve and protect environment. Each religion has some injunction that can form a code for environmentally sustainable development. The precepts of environmental protection under each religion are discussed.

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Hinduism Hinduism is one of the ancient religions on earth. Cosmology began with Thales in the west and the Vedas in the East. Both the texts declare water to be the original being of reality. The apah stands for water as it had the quality to pervade or break through. Fire is considered as the life principle in the Rigveda and defines as immortal light in mortals8.

According to Hindu religion god and nature are not different aspects, they are one and the same. The different aspects of nature are worshipped, for example plants like Tulasi, trees like Peepul, and birds like Garuda and animals like Lion are worshipped. Thus the nature has direct link with religion and God.

In Hinduism, environmental ethics are a part of religious philosophy from Vedic period. In Rig-Veda the basic elements of Earth, air, water, fire and space provide basis for life and no body shall destroy or damage these five elements. According to Indian spiritual tradition, „Nature does not need to be controlled or transformed or decorated; she needs to be accepted in her entirety as a whole… She can be loved and celebrated as she is… But she is alive and must not be diminished or reduced‟9.

8 9

Rigveda, 10/79/1; 6/9/4; 6/4/2. Ravi, Ravindra, “Science and spirit”, New York, 1991, p.38.

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Vedas considered the five elements to be Gods. The earth is described as mother Goddess. Atharvaveda provided that „she is at times mother and father and product of Antariksha. Every thing has been and is being and will be created due to Earth. Water is source of all living being and strength of Earth or cause of the earth. Water may also be called Jeevan which means life as said in Chandogya Upanishad and considered as Varuna Deva and Gangamatha. Air is source of energy, it is treated as Vayu Deva. Fire is considered as life principle in rig Veda and may be prayed as Agni Deva, Surya Deva. Chandogya Upanishad held „the celestial region is the fire, sun alone is fuel, the sun-beams are ember, the day is the blaze; the moon is the ignition; and stars are the sparks; with this fire, the oblation given is shraddha or the favour from which the soma is begotten”.

The forests are rich source of natural energy and act as balancers of the ecology and are held by Vana Devata. The trees and plants were worshipped as they symbolize the various attributes of God. For example Lotus flower symbolizing Laxmi, Banyan tree attributed to Brahman, Peepal to Vishnu, Fig is attributed to Rudra. Tree is Vriksha Devata and it is said that Vriksho Rakshati Rakshitaha. Varaha and Matsya puranas regarded planting trees as a pious activity and treated one tree is equal to ten sons and those who plant trees will not go to hell10. Atharva Veda speaks about protection of wild life and domestic cattle.

10

Varaha Purana 172, 39

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In Bhagavatha purana, the evolutionary process of life on earth is symbolically represented by a series of divine incarnations i.e. Matsya avatar, fish moving in water and amphibious forms like tortoise i.e. Kurma Avathar, then Varaha animal form, Narashimha mammals like form of animal and man and then to human incarnations like Parasu Rama, Sri Rama. Thus man did not formed to dominate the lower species but he evolved out of these forms and is there fore inter-dependent with the environment11.

The Ancient scripture, the Chandogya Upanishad has explained the inter-relationship and co-relation between human beings and environment. The ancient Mahatma‟s and Rishi‟s have revealed that “God sleeps in minerals, wakes in animals and thinks in man”12. Hinduism believes that God is Omni potent and omnipresent, the environment is treated accordingly and thus any injury caused to the environment is an injury to God. The evolution of human life is exposed by the Upanishads as “The earth is essence of nature; water is the essence of earth; Vegetation is the essence of water, human life is essence of vegetation, meditation is the essence of human life, recitation, essence of balance or harmony is the existence of human beings in totally13.

11

12 13

Karan Singh, “The Hindu Declaration on Nature, The Assisi declaration on Religion and Nature”, Assisi, Italy 29, Sept, 1986. Inaugural Address by Justice Iyer, on “ Waste Management”, dated: 25-02-1995. Dr. Chaturvedi, R.G. and M.M. Chaturvedi, “Law on Protection of Environment and Prevention of Pollution”, p.6,9, 235-236.

