COOPERATIVES (2) Duties and functions of the board members A cooperative belongs to its members and idealistically should jointly take all decisions. When a cooperative however becomes large, this is not possible.

Large agricultural cooperations usually consist of members who are full-time farmers and cannot devote time to running the daily activities of their cooperative. The day-to-day business activities of the cooperative is therefore run by a full-time General Manager who oversees the duties of various managers, who in their turn manage and oversee the duties of clerks, bookkeepers, store men, mechanics, harvest evaluators, fertilizer experts, pesticide experts and managers of grain silos. This does not mean the members lose their control over the activities of their business. They still oversee the work of the General Manager and his staff and take strategic business decisions themselves. Because not all members can always attend meetings, a board of directors are appointed who then act on behalf of the members. Directors In order to become a Director, one must be: • A legal adult

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• • •

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Be a member or affiliated member of the cooperative Or be a member of a concern who is itself a cooperative or is affiliated to a cooperative. Legal restrictions of countries might differ, but most include: o without the specific permission of a competent court of law no person may serve as a director who is a patient in terms of the Mental Health Act o who is unrehabilitated insolvent o who has been convicted of theft, fraud, perjury or other felony. A director of a cooperative loses her/her positions as a director o If for any of the above reasons he/she becomes incompetent to serve as a director o Is he/she is absent from four consecutive board meeting without the permission of the Board o After 30 days of his/her resignation as member o If he/she has been removed from office in terms of the statutes of the cooperative.

Directors serve office for a period of time stipulated in the statutes of the cooperative, but no longer than 5 years. However, Board members may be re-elected after that period. Should a member, resign, die of be removed from office before his/her term has expired, another director can be appointed in that vacancy for the remainder of the term that the predecessor would normally have served.

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Directors play such a vital role in the well-being of a cooperative, that they are normally elected on the very first general meeting of members, unless the statutes of the cooperative stipulated a different procedure. Any member of a cooperative may be nominated as a candidate for the election of board members. Chairperson In order to chair the meetings of the Board of Directors and to perform other functions delegated to them, a Chairperson and vice Chairperson are selected by the Board of Directors from among its own members. A Chairperson also acts as the spokesperson for the Board of Directors and represents it at functions where it would be impractical for the full Board to be present. The position is always for a stipulated length of time and there must be regular elections for these positions. Director’s fees Because board members have to devote more of their time to the affairs of the cooperative and the interests of other members, they may be compensated for their time and work. This remunerations could be in the form of salary, fees for attending board meetings or special bonuses. Source: South Africa. National Dept of Agriculture. 2000. Pretoria.

Next issue: Board meetings.

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COOLED MILK ENSURES QUALITY MILK Cooling Cooling is a very good method to keep milk fresh and its quality at a high level. Refrigerating milk on the farm prevents bacteria from growing. At body temperature, bacteria will grow very quickly. Even milk with a low bacterial count will go sour quickly. Clean and correct milking techniques and quickly cooling the milk to 4°C is the best way to keep the milk form spoiling. Milk produced under clean conditions will remain good for up to 15 to 20 hours, but it is not only the storage temperature that is important. The time it takes to reach the storage temperature of 4°C is also important. Milk coolers are specially designed to quickly cool milk to 4°C. Temperature affects bacterial growth, and food deterioration. Temperatures below 10°C restrict bacterial growth in milk and milk products. At a temperature of 4°C is needed to keep almost all bacteria from growing. Top quality milk will have less than 100 000 bacteria per millilitre of milk. Pasteurisation Milk has to be pasteurised before selling for human consumption. Milk is pasteurised by heating it to 72°C for 15-20 seconds. It is important to remember that you still have to work hygienically, even if the milk is pasteurised and cooled. To avoid infections is the first priority. With efficient cooling and good care the battle against micro-organisms can be won.

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Cleaning This is also very important. The efficient cleaning of a milk cooling system prevents infections. It is necessary to clean the milking equipment after every milk turn is complete. Use high temperatures and thoroughly disinfect the installation. Most bacteria will then be killed. Wash hands often. Milk quality The consistency and quality of milk does not change when it is stored. To store milk and maintain high milk quality, proper cooling equipment is essential. Quality cannot be added to milk by cooling it, but milk quality begins with hygienic milking an quick cooling. Visser, Rykie. In Ubusi Mail, November 2005. p 31.

