Evolusi Komputer

Disusun oleh: Tim dosen SLD Diedit ulang oleh: Endro Ariyanto

Prodi S1 Teknik Informatika Fakultas Informatika Universitas Telkom Agustus 2015

Evolution of Computers Mechanical Computers • 1642 - Blaise Pascal invented the first working calculating machine

•Kalkulator Pascal

Blaise Pascal Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #1

Evolution of Computers Mechanical Computers • 1672 - Leibniz added multiplication and division (First 4-function calculator)

Leibniz Kalkulator Leibniz Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #2

Evolution of Computers 150 tahun kemudian... (1820’s) • Charles Babbage built the difference engine and then started work on the analytical engine. – The analytical engine had a memory, a computation unit, and input reader (punched cards) and an output unit (punched and printed output). – The analytical engine was the First general purpose computer. – Ada Lovelace worked for him, and was the world’s First computer programmer – Ada, the computer language, is named in her honor – The analytical engine never worked because technology at that time could not manufacture the precision gears needed to make it work – An analytical engine based on Babbage’s design has been built and it works! Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #3

Charles Babbage

•Ada Lovelace

Babbage's Difference Engine

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Evolution of Computers

Babbage's Analytical Engine

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Evolution of Computers

Babbage's Analytical Engine

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Evolution of Computers

110 years later... (1930’s) •John Atanasoff • John Atanasoff (Iowa State College) and George Stibbitz (Bell) both built electric calculators • Aiken built an electronic relay version of Babbage’s machine that worked (Mark I) • By the time he built the Mark II, relays were obsolete (too slow). • Alan Turing, famous British mathemetician, developed COLOSSUS, the First computer – Since the British government didn’t unclassify COLOSSUS for 30 years, none of it’s science influenced later computer development

Then things started to move... Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #7

Evolution of Computers

Atanasoff-Berry_Computer Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #8

Evolution of Computers

Colossus Computer Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #9

Evolution of Computers ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) • Designed at UPenn by Mauchley and Eckert (Mauchley saw Stibbitz work at Dartmouth) • Purpose was to do calculations for the Army Ballistics Laboratory • 5000 calculations per second (much faster than mechanical calculators) • Programs were entered by connecting jumper cables and setting switches (6000 of them) • The computer weighed 30 tons and used 140kW of power (equivalent of 233 60W bulbs) • Basic element was the vacuum tube • Numbers were represented digitally by clusters of 10 vacuum tubes (one for each digit 0-9) • Design started in 1943, started working in 1946, dissassembled in 1955 • It’s first major task was to help design the H-bomb

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Evolution of Computers

Tube lamp

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Evolution of Computers

ENIAC Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #12

Evolution of Computers

ENIAC

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Evolution of Computers The von Neumann Machine • John von Neumann thought he could improve the programming aspect of computers • Put the program in the same place as the data (some kind of memory element) – Stored-program concept – Permits more flexibility in programming (selfmodifiable code) – Permits more flexibility in how the memory is used (data v. program) – Creates a bottleneck between the CPU and memory during execution • Turing had the same idea at about the same time – First stored program computer was the EDSAC, built at Univ. of Cambridge (Wilkes) Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #14

Evolution of Computers

EDSAC computer Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #15

Evolution of Computers The von Neumann Machine • IAS computer was developed at Princeton and started functioning in 1952. • IAS computer was the basis for all future computers – Main memory, which stores both data and instructions – ALU for processing data – Control unit which fetches and executes instructions – I/O devices to handle input and output. Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #16

Evolution of Computers

IAS computer Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #17

Evolution of Computers

Struktur IAS computer Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #18

Evolution of Computers • IAS computer had 1000 memory locations of 40 bits each • Each word could hold either one piece of data or two instructions (20 bits each) – Note: Instruction length is related to the word length in a simple way

• Instructions consist of an 8-bit opcode and a 12-bit address (1024 locations) – Instruction size limits accessible memory

• The IAS functions by fetching instructions from memory and executing them one at a time – Since there are two instructions per word, it actually fetches two instructions at once – The second instruction is held in the IBR: instruction buffer register Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #19

