Six Sigma for Managers

Other titles in the Briefcase Books series include: Communicating Effectively by Lani Arredondo Performance Management, Second Edition by Robert Bacal Manager’s Guide to Performance Reviews by Robert Bacal Manager’s Guide to Crisis Management by Jonathan Bernstein

Recognizing and Rewarding Employees by R. Brayton Bowen Sales Techniques by Bill Brooks Motivating Employees, Second Edition by Anne Bruce Building a High Morale Workplace by Anne Bruce Design for Six Sigma by Greg Brue Manager’s Guide to Marketing, Advertising, and Publicity by Barry Callen Manager’s Guide to Planning by Peter J. Capezio Leadership Skills for Managers by Marlene Caroselli Negotiating Skills for Managers by Steven P. Cohen Effective Coaching, Second Edition by Marshall Cook and Laura Poole Conflict Resolution by Daniel Dana Manager’s Guide to Strategy by Roger A. Formisano Project Management, Second Edition by Gary Heerkens Budgeting for Managers by Sid Kemp and Eric Dunbar Hiring Great People by Kevin C. Klinvex, Matthew S. O’Connell, and Christopher P. Klinvex Manager’s Guide to Social Media by Scott Klososky Time Management by Marc Mancini Manager’s Guide to Fostering Innovation and Creativity in Teams by Charles Prather Manager’s Guide to Navigating Change by Stephen Rock Presentation Skills for Managers by Jennifer Rotondo and Mike Rotondo Jr. Finance for Nonfinancial Managers, Second Edition by Gene Siciliano The Manager’s Guide to Business Writing, Second Edition by Suzanne Sparks Fitzgerald Skills for New Managers, Second Edition by Morey Stettner Manager’s Survival Guide by Morey Stettner The Manager’s Guide to Effective Meetings by Barbara J. Streibel Managing Multiple Projects by Michael Tobis and Irene P. Tobis Manager’s Guide to Online Marketing by Jason D. Weaver Accounting for Managers by William H. Webster

To learn more about titles in the Briefcase Books series go to

www.briefcasebooks.com

A Briefcase Book

Six Sigma for Managers Second Edition

Greg Brue

New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto

Copyright © 2015, 2002 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher, with the exception that the program listings may be entered, stored, and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. ISBN: 978-0-07-183864-1 MHID: 0-07-183864-3 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-183863-4, MHID: 0-07-183863-5. eBook conversion by codeMantra Version 1.0 All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every RFFXUUHQFH RI D WUDGHPDUNHG QDPH ZH XVH QDPHV LQ DQ HGLWRULDO IDVKLRQ RQO\ DQG WR WKH EHQH¿W RI WKH trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps. McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com. TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill Education’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms. THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.

Dedicated to Lauren Brue for her unwavering support of my professional life. This book was better because of you. Thank you, my love!

Contents

Foreword, Mikel J. Harry Preface 1. Introduction to Six Sigma What Is Six Sigma? Evolution of the Six Sigma Fundamentals What Is Sigma? Essentials of the Six Sigma Methodology Focus on Engaging People and Changing Processes Not Only Statistics, but Cultural Changes Six Sigma Is Not . . . Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 1

2. Defining Quality and Measuring Performance

xi xiii 1 1 2 4 7 9 10 11 13

15

Start with Your Customers Understand Your Processes Determine Your Metrics The Essential Six Sigma Formula Quality and Metrics, First and Last Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 2

16 19 21 24 24 25

3. The Right Way to Implement Six Sigma

27

Six Sigma: The Early Years and Implementation Flaws A More Realistic Approach to Six Sigma Readying the Organization Key Players Executive Leaders and Champions Champions Master Black Belts

27 29 33 35 36 38 39

vii

Contents

viii

Black Belts Green Belts Communicate! Train! Infrastructure What to Expect from Outside Consultants Getting Started: The Dos Getting Started: The Don’ts Executive Overview of DMAIC Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 3

4. Define Phase Define Phase Activities Define the Phase-Gate Review Summary Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 4

5. Measure Phase Purposes of the Measure Phase Measure Phase Activities Step 1. Map the Process in Detail Step 2. Create a YX Matrix Step 3. Perform a Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Step 4. Conduct a Measurement System Analysis (MSA) Step 5. Determine Process Capability Z Scores and Sigma Shift Measure Phase-Gate Review Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 5

