Article

Disaster Management System in Bangladesh An Overview

India Quarterly 68(1) 29–47 © 2012 Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA) SAGE Publications Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC DOI: 10.1177/097492841106800103 http://iqq.sagepub.com

A.K.M. Abdus Sabur (It is a matter of great regret that the author is no longer amongst us.) Abstract Bangladesh and its people have been one of the worst victims of natural disasters from time immemorial. Conversely, facing and learning to live with natural disasters are equally an ancient preoccupation of Bangladeshi people. Disaster management in independent Bangladesh has undergone a complex process of development. While it received its impetus from concrete challenges faced at home, it also received inputs from developments, institutions and policies outside Bangladesh. In the process, Bangladesh has developed a workable system of disaster management that includes a set of mechanisms and processes, as well as a whole range of ways and means for the management of disasters. The article probes into the disaster management system in Bangladesh. In doing so, it begins with an overview of disasters in Bangladesh that helps explain the context of disaster management. The article studies the disaster management system in Bangladesh with a focus on concepts and theories, legal framework and institutional structure. On the basis of the above, an attempt is made to project an outlook for the future. Disaster and disaster management transcend and intersect national boundaries and geographical regions. Therefore, prevailing system of disaster management in Bangladesh could be of considerable importance to others involved in the same venture elsewhere in the world. Keywords Bangladesh, disaster management, flood, cyclone, riverbank erosion, earthquake

Introduction From time immemorial, the geographical location, land characteristics, multiplicity of rivers, monsoon climate and coastal morphology of Bangladesh have been a mixed blessing. On the one hand, Bangladesh is blessed with life-giving monsoons contributing to the development of highly productive agriculture, vibrant economic activities, concentration of population and the flourishing of civilisations since ancient times. On the other hand, owing to the same factors, Bangladesh has periodically been subject to the curse of natural disasters of varied magnitude, occasionally reaching catastrophic proportion. Thus,

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Bangladesh has been one of the worst victims of natural disasters from time immemorial. While the degree of damage done by such disasters varied widely, from time to time, these caused colossal destruction to lives, properties, livelihood of the people, environment, and so on. Conversely, facing and learning to live with natural disasters are equally an ancient preoccupation of the people of Bangladesh. Over millennia, they have tried to face natural disasters being organised at the community level, and relying on the experiences and knowledge transmitted from generation to generation with virtually no assistance from the state. Even in the twentieth century, the situation suffered very little change. It may be recalled that during the cyclone of 1970 that killed around 500,000 people, the state was virtually a bystander (Matin and Taher 2000). With the independence of Bangladesh, efforts at facing natural disasters began to undergo a transformation. In the process, state emerged as the central figure, while Bangladesh’s development partners1 and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) came to play a significant role. In terms of its focus as well, disaster management has undergone a qualitative transformation. From its initial focus on relief and rehabilitation activities, disaster management has developed into a complex venture that includes tasks starting from disaster prediction and preparedness to long-term recovery and reconstruction as well as future disaster risk management. In the process, disaster management in Bangladesh has emerged as a crucial, sophisticated and a challenging national endeavour. Disaster management in Bangladesh has, however, undergone a complex process of development. While it received its impetus from concrete challenges faced at home, it also received inputs from developments, institutions and policies outside Bangladesh. In the process, Bangladesh has developed a workable system of disaster management that includes a set of mechanisms and processes as well as a whole range of ways and means for the management of a variety of disasters. Disaster and disaster management transcend and intersect national boundaries and geographical regions. Therefore, prevailing system of disaster management in Bangladesh could be of considerable importance to others involved in the same venture elsewhere in the world. It is in this light that a study on the disaster management system in Bangladesh would be of significant academic as well as practical importance. The article is designed to probe into the disaster management system in Bangladesh with a focus on its background, the prevailing concepts and theories, legal framework and institutional structure. It is divided into five parts. While the ongoing Introduction is Part I, Part II presents an overview of disasters in Bangladesh. Part III sheds light on the emergence and development of disaster management in Bangladesh. Part IV explores the prevailing disaster management mechanism in Bangladesh with a focus on concepts and theories, legal framework and institutional structure. On the basis of the above, an attempt is made to project an outlook for the future in Part V.