Von Neumann • The control unit and the ALU both contains registers that can hold data temporarily • Memory buffer register [MBR] - used to store or receive a word from memory • Memory address register [MAR] - indicates where in memory to store or receive a word • Instruction Register [IR] - contains the current instruction • Instruction Buffer Register [IBR] - holds the right-hand instruction from memory (not always used) • Program Counter [PC] - Indicates the memory address of the next instruction to fetch • Accumulator [AC] - holds the result of ALU operators (usually the most significant bits) • Multiplier Quotient [MQ] - holds the least significant bits of ALU operators Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #20

Von Neumann Function of the IAS computer •

• • • • • • •

Instruction cycle: – Fetch cycle - the op-code of the next instruction is loaded into the the IR, and the address from the instruction is loaded into the MAR. In the IAS computer this instruction can come from the IBR, or it can be obtained by loading the PC value into the MAR, loading the word from memory into the MBR, and then moving the MBR into the IBR, IR, and MAR. Execute cycle - the op-code in the IR now sets particular control signals which cause certain actions to occur: data movement, or data processing by the ALU. There are 21 instructions, which fall into 5 groups: Data transfer - move data between memory and the ALU registers, or between two ALU registers. Unconditional Branch - modify the PC to jump within a program Conditional Branch - modify the PC based on certain ßags, usually from the last ALU action Arithmetic Instructions - ALU operations on data Address Modify - Allows addresses to be computed in the ALU and then inserted into instructions stored in memory. This allows you to do things like indexed arrays Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #21

Von Neumann • The fetch-execute cycle forms the basis of the design – The computer itself does nothing except fetch the next instruction and modify some control signals based on the instruction. The resulting data motion executes the program. – The computer does only what the program it is running tells it to do.

• Modern computers still follow many of these basic design elements, but are much more complex because they try to use parallelism and execute multiple instructions simultaneously.

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Computer History: Pretransistor phase Sperry (went on to become Unisys) • Formed by Eckert and Mauchly in 1947 • UNIVAC I - SperryRand Corporation, the First successful commercial computer (early 50’s) – Used for the 1950 census

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Computer History: Pretransistor phase • UNIVAC II – First upgrade: greater memory capacity & higher performance – First upward compatible machine

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Computer History: Pretransistor phase • UNIVAC 1100 Series - The most successful UNIVAC series, mostly designed for scientific applications

UNIVAC-1100 Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #25

Computer History: Post-

transistor IBM

• IBM 701 - 1952 (it sold nineteen 701 computers) • IBM 702 - 1955 First business computer (text processing)

Commercial Computers (Post-transistor)

• Transistors were developed at Bell labs in 1947 • NCR & RCA had small transistor computers before IBM (MIT first in 1954 with TX-0) • IBM started its 7000 series using transistors in the late 1950’s – Multiplexor bus design, I/O Channel concept

• Transistors allowed for greater speed, larger memory capacity, and smaller size • Second generation of computers began: – High-level programming languages (FORTRAN), and system software – More complex ALUs and control units

• DEC began building minicomputers (first PDP-1 sold for $120k in1959) – Large screen led to the first video game at MIT: SpaceWar

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Computer History: Post-

transistor

PDP-1

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Computer History: Third

Generation

Third Generation Computers • 1958: Integrated circuit: you could put transistors and other circuit devices on a single chip. • Old technology: – each transistor was the size of a pin head, – each resistor, capacitor, etc. had to be soldered on the board individually – up to a several 100,000 components to the more advanced computers

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Computer History: Third

Generation

Third Generation Computers • Integrated circuits – One wafer (usually about 4’ in diameter, although they’re getting bigger) – One pattern: i.e. a CPU, or a quad NAND gate, etc.. – Repeat the pattern in 2D across the chip – Saw the chip into the little blocks – Put each block in a little plastic case with some pins attached – As feature size gets smaller, a linear decrease in feature size in x and y is a squared increase in the number of components per wafer (wafer cost is the relevant thing)