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During ancient days there use to be gratitude towards nature, sages use to pray for recovery of nature, if he has inflicted any injury. In Atharva Veda, it is chanted that, whatever I dig out form thee let that quickly grow over again, „O‟ God let me not injure that vital heart‟. This principle is similar to Right to life with environmental sustainability, thus principle of sustainable development is not evolved recently, it is established principle from Vedic times. But man neglected it and more importance is given to economic development, not after realization, we are re-establishing this principle for very sustenance of life. Rig, Yajur and Sama Vadas are highlighting importance of yagna there it helps in purifying atmosphere, purity and quality of water is highlighted in Atharva veda i.e., why going to punya thirtha is given importance.

In Bhagwad gita, Lord Krishna says to Arjuna; that I am the essence of water, the brightness and light of sun and moon, sound in the ether, the heat or temperature and light in the fire and Prana in all creatures14. The origin and dissolution of whole world, whether material or spiritual, every thing is me, By my will, every thing is created and is existing and annihilated at the end15 Lord says that I am the universe and nature, I am the purifier, I am the sun and rain and I am the life and death, I am the origin and existence and the maintainer16 and also said that I am Peepal tree among trees. I am uchaisrava among horses, Gajendra among elephants, among cows I am kamadenu,

14 15 16

Bhagwad gita, 7th Chapter , 8and 9 sloka‟s. Bhagwad gita, 9th Chapter: 8. Bhagwad gita, 9th Chapter: 17, 18, 19.

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Vasuki among snakes, I am Varuna among Jaladevatas, among animals the king lion, Garuda among birds, Ganga among rivers, crocodile among those creatures live in water, I am the origin, existence and end, I am omni potent and omnipresent …..17 With out me nothing will exist. I am the basis for everything; No one shall harm living and non-living things. Thus God and Nature are one and the same. Smritis like Manu and Yagnavalkya smritis also stress on the importance of environment protection. Menu Smriti mentions about the optimum use of natural resources i.e., one of the principle‟s of sustainable development, not only through, puranas, vadas, Itihasas but also through various stories and through exhortations and writings Hinduism has been and is protecting environment. It is conserving environment and imbibed in it the principle of sustainable development. Buddhism Gautama Buddha was the greatest humanist and environmentalist, following the principles of Ahimsa, compassion, tolerance and respect towards all living and non-living things. Buddhism respects norms of ecology, they are forbidden to cut trees, destroy animals, birds and pollute water. Universal compassion, non-violence love and service and mutual protection are all attributes of Buddhism18.

17 18

Bhagwad gita, 10th Chapter: Stanzas 19-42. Tripathi, S.S. and Acharya Bhante, „Buddhism and the Ecological Crisis” in O.P.Dwivedi, „World Religions‟ New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989 , p. 187-207.

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Jainism Jain scriptures preach, not to injure, abuse or oppress, enslave, insult, torment, torture and kill any creature or any living being. Ahimsa is the Jain way of life and for them environmental harmony through spirituality may be attained by adhering to 3 precepts, right belief, right conduct and right knowledge19. Lord Mahaveera says that nothing is so subtler and smaller than an atom and so vast than space and no quality is more subtle than the quality of non-violence and no is virtue greater than reverence for life. He profoundly declares that those who neglect the five elements and vegetation, neglects his own sustenance20.

Sikhism People should identify their position in universe and should respect the creation of god. They believe that the every survival depends on environment21. According to Holy Scripture of Sikhs, Guru Granth Sahib, the creation and dissolution of universe occurs from divine command; God is the source of birth, substance and destruction. Thus for sikh‟s divinity lies in nature and to meet their needs without over exploiting the nature.

19

20 21

Gopilal Amar, “Jainism and the Environmental Harmony” in O.P.Dwivedi, „World Religions’, p. 208-281., (New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989, p. 282295. “Our Planet”, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1996. Surjif Jolly, “Sikhism and the Environment” in O.P.Dwivedi, „World Religions‟, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989.