Major Types of Disasters in Bangladesh: An Overview With over 150 million people living within 147,570 sq. km (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 2011) or over 1,016 people per sq. km, Bangladesh remains the most densely populated country in the world, barring a few city states. It is bounded between 20º 34′ to 26º 38′ N latitude and 88º 01′ to 92º 41′ E longitude. With the Bay of Bengal to the south and the Himalayas to the north, Bangladesh is situated in between two contrasting environments. It is divided into three zones, namely, hills, terraces and flood

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plain based on geomorphology and physiographic. However, most of Bangladesh is floodplain. It is a lower riparian country of the three of the greatest rivers of the world—the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. The total catchment area of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) river system stands at 1.74 million sq. km covering areas of China, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh of which only 8 per cent lies within Bangladesh. The floodplain of the GBM river system covers about four-fifths of Bangladesh. Roughly 80 per cent of the landmass of Bangladesh is alluvial deltaic plain with an average elevation above sea level of only 10 meters that is formed by more than 210 rivers, and their numerous tributaries and distributaries. These rivers include no less than 57 international/trans-boundary rivers of which 54 flow into the country through/from India. These rivers carry an enormous discharge of water from the Himalayas heavily laden with sediments. The combined flow of these rivers discharges under the name of Meghna into the north-eastern corner of the Bay of Bengal. Being in the combined catchment area of the GBM river basin, it drains 92 per cent of the flow out into the Bay of Bengal, which is the major cause of flooding (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 2010). As a result of flat topography of the floodplain, between 30–70 per cent of the country is normally flooded each year (Agrawala et al. 2003) by overflowing rivers during monsoon when the rainfall within the country is also very high. This annual phenomenon of river flooding plays a vital role in the floodplain ecosystem. North-eastern corner of the Bay of Bengal is quite shallow and periodically witnesses strong tidal and wind action. Due to the funnel-shaped coast, Bangladesh often becomes the landing ground and breeding place of catastrophic cyclones formed in the Bay of Bengal (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 2010). Thus, in addition to flood, Bangladesh remains constantly vulnerable to cyclones, tidal bores, storm surges and the likes originated in the Bay of Bengal (Government of Bangladesh 2010a, 2010b). Thus, historically, Bangladesh remains a disaster-prone country. It is exposed to a wide variety of natural disasters, such as, tropical cyclones and storm surges, floods, tornadoes, river/coastal erosion, earthquake, droughts, torrential rains, epidemics, arsenic contamination, salinity intrusion and various forms of natural and human-induced hazards, from time to time, causing large-scale loss of lives and properties, and jeopardising the developmental activities and livelihood of a large number of people. In a country like Bangladesh, virtually no natural hazard goes without adversely affecting a large number of people. However, not all the natural disasters affect people’s life, their economic well-being and livelihood, envir-onment and so on with equal ferocity (Datta and Banik 1999). Hence, some of the natural calamities could be singled out as being the major types of disasters. What follows is an attempt to review a number of such major types of disasters that strike Bangladesh periodically.

Tropical Cyclones and Storm Surges Tropical cyclones from the Bay of Bengal accompanied by storm surges are one of the two major disasters in Bangladesh; the other being floods. The country is one of the worst sufferers of all cyclonic casualties in the world. The high number of casualties is mostly due to storm surges that sometimes exceed 9 metres in height. Over a period of 100 years, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, of which 17 per cent made landfall in Bangladesh (Ali 1999). A severe cyclone occurs almost once every

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three years. Although the frequency of cyclones is not unusual compared to other cyclone hotspot countries, the impact it causes is unparalleled. Over the last four plus centuries (1584–1991), 53 per cent of the cyclones in the world that claimed more than 5,000 lives took place in Bangladesh (Ali 1999). The cyclones also cause large-scale damage to the material resources and environment. On average, Bangladesh is hit by cyclones of varying severity two to three times a year. A cyclone in 1876 claimed 200,000 lives. Another one in 1970 claimed over 500,000 lives. Again a devastating cyclone that took place in 1991 claimed over 138,000 lives (Matin and Taher 2000). The last of the devastating cyclones, Sidr, that struck the coast of Bangladesh and moved inland on 15 November 2007, claimed 3,406 lives and caused damage to the material resources worth US$1,675 million (Government of Bangladesh Report 2008).