6. Analyze Phase Analyze Phase Activities Analyze Phase Tools Ascertain and Prioritize Vital Few Causes of Variation Transform the Gaps into Improvement Projects Review the Project with the Champion Conduct an Analyze Phase-Gate Review Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 6

7. Improve Phase Improve Phase Activities Improve Phase Tools Correlation

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 48 49 51

53 53 75 76 76

77 78 79 81 84 89 95 104 111 113 114

115 116 120 142 144 145 145 146

147 148 149 149

Contents Regression Analysis Design of Experiments Planning the Experiment (DOE) Conducting the Experiment Running the Experiment Analyzing the Experiment Results Review the Project with the Champion Conduct an Improve Phase-Gate Review Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 7

8. Control Phase Control Phase Steps and Tools Control Plan Statistical Process Control Control Charts Contingency Plans for Out-of-Control Conditions Minimizing the Potential for Problems—Mistake Proofing Plan for Transfer to Process Owners Communication Plans Review the Project with the Champion Conduct a Control Phase-Gate Review Control Phase Deliverables Summary Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 8

9. How to Sustain Six Sigma Basic Infrastructure Requirements Communication Plan Company Culture Company Cycles Reinforcement and Control Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 9

10. Six Sigma Proof Positive

ix 151 153 155 165 168 170 176 176 177

179 180 181 182 196 196 197 199 202 205 206 206 207 208

209 210 211 213 215 217 219

221

Real Final Reports Case Studies Training Agendas Design for Six Sigma The End . . . and the Beginning Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 10

222 224 229 233 235 236

Index

239

Foreword

O

ver the last few decades, it has been my distinct privilege to serve as Greg Brue’s Six Sigma mentor. I have closely watched him extend and perfect his base of knowledge during the ’90s, as evidenced by the increasing depth and scope of his many Black Belt projects. Owing to this solid technical foundation, others began to seek his advice and leadership. During the early ’90s, Greg focused his pursuit of Six Sigma by leveraging his leadership skills on the issues surrounding implementation and deployment over the course of his tenure at the Six Sigma Academy. Moving into the 21st century, Greg rightfully positioned himself as a true global leader on the playing field of Six Sigma. Today, he is forging new and original ideas from the solid ore mined from his past, as evidenced in this book. Mikel J. Harry, Ph.D. Founder and CEO Six Sigma Academy

xi

Preface

S

ix Sigma is best described as a journey—a journey for business professionals who are truly committed to improving productivity and profitability. Six Sigma isn’t theoretical; it’s an active, handson practice that gets results. In short, you don’t contemplate Six Sigma; you do it. And doing it has proven to be the fast track to vastly improving the bottom line. The journey is about arming your human “assets” with problem-solving techniques, working project by project, resulting in breakthrough financial benefits and defect reduction. The purpose of this new edition of Manager’s Guide to Six Sigma has been to update and capture both the evolution of Six Sigma from the onset of the methodology back in 1994 with AlliedSignal/GE through the then-new revolution of the “big data business analytic.” The techniques have been enhanced, and the body of knowledge is even more powerful now as it’s developed in this data rich environment. The Six Sigma story began in the 1980s at Motorola, where it was first developed and proven. In 1983, reliability engineer Bill Smith concluded that if a defect was found in a product and corrected during production, then it might be that other defects were being missed and found later by customers. In other words, process failure rates were much higher than indicated by final product tests. His point? If products were assembled completely free of defects, they probably wouldn’t fail customers later. This is when Six Sigma took off and the methodology was continuously refined to not only eliminate process waste, but also turn it into growth