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Zoroastrianism This is one of the oldest religions on earth founded by Zorathushtra. Zoroastrians are more conscious of nature, not only in their words but also in their thoughts and deeds. They have reverence towards nature‟s gifts i.e., air, water, earth, fire, animals, plants etc. Christianity The Biblical verses in old and new testaments provide that it is the duty of man to protect nature and Humanity must safeguard or care for the environment. Christianity prescribes a harmonious relationship between man and nature22. Islam The holy Quran‟s message is unity, harmony, balance and order representing the sustainable development. One should not alter the environment or disrupt the balance. If any such damage is caused to environment, it is considered as fasad (mischief)23. God is owner and man is the guardian of all creatures. Allah has created nature, thus “destruction of nature is injury to Allah. A1-Quran reveals that those who damage nature excessively i.e., destruction of Allah are said to be oppressing them selves”. Islam says that man is replica of universe and is duty of every man is to safe guard the health of universe.

22

Rev. Anand Veeraraj, “Christianity and the Environment”, in O.P.Dwivedi, World Religions‟, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989, p. 36-118.

23

Rafig, M. and Muhammad Ajmal, “Islam and the Present Ecological crisis”, In O.P.Dwivedi, „World Religions‟, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers,1989. p.119-137.

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Judaism Jews are more concerned for the environment. The foundation for Judaism is safeguarding the living creatures. Jews regard humanity as custodian of the world and warn them not to destroy the world. If done there will be no one to set it right. The fundamental Jewish principle is to preserve, protect and safeguard the environment24.

Thus every religion provided precepts for protecting environment. It has been one of the fundamental principles in each religion. The people also have strong faith in religion. This faith effectuates people to follow the religious injunctions in their day to day life. Especially Hindus has much faith in their spiritual and cultural traditions and principles. The examples for this philosophy are Bishnois cults and Chipko Movement. The Bishnois is an off shoot of Hinduism found by Guru Maharaj Jambaji he formed some 29 injunctions including ban on cutting trees and killing animals or birds. This community use to practice environmental protection as a religious precept the soldiers of the king of Jodhpur were sent to Bishnois forest to cut wood. The Bishnois protested and some of the women encircled trees to protect them, though soldiers started killing them, they sacrificed their lives for the honor of their religion. This is an example of satyagraha for environmental protection. This became inspiration for chipko movement of 1973.

24

Rabbi Lawrance Truster, “Created in the image of God: Humanity and Divinity in an age of Environmentalism, conservative Judaism”, Vol XLIV, No.1, Fll 1991, p.17.

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The villagers of U.P formed a human chain and protested against cutting trees. The same event of protest was followed by villagers near Himalayas in 1974, forcing contractors not to fell trees. Since then the chipko movement has developed into eco-development movement25. Both chipko and Bishnois movement are due to religious belief as well as environmental concern and for their sustenance. Greater involvement of woman is notable aspect. Thus absolute faith, the role of religious and cultural traditions of India, the human values and concept of Vasudhaika Kutumbam plays an important role in environment protection and right to sustainable life. Study of environmental jurisprudence also includes the discussion of historical aspects of Indian law. 4.3 GANDHIAN PERSPECTIVES The world as emerged after 1945 was completely damaged. Though India was rich in its heritage, the Indians have lost faith on tradition and culture apart from their lives. At this juncture we surely remember the great humanist and environmentalist, Mahatma Gandhi. He says environment is a repository of human spirit. He thought of the consequences of industrialization and urbanization. He tried to reestablish Indian culture and ancient tradition but due to mesmerism of science and technology no one cared 25

Chandi Prasad Bhatt, “The Chipko Andolan; Forest Conservation Based on People’s Power”, in Anil Agarwal, Daruyl D‟ Monte, and Ujwala Samarth (Eds), „The Fight for Survival’ , New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1987, p.51.

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for it. He initiated Swadeshi movement. He believed that India‟s back bone is villages according to him by perishing the very foundation of India we have been perishing the very survival. Being a great scholar of India according to ancient environmental prudence, he said, environmental up-gradation was more on ecological ethics. Comrade Stalin also evaluated that the therapeutics of ecological ethics is the beginning of antipollution strategy in Gandhi‟s India26.