Floods The particular geo-physical location of Bangladesh makes it susceptible to floods which are annual phenomena with the most severe occurring during the months of July and August. Regular river floods affect 20 per cent of the country, increasing up to 68 per cent in extreme years. The floods of 1988, 1998, 2004 and 2007 were particularly catastrophic, resulting in large-scale destruction. Approximately 37 per cent, 43 per cent, 52 per cent and 68 per cent of the country is inundated with floods of return periods of 10, 20, 50 and 100 years, respectively (Government of Bangladesh 2010a). While floods in Bangladesh are not so much devastating in terms of the loss of life as cyclones, these are literally catastrophic, resulting in large-scale destruction of crops, houses/buildings, livestocks, roads, bridges/culverts, embankments, and so on (see Table 1 for a detailed account of destruction caused by cyclones and floods).

Tornadoes Tornado usually hits during transitional periods between south-west and north-east monsoons. The transitional periods are usually referred to as pre-monsoon (March–May) and post-monsoon (October– November). Loss of property due to tornadoes is usually very high, while the number of deaths may remain low. In 1998, 500 people were wounded and 5,000 houses collapsed in a tornado in north-central Bangladesh. In 1999, there were at least 11 tornadoes that killed five people, injured more than 400 people, destroyed or damaged more than 55,000 houses, and killed 600 animals (Government of Bangladesh 2010; Matin and Taher 2000).

Riverbank Erosion The Bangladesh delta, being still in its formative stage, is highly unstable. The major rivers and their tributaries in the country are in a constant mode of change. River erosion is, thus, an ongoing disaster resulting in substantial losses of people’s farming and homestead lands, livelihoods, destruction of the physical infrastructure like roads and bridges. Every year about one million people are affected by river

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

4.

1988 (1st ) 1988 (2nd) 1989 1990 1991 1991 1991 1993 1994 1995 1995 1995 1996 1997 1970 1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1991 1991

3.

Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone

Flood/Erosion

Flood/Erosion

1986 Flood/Erosion 1987 Flood/Erosion

1. 2.

S. No. Year Disaster

27 17 7 23 28 33 15 40 22 14 48 37 5 9 7 21 33 39 33 19

70 58 35 97 170 224 40 259 88 100 222 180 99 30 30 131 71 127 100 102

345

347 165

50 23

52

175

19

People

35,732,336

8,937,724

90,469

120,530

270,632

196,803 279,212 71,572 1,691,104 49,976

1,517 348,042

104

57 42,374 1,470 370,129

47 5,444 166 461 151 5,801

2 2,442 74 233 62 3,865

292 196 –

689 387 1,196 884 1,199 2,608 103 5,882 1,744 1,431 2,968 976 –

6,506

1,100

454 2,583

289 171 624 176 892 4,367 60 4,146 2,170 2,565 1,635 3,490 – 32 132 515

45,840

1,202

3,094 12,624

496

764

707

125 339 124 186 1,013 18 2,398 211 267 448 586 – 10 1 18

1,651

67

13 1,272

(Table 1 Continued)

39

4 123 392 249 1,774 2,175 9 2,335 537 1,567 1,573 811 – 11

2,397

312

164 3,429

976

2,195 1,210 1,195 2,157 5,567 12,217 475 1,981 3,643 7,839 10,922 4,210 –

14,016

5,659

1,610 11,534

No. of Road Road No. of Damaged Damaged Damaged Damages Institution Fully Partially Bridge/ Embankment (Km) (Km) Culvert Damages (Partially)

58 239 239 115 350 32 346 168 650

2,593

287

302 1,155

No. of No. of No. of Damaged Dead Dead Institution People Livestock (Fully)

3,203 16,096 23 51,548 14,101 58,418 41 8,716 33,961 80,994 91 5,551 73,449 121,518 30 6,428 232,633 370,934 697 34,327 234,393 615,336 162 29,512 19,177 31,005 10 8,666 344,276 1,087,419 137 14,221 79,725 355,386 56 41,816 474,707 571,222 53 2,063 218,275 598,818 76 47,946 13,252 241,147 125 4,726 250,000 470,000 – 10,095 7,135 10 2,020 1,116 3,446 12 1,050 788,715 863,837 9,590 386,766 12,173 20,008 573 2,065 75,085 63,562 132 5,326 34,791 20,274 76 25 819,608 882,750 138,882 1,061,029