xiii

xiv

Preface

currency—regardless of the type of service, product, or market sector. The rest, as they say, is history. Six Sigma statistically measures and reflects true process capability, correlating to such characteristics as defects per unit and probabilities of success or failure. Its value is in transforming cultural outlooks from complacency to accomplishment across the gamut of industries. Most companies function at 4 sigma—tolerating 6,210 defects per one million opportunities. Operating at 6 sigma creates an almost defectfree environment, allowing only 3.4 defects per one million opportunities: products and services are nearly perfect (99.9997%). Eliminating defects eliminates waste and defects within a process and greatly enhances customer satisfaction. Of course, this sounds good in theory, but how do you put it into practice? Well, Six Sigma is about arming your employees with the training, resources, leadership support system, and knowledge to solve problems and reach nearly defect-free production. It’s also about taking a leadership journey to guide these human assets toward ever-increasing achievement. Six Sigma asks hard questions about your processes and gets the data to answer these questions. It provides solutions that fit your unique processes. That’s why I refreshed the content this book—I want to share updated Six Sigma real case stories to show how to achieve greater growth and improved customer service. Intense, results-driven, and ultimately exciting, Six Sigma eliminates wasteful variation, changes business cultures, and creates the infrastructure you need to initiate and sustain greater productivity, profitability, and customer satisfaction. In the following pages, you’ll find out what, why, and how Six Sigma works so you can start on your own Six Sigma journey. This book is designed for business leaders who want to know the reality of Six Sigma and who are ready for major breakthroughs to improve their companies’ bottom-line profits. Some of the material used in this book comes from my book The McGraw-Hill 36-Hour Course in Six Sigma, which provides even more specific details about the Six Sigma DMAIC breakthrough strategy.

Preface

xv

Chapter Highlights In Chapters 1 and 2, you’ll learn the basics; it’s an introduction to Six Sigma and why you should put it into practice. You’ll find an introduction to the breakthrough strategy phases of Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control. There’s a review of how to define quality as well as how to measure performance. I’ll show how Six Sigma makes you more competitive at every level—from streamlining internal processes to improving your external market position. You’ll also learn how to engage employees as you transform cost into growth. Building on this base, in Chapter 3 I share a practical, realistic proven strategy for implementing Six Sigma. The focus is on kicking off your Six Sigma initiative. The text provides the essential steps, tips, and planning guidelines you need to get it right. By properly readying your organization, you can lay the best foundation for a successful implementation of Six Sigma. Everyone has a role to play, from executives to line workers. Chapters 4 through 8 are the heart of the Six Sigma methodology and go into great detail on the breakthrough strategy of DMAIC: Define is Chapter 4, Measure is Chapter 5, Analyze is Chapter 6, Improve is Chapter 7, and finally, Control is Chapter 8. Each chapter goes through goals and objectives for each phase and the tools and techniques, with updated case studies to show the practical application as you take the journey through the Six Sigma strategy to solving business problems. Chapter 9 then takes you into how to sustain Six Sigma and shows you how to keep the momentum going to realize an ever-increasing return on investment. This is where knowledge transfer happens: as you and your teams transform theory into practice and become experts in the methodology, you’ll share the strategies that create an extraordinary ripple effect throughout the organization. As you delve into Chapter 10, you’ll have the opportunity to review real case studies and final reports about Six Sigma projects. The object of this chapter is to further demonstrate that Six Sigma is not a passing quality fad, but rather, a real-world business tool that returns positive financial results across the business spectrum. The evidence of its success is found in the proven results achieved by the companies profiled here.

xvi

Preface

I want to also thank all the thousands of Green Belts, Black Belts, and MBBs alongside the executives and champions supporting the unending journey of Six Sigma. This book could not have been as real without the true stories of these real people doing the heavy lifting during journey. Thank you!

Special Features Titles in the Briefcase Books series are designed to give you practical information written in a friendly, person-to-person style. The chapters deal with tactical issues and include lots of examples. They also feature numerous sidebars that give you different types of specific information. Here’s a description of the sidebars you’ll find in this book.

KEY TERM

The Key Term sidebars provide definitions of terms and concepts as they’re introduced. Because Six Sigma has a lot of new terminology, you will find many of these sidebars.

SMART

MANAGING

The Smart Managing sidebars do just what their name suggests: give you tips to intelligently apply the strategies and tactics described in this book to help you implement the principles that we explain.

TRICKS OF THE TRADE

Tricks of the Trade sidebars give you insider how-to hints that astute managers use to execute the techniques described in this book.

FOR EXAMPLE

It’s always useful to have examples that show how the principles in the book are applied. The For Example sidebars provide illustrations of how managers can use the these ideas.

CAUTION

Caution sidebars warn you where things could go wrong when undertaking a Six Sigma initiative.