Mahatma Gandhi, while anticipating the ecological crisis of the current days, told that the policy makers whenever are in doubt, have to recall the face of the poorest and weakest man they have seen and ask themselves if the step they contemplated was going to be of any use for him? Will it restore him to control over his own life and destiny? In other words, Gandhi‟s remarkable foresight and ability to go to the root cause of ecological problems told that the need of the poorest should receive the topmost priority in development planning. It helps the sustainable development. Gandhi stated quite clearly that the greed of a few people and their tendency to pursue a highly affluent and wasteful lifestyle could prove very destructive to nature. This is evident today in global warming, air and water pollution and various other ecological problems. His solution to environmental crisis is clearly curb this greed. And, therefore, he said, “the earth has enough for every one‟s need but not for everyone‟s greed”. Due to the unequal distribution of power, it is possible for

26

Justice V.R.Krishna Iyer, “Environmental Pollution and Laws”, 2004, p.9.

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a relatively small number of people to corner an extremely large share of the earth‟s resources, which ultimately lead to ecology imbalance. The Gandhji‟s words were not cared for as there was greater urge for development and civilization, but development led to deprivation and degradation. The civilization impaired the culture of man. The progress degraded the standard of life, Maurice strong commented that it is through the process of development process, given a new perspective and fuller meaning that they must deal with-UN environmental planning with a long journey of hope”27. Thus UN Organization also felt the need to have Co-ordination between development and protection of environment a raised leading to legislative urge. The development leads to industrialization, urbanization which in turn leads to pollution and environmental degradation. Thus once humanity wanted to become civilized, but now civilized man has to be humanized. 4.4 MODERN PERIOD Environment has been defined as the aggregate of all the external conditions and influence affecting the life and development of an organism28. Planet Earth is vital with diverse life forms living in harmony. Every thing in the environment is an interconnected network which depends on one another for its sustenance. In the Eco-system on Earth each eco-component is part in balancing the environment where man is one of the holistic entities29. 27

Khanna, “Environmental Problems and United Nations”,2006, p.7,8

28

Webster‟s New Collegiate Dictionary.

29

N.R.Inamdar, “Environmentalism and Development”.The Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol.XXXV, July-Sept, 1989, p.355.

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Environment is an all-encompassing term and there has never been a more appropriate time to consider environmental law than now. Globalization and technological innovations have changed the industrial composition typically from resource and agricultural based industries to heavy industries, high-tech manufacturing etc., which has precipitated a massive environmental change. At the Earth Summit in 1992 we saw United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, emphasizing the significance of "Sustainable Development", describing it as "a dynamic program". With the passing of each day, the need to disseminate information and initiate a dialogue on Environmental law, its enforcement and the evolution of the concept of Sustainable Development, is increasing manifolds. In modern India, Environmental Jurisprudence has gone a long way in acquiring a very seminal importance leaving behind the engraved British Juristic notions as out dated and insufficient. The damage caused to environment by poisonous gases and emissions, industrial effluents, urban sewage, garbage, plastic waste, chemicals, exploitation of natural resources like soil, forests, water supplemented by other equally important factors like poverty, growing population, health hazards, degeneration in quality of life have acquired alarming proportions which cry for a new environmental ethic, order and justice in Indian society. Regrettably in India, the initial phase of judicial response to the problems of environment has been of insensitivity and apathy towards environmental issues and problems.

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The word 'environment' includes all parts of nature necessary for health and happiness of man. Nature constitutes the environment or the ecology of man. Not only the beauty but the very existence of life depends on nature. The interaction with the components of natural world shaped the evolution of man30. In nature Homo sapiens are the most crucial element creating new ecologies31. The human beings differ from all other life forms due to his intellectual ingenuity. This innate intellectual instinct resulted in progress of man, the stress on the ecosystem. Though in the initial stages man was a weak animal often crushed by nature, his instinct of survival made him to over come his primitive life style32. Man during his initial stages of life was in harmony with nature and the stress on environment was less. If at all stress is caused, it is caused by depositions of human body waste residues, which was known as “entopic stress”33 Further, man developed and started exploiting nature for his happy life leading to “exploitative stress”. Man desired to acquire materialistic dimensions to lead a sophisticated life involved many modifications in the structure of ecosystems leading to “disruptive stress”. This is an ultimate exploitation of environment and ecosystem. Further, modernization and rapid development using energy and resource created dynamic relationship between man and his surroundings34 Cyret Black defined 30