Cartoon: Hoard’s Dairyman 10 Sept 2005, p. 598

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RESPIRATORY DISEASES IN CHICKENS What are respiratory diseases? Respiratory diseases affect the sinuses (an area in the head between the eyes and the beak) as well as the windpipe and lungs. What are the causes? § Germs, such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. § Housing problems such as poor ventilation resulting in ammonia build-up, draughts and excessive dust. What are the signs in live chickens? § Difficulty in breathing § Discharges from eyes and nostrils § Sneezing § Swollen sinuses What are the signs in dead chickens? The nasal passage and windpipe may be red on the inside or filled with mucus. How can you confirm the disease? § By a post-mortem examination. § By laboratory tests. What is the treatment? There are drugs available for treating respiratory diseases. Antibiotics such as tetracycline, quinilones and penicillins can be added to the feed or water. Most of

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these can only be bought with a prescription from a veterinarian, but tetracyclines can be bought over the counter. Prevention and control § Practise good biosecurity (measures to prevent diseases reaching the farm and causing a drop in production and/or mortalities). § Where possible, vaccinate against diseases such as Newcastle Disease and Infectious Bronchitis. § Improve housing management. § Provide good quality feed. Types of respiratory diseases v Caused by viruses Newcastle Disease (NCD) Infectious Bronchitis (IB) Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT) Pox Pneumovirus These are viral diseases causing respiratory signs as well as other signs such as drop in egg production in layer chickens. Chickens can become sick when they come into contact with droppings of affected chickens or by breathing in infected droplets. The pox virus is spread by mosquito bites.

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Signs in live chickens Discharge from the nostrils, difficulty in breathing, extended neck when breathing, sneezing, swollen sinuses and eye infection (conjunctivitis). Signs in dead chickens Red windpipe, mucus and plugs of pus in the windpipes and sinuses. Treatment There is no treatment for viral diseases. Antibiotics such as tetracyclines can be used to treat secondary bacterial infections which can complicate the viral disease. Control and prevention § Control movement of chickens in and out of the farm or yard. § Do not buy chickens from unreliable dealers. Buy day-old chicks that have been vaccinated against Newcastle Disease.

v Caused by bacteria Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) contributes to the respiratory disease complex in chickens. Chicks born from infected hens are infected in the egg. Chickens can also get the disease

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through contact with infected chickens. MG affects all types of chickens. Signs in live chickens Discharge from the eyes and nostrils. Signs in dead chickens § Airsacs are thickened, opaque and white with a yellowish white layer covering them. § The outer surface of the liver and heart is covered with a whitish layer. Treatment Give antibiotics such as tylosin in the feed or water. Prevention § Buy chickens that are free of MG. § Practise strict management measures on your farm. Infectious Coryza (IC) is a bacterial disease affecting layers, breeders and broilers. The chickens get sick after contact with the bacteria, for example, in drinking water or by breathing. It results in swollen sinuses and a drop in egg production. Signs in live chickens Swollen face, difficult and fast breathing, discharge from the nose and eyes as well as green diarrhoea.

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Signs in dead chickens Swollen sinuses and sometimes a watery jelly layer under the skin covering the head. Treatment Give potentiated sulphonamides in the water or tetracyclines in the feed to treat secondary bacterial complications. Sulphonamide treatment may have to be repeated. Prevention There is a vaccine available. It must be given twice and should preferably contain the C3 strain. v Caused by fungi Aspergillosis is an infection caused by fungi. Chicks are infected when they breathe in spores from the incubation machines at the hatchery and to a lesser extent from the environment, contaminated feed and litter. This infection is mostly seen in chickens kept in houses. Signs in live chickens Difficulty in breathing, fast breathing and openmouth breathing. Signs in dead chickens White areas in the lungs. Treatment None

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Prevention § Buy chicks from reputable dealers. § Avoid wet litter, and mouldy and dusty feed. Source: http://www.agis.agric.za/efarmer/