Preface

xvii

How can you make sure you won’t make a mistake when you’re trying to implement the techniques the book describes? You can’t, but the Mistake Proofing sidebars give you practical advice on how to minimize the risk of this happening. The Tools sidebars provide specific directions for implementing the techniques described in the book in a systematic fashion. TOOLS

Chapter

1

Introduction to Six Sigma Knowledge is power. —Francis Bacon (1561–1626)

T

he assertion that knowledge is power is as true now as it was four centuries ago. In any industry, in any organization, for any process, when you don’t know what you don’t know, it’s going to cost you. For too many organizations, the costs (often hidden) of defects and waste in the way they operate are huge. Occasional errors in processes may not seem like such a big deal. But when you consider how many errors may be lurking in processes throughout an organization, the monetary impact can be staggering. Six Sigma generates knowledge. It can reveal errors, defects, and wastes in the operations of any organization. The power of knowledge increases, often dramatically, through action taken with Six Sigma to reduce errors, defects, and waste.

What Is Six Sigma? Six Sigma is a methodology for using a set of techniques and tools to improve product or service quality by identifying and reducing or eliminating the causes of defects or errors and minimizing variability in processes. People within the organization are trained to apply the techniques and tools in improvement projects, in which teams set measura-

1

2

Six Sigma for Managers

Six Sigma Methodology for using a set of techniques and tools to KEY TERM improve product or service quality by identifying and reducing or eliminating the causes of defects or errors and minimizing variability in processes.

ble goals (e.g., reduce process cycle time by 7%, increase sales by 5%, reduce costs by 8%) and follow a specific sequence of steps.

The name of this methodology, Six Sigma, comes from the statistical concept of sigma. We discuss sigma in the next section.

Evolution of the Six Sigma Fundamentals Whatever you read about Six Sigma will probably state that it was developed in 1986 by Motorola and that it’s a set of techniques and tools. Both of these statements are true, but not the whole truth. Actually, Six Sigma is a methodology based on thinking that can be traced back for several millennia and on applying fundamentals with which most people are at least somewhat familiar. We all know about Socrates (469/470–399 BCE), the Greek philosopher considered the father of Western philosophy. Among other things, Socrates is known for an approach to learning that consists of asking a series of questions to not only elicit answers but, more generally, to encourage thinking—the Socratic method. The Socratic method asks questions and follows up the answers with more questions, eventually leading to an answer that withstands further questioning. The Socratic method led to the development of the scientific method, which begins with a hypothesis (a proposed explanation for an observable occurrence such as a problem) and which is tested for accuracy. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the scientific method as “a method Hypothesis Proposed explanation for an observor procedure that has characable occurrence, such as a terized natural science since KEY TERM problem. A hypothesis is the 17th century, consisting in nothing more than a suggested answer systematic observation, measto a question, an answer that leads to eliciting ideas and collecting data to urement, and experiment, and prove or disprove the hypothesis. the formulation, testing, and

Introduction to Six Sigma

3

TEST YOUR HYPOTHESES WITH DATA In Six Sigma, a hypothesis must always be tested with data. There is no “I believe” or “I think” or “I feel.” What we believe, CAUTION what we think, and how we feel may help us form a hypothesis, but only facts matter in proving or disproving it. In applying Six Sigma, we do not deviate from this path. We can arrive at a hypothesis in any way we choose, but we must prove or disprove that hypothesis with data and statistical analysis. modification of hypotheses.” The scientific method of identifying causes of problems and using critical thinking to solve them is fundamental to Six Sigma. In fact, Six Sigma could be described as a methodology that uses the scientific method with statistical tools. Further evolution of Six Sigma can be linked to Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), considered one of the most influential mathematicians in history. Gauss introduced the concept of the normal curve, or normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution or Gaussian curve. If we do something again and again, we can expect the results to start to show a pattern, to form what is known as a normal distribution or, because of its shape, a bell curve (Figure 1-1). The normal distribution underlies the statistical assumptions of the Six Sigma model. It is the basis for analytical or inferential statistics, which are used to establish the capability of a process.