31

32

33

34

M.W. Holdgate, “A perspective of Environmental pollution”, Cambridge, Cambridge University press, 1979, p.1. Michael Pollan et. al., “Only Man’s presence can save nature”, Harpers‟ Magazine, April, 1990, p.30. Rajyalakshmi.V, „Environment and Sustainable Development‟, Asian Law House, New Delhi, 2004, p.3-4. Shekar singh, “The Global Environmental Debate”, The Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol XXXV,1989, P.388. Allen L. Springer, “The International Law of Pollution; protecting the Global Environment in a world of sovereign states”, West Port, Conn. Quorum books, 1983. p.3.

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modernization as the process by which historically evolved institutions are adopted to rapidly changing functions that reflect the unprecedented increase in man‟s knowledge, permitting control over his environment35. The endless exploitation disrupted the unity in the life forms36. Totally the man-nature relationship has been disturbed by modern man with his technological power37. Man in his quest-for economic development disregarded the advance impacts caused to nature by his activities instead he thought that he is conquering the nature38. Man exists in nature but his thoughts always centered on technological and materialistic world which destabilized the nature. During early stages of industrial and technological era the effects caused on environment by human activities were ignored. But in course of time the environmental issues assumed greater importance since and since slowly experiencing the reactions that are arising in the environment. Nature is always tolerant and productive. But the heavy disturbances caused in the eco-systems, unlimited extraction of natural products made nature intolerable and started showing the consequences of such activities. As a result man developed concern for the protection of environment in the name of environmentalism39. Environmentalism is a social movement to protect the natural environment and the philosophical concern about its protection. There is a list of environmental issues that is due to human activity. These issues relate to the anthropogenic effects on the natural environment. 35

36 37

38

39

Cyril Black, “The Dynamics of Moderization”, P.7 quoted in David.W.Orr and Marvin S.Soroos “The Global Predicament: Ecological perspectives in world order”. Chapel Hill, The University of North Caroline press, 1979, p.78. Ibid B.Das, „Distortion of Social Welfare Function‟, The Indian Journal of Economics, Vol.LXXI, p.284. Barry commoner, “The closing circle: Man, Nature and Technology”, New York, Knopf. 1972, p.299. Environmentalism has been variously categorized. Marx it, Capitalistic, Gandhian, etc. and there are those who claim that they are neither left nor right but in front, quoted by Ramachandra guha, “Ideological trends in India Environmentalism”., Economic and Political weeks, 3rd Dec, 1988, p.1978

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They are: 1.

Climate change- global warming, fossil fuels, sea level rise, effect of automobile on societies

2.

Conservation - genetic erosion, Holocene extinction event, invasive species, extinction of species, habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, pollinator decline, coral bleaching, whaling

3.

Dams - environmental impacts of Dams

4.

Energy - energy conservation, renewable energy, efficient energy use, renewable energy commercialization,

5.

Genetic engineering - genetic pollution,

6.

Intensive farming - over grazing, irrigation, monoculture

7.

Land degradation-desertification, land pollution, soil erosion, soil contamination, soil conservation, soil salination

8.

Nano technology - nanotoxicology, nanopollution

9.

Nuclear issues- nuclear power, nuclear fallout, nuclear meltdown,

10. Over population, Urban sprawl - burial, excess consumption of natural resources 11. Ozone depletion- green house effects 12. Pollution- air pollution, noise light and thermal pollutions, water pollution- water crisis, Ocean dumping, oil spills, acid rain, Eutrophication 13. Resource depletion-. Exploitation of natural resources, environmental effects of fishing, mining, deforestation, illegal mining