• Current achievements are greater than 60 million transistors in a single chip

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Computer History: Third

Generation

Integrated circuits Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #30

Computer History: Third Generation • IBM System 360 (introduced in 1964) – First non-upward compatible line, but they wanted to improve the architecture of the 7000 series, and it turned out to be the success of the decade, giving them a 70% market share. • This was IBM’s major move to computers based on integrated circuits

– The 360 architecture is still the basis for most of IBM’s large computers. – The 360 series was the Þrst planned family of machines, with different capabilities for different prices. – 360 was the Þfirst multi-tasking architecture with multiple programs stored in memory Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #31

Computer History: Third Generation

IBM System 360 Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #32

Computer History: Third Generation • DEC PDP-8 – Small enough to sit on a lab bench or be built into other equipment – It was cheap enough for a lab to purchase ($18k). • PDP-8, followed by the PDP-11, were DEC’s glory years.

• PDP series was the first to use a bus architecture.

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Computer History: Third Generation

PDP-8 Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #34

Computer History: Third Generation

PDP-8 Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #35

Computer History Memory • Pre-1970: all memory consisted of metal rings (cores) that could each hold one bit • 1970 - first semiconductor memory of a decent size (256 bits) • 1974 - semiconductor memory became cheaper than core memory (magnetic circles) • Since 1970 - 11 generations: 256, 1K, 4K, 16K, 256K, 1M, 4M, 16M, 64M, 256M, 512M • 1 Gbit memories are close to production

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Computer History

Core memory

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Computer History

Semiconductor memory

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Computer History • Microprocessors • First microprocessor was the 4004, which was built by an Intel engineer as the chip to run a calculator for a Japanese firm (he did it on one chip to be more efficient than the 12 requested). – Intel bought back the rights to the chip and came out with the 8008 a few months later – Interest in the chip boomed Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #39

Computer History • Microprocessors • 1974 - Intel 8080, the Þrst general purpose microprocessor, followed by the 8088 and the 8086

Intel 8086

Intel 8080 40

Intel 8088 Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #40

Computer History • Microprocessors • 1975 - Wozniak and Jobs design the Apple I using the Morotola 6502 microprocessor • 1977 - Apple II with all the trimmings • 1985 - Intel 80386, their Þrst 32-bit processor (HP, Bell Labs, and Motorola already had one) • 1990 - Intel 80486 and Motorola 68040 have the first onboard float point units [FPU]

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Computer History Current Technology in Microprocessors • Pentium, PowerPC, Sparc – Branch prediction - figuring out where to get instructions from next – Data Flow Analysis - getting data into the CPU before it needs it – Speculative Execution - executing instructions that may be needed later – On-chip floating point units, very complex control units – Pipline architectures - dividing the F-E cycle into small parts and executing the parts inparallel – Superscalar design - having multiple functional units operating in parallel Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #42

Computer History The bottle-neck is memory: the processors are an order of magnitude (or more) faster than the • DRAM: – Increase the amount of memory grabbed at any one time – Use cache and buffering systems – Increase bandwidth between processors and memory, and use higher-speed buses • P4 uses a 400 MHz memory bus technology called RAMBUS • RAMBUS has strict requirements about how close to the processor the memory must be (light takes a nanosecond to travel 1 foot)

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Computer History Recent developments in CA • Copper wire (IBM development): up to an order of magnitude faster than aluminum • Parallel pipelines (Itanium) • Direct support for multimedia applications (Pentium II/MMX, Athlon 3DNow, Pentium 4) • 64-bit architectures (Itanium, PowerPC 620, UltraSparc, G3/G4) • Speculative execution on a global scale • 2-level cache on the processor (PowerPC G3/G4, Pentium III, Itanium) • Vector floating point processors (G4) • Magnetic memory (MRAM) that is as fast as DRAM • Chips with 0.11um features (110nm) are about to come into production Sistem dan Logika Digital/2015 #44

Pustaka [MAX01] Maxwell, Bruce A. “Principles of Computer Architecture”. – edition. Swarthmore College.

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