Figure 1-1. Simple normal distribution curve

4

Six Sigma for Managers

What Is Sigma? As mentioned earlier, the Six Sigma methodology was named for the statistical concept of sigma. Sigma (represented by the Greek letter s) is a term that represents standard deviation, which is a measure of variation in a product or a process. Variation—the deviation from the expected or the ideal—is what causes defects. Standard deviation helps us understand how far a process deviates from a reference of perfection. (We get into calculating the standard deviation in later chapters.) The lower the standard deviation, the closer the data points tend to be to the mean. Sigma Statistical term that represents standard deviation, a measure of variation in a product or a process. In Six Sigma, sigma is used to measure a process in terms of the number of KEY TERMS defects and the number of opportunities for defects. This ratio of defects to opportunities is generally expressed as defects per million opportunities (DPMO). Defect Measurable characteristic of the process or its output outside of acceptable customer limits, i.e., not conforming to specifications. Opportunity Point in a value-added process where a defect could result or where the product or service fails to meet customer requirements, specifications, or expectations. Use of DPMO and sigma level enables us to compare processes throughout an organization, whatever the nature of the processes and however the terms defect and opportunity are defined specifically for each of those processes. A sigma represents 691,462.5 defects per million opportunities, which translates to a percentage of nondefective outputs of 30.854%. That’s obviously really poor performance. If we have processes functioning at a three sigma level, this means we’re allowing 66,807.2 defects per million opportunities, or delivering 93.319% nondefective outputs. That’s much better, but we’re still wasting money and disappointing our customers 6.681% of the time. Figure 1-2 shows different levels of sigma.

Six Sigma as the Goal When Motorola developed the Six Sigma methodology in 1986, it set a goal of six sigma for its manufacturing operations. If a process is operat-

Introduction to Six Sigma

5

1 sigma = 691,462 DPMO 2 sigma = 308,538 DPMO 3 sigma = 66,807 DPMO 4 sigma = 6,210 DPMO 5 sigma = 233 DPMO 6 sigma = 3.4 DPMO Figure 1-2. Sigma levels and probabilities of defects per million opportunities (DPMO) ing at the level of six sigma, we can expect 99.99966% of its outputs to be free of defects. In other words, it’s working nearly perfectly. Six sigma is a statistical concept that measures a process in terms of defects. Achieving a performance level of six sigma would mean that your processes are delivering only 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO).

COST OF QUALITY AT MOTOROLA Here’s a blunt reality: In 1987, Motorola discovered that poor FOR quality accounted for approximately 25% of its annual invenEXAMPLE tory carrying costs. Since this expense added no value, it was like taking $250 million and burning it . . . annually. Another fact that came out of the Motorola discovery period was that the highest-quality producer was the lowest-cost producer. The synergy is that simply by improving quality, you can decrease costs and reduce cycle time—and increase customer satisfaction. How well are your processes operating? Are they at three sigma? At four sigma? DEVIATE AN INCH, LOSE A SMART Most organizations in the THOUSAND MILES U.S. are operating at quality As this Chinese proverb levels between three and four states, even a small deviation MANAGING sigma. That means they could in a process can have big consequences. Deviation, variation, be losing up to 25 percent of defect, waste—whatever you call it, the their total revenue due to result is the same: It costs you! Whatprocesses that deliver too ever your business—manufacturing, dismany defects—defects that tribution, or other services—any variation and the resulting defects are take time and effort to repair hurting your bottom line. and that create unhappy cus-

6

Six Sigma for Managers

tomers. Is that good enough? The answer is simple: No, not when you could be doing a lot better. The central idea of Six Sigma management is that if you can measure the defects in a process, you can systematically find ways to eliminate them, to approach a quality level of zero defects.

Sigma Level: An Example Let’s take an example, an all-too-familiar scenario: lost luggage at the airport. Many of us have experienced the frustration of watching the baggage carousel slowly revolve while waiting for luggage that never arrives. The system is far from perfect. But just how far, in sigma measurement terms? In general terms, the baggage handling capability of many airlines is performing at around the three sigma level. That means there are about 66,000 “defects” for every one million luggage transactions, which equates to approximately a 94% probability that you’ll get your luggage. Is that good enough? Certainly not for the customers whose bags are among the defects. The defects increase airline costs because employees must deal with misplaced luggage and unhappy passengers. And those defects can result in the loss of future business. If the airline can achieve a six sigma level of performance in luggage handling, it clearly pays off in terms of lower costs and happy passengers, who are then more likely to fly with that airline again. It may seem like three sigma is good enough. After all, if there are 66,807 defects per million opportunities, that means 933,193 opportunities without a defect—93.319% perfection. But if the airline is taking comfort in those statistics, it’s losing money and losing customers. Consider this three-sigma level from another perspective. For customers, three sigma represents highly unsatisfactory performance. The airline is not meeting its most basic expectation—that its customers’ luggage will be put on the same flight and travel with the customers to the same destination. So the airline is likely to be losing many of those frustrated customers. Three-sigma performance also costs money. Variations—time, waste, and errors—abound in the baggage-handling process: misrouting the