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14. Waste disposal incidents 15. Toxins–chlorofluorocarbons, DDT, dioxins, heavy metals, toxic wastes, herbicides and pesticides. The arguments regarding various forms of environmentalism arouse a consciousness about environmental protection40. A move in this direction has been already made through a claim for a clean environment such a claim attracted various jurisprudential arguments regarding its content and the direction in which the claim ought to proceed. Environmentalism is spawned from the environmental ethics.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS Human beings are bound by morals in their ways of life. They are bound to follow these moral propositions and should lead an ethical life. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that primarily discusses issues dealing with human behavior and character. Ethics attempts to establish a basis for judging right from wrong and good from bad. Environmental ethics employs concepts from the entire field of philosophy, especially aesthetics, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of science, and social and political philosophy. Aesthetics deals with perceptions of physical properties such as color, sound, smell, texture, and taste. Since environmental ethics are often involved with issues dealing with the protection of plants and animals, its appeal is often to aesthetic experiences of nature.

40

Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Environmental Ethics”, First published Mon Jun 3, 2002; substantive revision Thu Jan 3, 2008

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Environmental ethics is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of the environment and its nonhuman contents cover: the challenge of environmental ethics to the anthropocentrism i.e., human-centeredness embedded in traditional western ethical thinking; the early development of the discipline; the connection of deep ecology, environmental ethics, and social ecology ; the attempt to apply traditional ethical theories, including consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics, to support contemporary environmental concerns; and

the focus of environmental literature on wilderness, and

possible future developments of the discipline. Ethics is followed by man even in their interaction with environment.

These ethical values towards

environment are known as environmental ethics. Environmental ethics are also interconnected with political and social structures concerning the use of natural resources, so the field also touches the areas of social and political philosophy. In the struggle to conserve the environment, environmental ethicists also use the knowledge and theories of science, for example, in issues such as those dealing with global warming and air pollution. The call to conserve and protect the environment has resulted in the passage of many laws41 The approaches of man towards environmental ethics are of two kinds42. One is „Eco-centric approach‟ and the other is „anthropo-centric or homo-

41

Abraham.C.M, „Environmental Jurisprudence in India‟, 2006, p.1.

42

Holmes, Roslon II. “Environmental Ethics, Duties to and values in the Natural world”, Philadelphia, Temple university press, 1988, p.290.

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centric‟ approach. Eco-centric approach is considered to be a broad approach, where the environmental quality covers the entire ecosphere. In this approach nature has to be viewed and respected in unified version. Human species and other species in an ecosystem have interest worth of its own. Therefore ecocentric ethics has concern for whole eco-system. It is not confined only to these environmental concerns that affect the welfare of human beings. Ethicists allege that anthropocentric approach is completely devoid of ethical content. They believe this approach in its content and direction is anti environmental and confined on to human world. Eco-systems are of value only because they contribute to human beings.

4.7 CONCLUSION The problems of environmental degradation including drought, the preservation of biodiversity, and climate change, etc., has become common place to refer to the present era as “the age of terror”. The world is facing chronic and unprecedented environmental problems; many of them are of human origin. Indeed, the problems of adjustment to climate change constitute a far more severe threat to national and international security than does terrorism itself. Drought, changing weather patterns, the expected burden of caring for environmental refugees, the effects of consumerism, and the health decline associated with various forms of pollution are continuing and major problems for human beings themselves and raise crucial issues about environmental justice. At the same time, the continuing destruction of natural

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environments and the widespread loss of both plant and animal species pose increasing problems for other forms of life on the planet. In facing these problems, there will likely be great opportunities for co-operation and synergy between philosophers and both natural and social scientists.

The origin of modern environmental crisis and the quandaries we now face the relation between environmental problems and social injustice, and the vexed question of how human beings should relate to the natural environment in their pursuit of happiness and well-being. The moving away from armchair speculation to link up with a wider community of inquiry may be inevitable not only in environmental ethics but also in all areas of practical philosophy. It is essentially anthropocentric attitude towards nature, is the ideological source of the modern environmental crisis and is the diagnosis of the origins of our present-day environmental extremities. At the heart of the philosophical cum cultural-historical analysis seems to be a simple structure. The result of environmental crisis, environmentalism, and environmental ethics, religious, cultural and spiritual traditions are to protect the environment and ecological balance in India, right from the ancient period.

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