MAKING MAIZE WITCHWEED PROOF Applying a low-dose herbicide coat to seeds of herbicideresistant maize varieties successfully controls a devastating parasitic weed endemic to numerous crops across subSaharan Africa. The extensively tested technique, developed by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel, was officially presented at a recent meeting in Kenya. The parasitic weed, Striga spp. (witchweed), decimates maize and other crops across the region by literally sucking nutrients out of plants that provide food for African families. In order to be effective, control methods must act before (or during) attachment of the Striga to crop roots to prevent, or at least limit, yield loss. A low dose coating of imazapyr (a systemic ALSinhibiting herbicide), when applied to seed of imazapyr-resistant maize varieties, is said to leave a field virtually clear of emerging Striga blooms all season long. Herbicide delivered in

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this way thwarts the phytotoxic effect of Striga on maize plants, which usually occurs even before Striga emerges from the soil. An additional advantage is that any imazapyr not immediately absorbed by Striga or maize seedlings diffuses into the surrounding soil and kills ungerminated Striga seeds. By the time the crop ripens, the herbicide, applied in this way at less than one-tenth the normal rate, has disappeared leaving the food product unaffected. Scientists developing the technology believe it has enormous potential for small-scale farms in Africa, as it is economical and will not affect intercrops planted 10 cm (4 in.) or more from maize hills. Since the maize seed is treated, need for and cost of spraying equipment and material is eliminated, and the amount of imazapyr involved is approximately just 5% of the recommended over-the-top herbicide applications. For more information on this topic go to http://www.cimmyt.org/Research/Maize/results/st riga/control.htm Source: SANCRA News 5(4). Dec 2002. p 4.

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VELD MANAGEMENT (6) This article is used with the permission of the author: Mr Philip Diutlwileng, Developing Agriculture, NWK Agricultural Management Services, South Africa

Continuous grazing Continuous grazing is when a group of animals and / or their replacements are kept in the same grazing area throughout the entire grazing period, thus making all feed available to the animals at any point in time. Under these conditions, there will be area selective grazing, with the less preferable areas being grazed at the expense of the more preferred parts. This type of grazing is only recommended when the grazing area is very similar or homogeneous. When a whole farm is of the same veld type, it can be regarded as one camp and then stocked at the average carrying capacity of the area. In areas where the grazing varies considerably, i.e. heterogeneous veld, it is logical to subdivide the farm according to veld types and each grazing unit will be stocked according to its forage production with animals being moved from camp to camp to control the grazing pressure.

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Rotational grazing Rotational grazing is the successive occupation of different grazing units by a group of animals during a season so that camps are not grazed simultaneously. This is done to improve and maintain the veld condition. In rotational grazing the farmer has control of the frequency of plant utilisation as well as the intensity of veld utilisation, by controlling the animal numbers, grazing periods and most important – the resting period. When camps are divided, always consider the veld condition and type, homogeneity, soil type slope, geology and water reticulation strategy. There are two types of rotational grazing concepts: 1. High Production Grazing (HPG): camps are grazed until all palatable grasses are used to a state that will ensure rapid foliar growth and forage production. 2. High Utilisation Grazing (HUG): camps are grazed until all grass species are severely grazed. Different rotational grazing forms are used depending on the veld condition, grazing value and the dominance of different grass categories. (See Agri-Outreach Vol. 9 (2), Sept. 2006) When the veld is dominated by decreaser spp, a combination of HPG and UPG must be applied. Use HPG most of the time to maximise forage

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production and animal performance, whilst occasionally using HUG to stabilise plant succession at the decreaser stage. When the veld is dominated by increaser 1 spp, apply HPG to reverse the succession back to the decreaser stage. This should be coupled with feeding nitrogen/protein licks to minimise the negative results that may occur on the animal’s performance due to intake of poor quality feed. When the veld is dominated by increaser II spp, apply HPG to foster development of decreaser species, thus moving the succession towards the decreaser stage.

Cartoon from Hoard’s Dairyman Jan 10, 2005, p 14. Source: Diutlwileng, P. Applying veld management tools. In Noordwes Nuus, March / April 2006. p 12-15.

Next issue: Veld management tools.

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Mr. Muleya Monkombwe Musune of Choma, Zambia, showing a heifer. Due to information received from PRAIS, the mortality rate of his herd has dropped considerably.

We want to invite our readers to tell us about their success stories as a result of information received from PRAIS

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