Introduction to Six Sigma

7

baggage, reporting the problem, processing the report, searching, retrieving, and finally delivering the lost luggage. When you translate the 6% probability gap of missing luggage into monetary terms, the hard cost of this defect can be much higher than 6% of the overall cost of handling luggage—perhaps several million dollars per year. If the baggage-routing process were improved, the margin for error would be reduced and the allocation of resources, both human and monetary, could be more profitably used. How many customers can your business afford to lose? How much money can your company afford to lose due to mistakes? Why accept it as normal to be running processes at only three sigma or four sigma when, by changing the way you manage your processes, you could get a lot closer to six sigma and all the resulting benefits? Why not just four sigma? That’s the level of quality achieved by many major companies—99.379%. Because that goal is not high enough. It’s been calculated that if 99% were good enough, we would be accepting the following: ■ ■ ■

■

Every hour the postal service would lose 20,000 pieces of mail. Every day our drinking water would be unsafe for almost 15 minutes. Every week there would be 5,000 surgical operations that go wrong in some way. Every month we would be without electricity for almost seven hours.

So, is 99% good enough? Six Sigma uncovers the layers of process variables—in data terms— that you must understand and control to eliminate defects and wasteful costs. It’s a management approach that aims to achieve the apex of quality by measuring, analyzing, improving, and controlling processes to root out defects and boost bottom-line results.

Essentials of the Six Sigma Methodology The Six Sigma methodology uses statistical tools to identify the vital few factors, the factors that matter most for improving process quality and generating bottom-line results. These tools are presented and discussed during phases in the Six Sigma process in which they are first used. There are two forms of Six Sigma: DMAIC and DMADV. DMAIC, the

8

Six Sigma for Managers

focus of Six Sigma for Managers, consists of these five phases: ■

■

■

■

■

Define. Determine the project goals and customer (internal and external) deliverables. Measure. Identify one or more product or service characteristics, map the process, evaluate measurement systems, and estimate baseline capability (the current performance of the process). Analyze. Evaluate and reduce the variables through graphical analysis and hypothesis testing and identify the vital few factors for process improvement. Improve. Discover variable relationships among the vital few factors, establish operating tolerances, and validate measurements. Control. Determine the ability to control the vital few factors and implement process control systems.

We devote a chapter to each of these phases. (Six Sigma DMADV, also known as Design for Six Sigma, consists of these five phases: Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, and Verify.) Six Sigma focuses on defects and variations. It begins by identifying the critical-to-quality (CTQ) elements of a process—the attributes most important to the customer. It analyzes the capability of the process and aims to stabilize it by reducing or eliminating variations. The Six Sigma methodology and tools will enable you to identify, correct, and control the CTQ elements and reduce the cost of poor quality (COPQ). (I refer to the COPQ as the “cost of doing it wrong.”) Your projects will reveal hidden costs and pinpoint ways to eliminate those costs. Simply put, Six Sigma management is about tying SMART ASK ONE SIMPLE QUESTION quality improvement directly Try this experiment the next time you’re in a meeting and to financial results. The Six people are discussing a probSigma goal is to link internal MANAGING lem. Listen for words such as processes and systems man“I think that this is the real problem” or agement to end-consumer “I believe this is the solution to the problem.” Ask this one simple question: requirements. “If that’s what you think, what data Six Sigma is a scientific (facts and evidence) do you have to supapproach to management, port your opinion?” driven entirely by data. The Six

Introduction to Six Sigma Sigma methodology eliminates the use of opinion—“I think,” “I feel,” “I believe.” Six Sigma drives the organization to a scientific means of decision making by basing everything on measurable data.

9

ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE “Anecdotal evidence” is the CAUTION ultimate oxymoron and an evil source of variation. It’s a personal opinion with a sample size of one. Take anecdotal evidence with less than a grain of baby powder.

Focus on Engaging People and Changing Processes Six Sigma relies on old-fashioned hard work coupled with factual data and a disciplined problem-solving approach. It affects every aspect and level of an organization—from line workers to middle managers to CEOs—to transform your people as well as your processes.

IT’S NOT ONLY THE PEOPLE Managers tend to focus only on the people in their organizaCAUTION tion. When something goes right or something goes wrong, they look for a person to congratulate or to blame. The fact is that work gets done through processes executed by people; both successes and problems are usually the result of what lots of people do, not only one person. If you don’t pay careful attention to both people and processes, improvement won’t happen. As the first step in that transformation, the Six Sigma mindset considers you and your people as resources (assets), rather than as costs (liabilities). That’s right—you are as much an asset as any piece of capital equipment and you represent an investment with extraordinary potential for return. Shifting the perspective from people as liabilities to people as assets (or investments) is fundamental to Six Sigma. Once you’re thinking in terms of human assets, it’s equally important to realize the underlying monetary value of rooting out wasted materials and steps in processes, as this is key to unlocking the hidden return on your investment in people. And that’s also another aspect of the Six Sigma approach to managing. By changing the way you look at processes, by understanding the vital few factors that cause waste, error, and rework, you can improve the

Six Sigma for Managers

10 SMART

SEE EMPLOYEES

AS ASSETS An easy way to understand the concept of human assets is to calculate their individual MANAGING return on investment (ROI). For example, if an employee costs the business $50,000 a year and his or her activity produces revenue of $100,000, the employee has covered the costs and raised an additional 100%—the profit or ROI. So, the annual ROI for that employee is 100%. By calculating employee ROI, you can focus on making the most of them as assets invested in your business.

ELEVATOR TALK A CEO of a major corporaFOR EXAMPLE tion once asked me, “What’s the 30-second elevator speech that explains Six Sigma?” My answer went like this: “Six Sigma is a problem-solving technology that uses your human assets, data, measurements, and statistics to identify the vital few factors to decrease waste and defects while increasing customer satisfaction, profit, and shareholder value.”

ability of your processes to deliver higher quality to your customers and to lower costs. Once you know which vital few factors to focus on, you can make improvements that deliver dramatic results. It’s actually simple—once you put your mind to it. By putting your people to work at solving process problems with proven statistical tools, you eliminate not only errors, but also inaccurate speculation about why processes don’t work. Instead of opinion, you arm yourself and your people with quantifiable information—based on facts, not hunches and guesswork. When you know the facts, you’re in a position to fix the problems permanently and gain long-term benefits. In other words, you’ve leveraged the power of knowledge to transform performance.

Not Only Statistics, but Cultural Changes Because it uses statistical terminology, Six Sigma is frequently perceived as a statistics and measurement program. This is not the case. The Six Sigma approach to management uses statistics solely as tools to interpret and clarify data. You focus on tool selection and the use and interpretation of data to drive decisions. Six Sigma practitioners also use computers and statistical software to take advantage of knowledge and

Introduction to Six Sigma

11

to speed the improvement process. The goal is to create Six Sigma companies—companies whose systems and processes are as perfect as possible, functioning at their best performance level. To achieve that level of quality requires not only statistics, but changes in the organization’s culture—the beliefs, expectations, ways of operating, and behaviors that characterize the interactions of the organization’s people. Culture evolves over a long time and it often reflects the beliefs and behaviors of top management. Because Six Sigma affects the way things are done, its successful implementation requires a cultural change that may be profound. The Six Sigma approach is rigorous, requiring from the highest levels of management a deep commitment that permeates the entire organization. It requires a tolerance for endlessly questioning the validity of sacred company beliefs and the traditional ways “things are done around here.” It also requires a sense of urgency—an understanding that to solve the problems that undermine profitability and customer satCulture Beliefs, expectations, ways of operating, isfaction, you must involve and behaviors that characyour key people in actively KEY TERM terize the interactions of implementing the Six Sigma people in any organization. It’s “how methodology. things are done around here” in an organization. The Six Sigma approach to management involves cultural change. Essential to this cultural change are key players known as “champions” and “black belts,” who act as agents to facilitate that change. Champions and black belts play vital roles in the success of Six Sigma management, as we outline in Chapter 3. Six Sigma is exciting. But it requires tenacity, mental toughness, and above all, an unwavering dedication to the pursuit of perfection in every aspect of business operations. Once you’ve fully embraced that, the possibilities are virtually limitless in what you can achieve.

Six Sigma Is Not . . . Six Sigma is not another quality program. That’s an important point to emphasize.

12

Six Sigma for Managers Businesses exist for one purpose—to profitably serve customers. So it

follows that any problem-solving initiative should do the same. Six Sigma uses your resources to fix identifiable, chronic problems. It proves its value by connecting outcomes to your bottom line. Quality programs lay a valuable foundation in creating a quality mindset. But ask yourself if any of the quality programs you’ve experienced have generated specific financial results like Six Sigma. It’s possible you’ll answer no, since a primary criterion for selecting Six Sigma projects is to return money to your balance sheet as the result of full-time efforts by dedicated resources. Six Sigma is not theory. It’s a practice of discovering the vital few processes that matter most. It defines, measures, analyzes, improves, and controls these vital processes to tie quality improvement directly to bottom-line results. Six Sigma is an active, involved effort that puts practical tools to work to root out defects at all levels of your organization. It’s not a theoretical exercise: You don’t think about Six Sigma—you do it. Since the success of Six Sigma is directly linked to monetary outcomes, it generates real-world results. It uses the most readily available resources in an organization—its human assets. That means that positive, tangible results consisSIX SIGMA IS tently show up wherever and N OT ANOTHER QUALITY whenever people are engaged CAUTION PROGRAM in implementing Six Sigma Quality programs are valutechniques. able in that they can create a quality Six Sigma is not a training perspective and culture. But Six Sigma fixes identifiable, chronic problems that program. Of course, practidirectly impact your bottom line. Six tioners are trained in the Sigma projects are selected to reduce methodology to ensure correct or eliminate waste, which translates into implementations and results. real money. But Six Sigma is a business strategy that fosters a cultural shift at all levels. Permeating departments, functional groups, and all levels of management, Six Sigma changes the outlook and practices of everyone in the organization. From workers on assembly lines and bookkeepers in accounting to

13

Introduction to Six Sigma

SIX SIGMA MYTHS

SMART

There are many myths and misunderstandings about Six Sigma, notably these: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

It works only in manufacturing settings. It doesn’t include customer requirements. It’s repackaged TQM. It uses difficult-to-understand statistics. It’s an accounting game without real savings. It’s just training. It’s a “magic pill” with little effort.

MANAGING

Just remember that Six Sigma actively links people, processes, and outcomes in a rigorous yet adaptable way to produce tangible results, whatever the industry, business, product, or service.

operations managers and human resource personnel, training exists only to instill the method, facilitate transformation, and get financial results by attacking chronic defects with proven statistical tools. Six Sigma works because it focuses fanatical attention on the details that matter. The Six Sigma method has worked through several recessions and still holds true to adding breakthrough value. Former GE CEO Jack Welch, who achieved great success with Six Sigma, made the case for Six Sigma succinctly: The big myth is that Six Sigma is about quality control and statistics. It is that—but it is a helluva lot more. Ultimately, it drives leadership to be better by providing tools to think through tough issues. At Six Sigma’s core is an idea that can turn a company inside out, focusing the organization outward on the customer. . . . It finally gives us a route to get to the control function, the hardest thing to do in a corporation.

Manager’s Checklist for Chapter 1 ✓ Six sigma is the optimum level of quality for organizations, averaging ❏ 3.4 defects per million opportunities. It can be applied to any transaction in any business.

✓ The Six Sigma methodology and tools will help your organization ❏ reduce variations, defects, and waste from all business processes and generate significant financial results.

14

Six Sigma for Managers

✓ Six Sigma is a disciplined, five-phase problem-solving methodology ❏ for improving processes and effecting culture change by establishing a system for spreading knowledge throughout the organization.

✓ Six Sigma starts with top leadership at the CEO level and it continues ❏ with top-level support.