364,258 9,902,967 1,030,659 2,265,776

755,740

6,715,734 990,573 711,616 24,823,376 2,983,362 1,873,207

1,848,389 58,568 102,716 1,383,360 37,987 125,089 2,293,445 276,896 117,795 3,410,404 160,549 23,9024 5,582,355 782,780 708,225 11,559,586 778,513 521,204 553,467 55,325 48,133 16,382,922 1,369,358 986,754 5,806,950 598,808 229,216 4,007,310 855,585 807,344 1,650,054 8,106,988 404,456 605,312 888,336 5,008,868 167,586 384,666 1,100,000 3350,000 167,500 39,500 86,590 238,600 17,800 84,837 1,006,536 2,316,042 1,597,780 346,087 38,712 38,629 1,015,866 171,099 242,897 121,229 11,760 8,725 13,798,275 133,272 791,621

1,678,934

Family

No. Affected

District Upazila

No. of Crops Crops No. of Damaged Damaged Houses Houses Fully Partially Damaged Damaged (Acre) (Acre) (Fully) (Partially)

Table 1. Major Natural Disasters in Bangladesh (1986–2009)

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5

39 1

46

30 11

Flood/Erosion

Flood/Erosion Landslide

39. 2007 Flood/Erosion

40. 2007 Cyclone (Sidr) 41. 2009 CYCLONE (Aila)

55,781

16,520 743,467 374,583 5,711,962 1,084,593 811,144 1,949,940 1,522,248 291,673

97,885

8,577

422,020 23,986 57,912 305,953 2,593 42,644 81,162 2,431 3,784,916 254,755 59,788 2,015,669 16,537 72,662 30,916,351 1,423,320 1,808,401 4,338,372 150,515 290,923 3,244,576 14,262 438,016 7,606,837 321,355 521,742 7,582,792 275,491 496,406

People

200 64

263 2,064,026 948,621

8,923,259 3,928,238

2,851,559 13,343,802 743,322 1,730,317 77,486 245,968

890,898 1,335,382

265 7,468,128 36,337,944 1,605,958 1,038,176 15 (Places)

20

– 40 209 189

8 67 9 66 61 366

32,511

564,967 243,191

81,817

957,110 370,587

961,420

894,954 3,389,101

11,476

52,057 17,476 22,395 44,664 15,868 15,976 290,320 452,886 51,435 163,352 980,571 2,446,395 138,076 426,695 437,050 309,775 115,511 564,527 97,671 509,477

Crops Crops No. of No. of Damaged Damaged Houses Houses Fully Partially Damaged Damaged (Acre) (Acre) (Fully) (Partially)

1,459

15,143

205

1,296 1,838 4,933 7,960 3,196 26,564 137 1,643 25,237 6,992

3,363 1,778,507 190 150,131

970

747 127

8

134 91 545 127 78 918 15 37 26 96

4,231 445

563

1,295

52

96 127 85 1,824 2,500 1,718 – 41 302 288

No. of Damaged No. of No. of Dead Dead Institution People Livestock (Fully)

12,723 4,588

8,031

24,276

202

98 537 64 3,000 2,256 23,272 – 1,777 4,050 3,588

1,714 2,233

3,705

14,271

94

174 218 15 927 – 409 3,720 1,925

169

6,361 6,621

27,125

45,528

397

1,527 2,379 45,896 – 8,874 15,690 15,096

360 (Fully) 1,687 157

5,478

26

527 85 6,890 – 1,234 9,406 2,390

83

88 (Fully) 1,875 1,742.53

3,158

31

122 280 4,528 – 118 4,734 1,504

97

No. of Road Road No. of Damaged Damaged Damaged Damages Institution Fully Partially Bridge/ Embankment (Partially) (Km) (Km) Culvert Damages

Source: Disaster Management Bureau, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management, Government of Bangladesh (http://www.dmb.gov.bd/pastdisaster.html, accessed on 17 June 2011).

2 28 2 10 12 52 28 9 36 31

Family

No. Affected

District Upazila

Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Cyclone Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion Flood/Erosion

1994 1995 1996 1997 1997 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 (1st) 36. 2003 (2nd) 37. 2004 38. 2007

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 17. 32. 33. 34. 35.

S. No. Year Disaster

(Table 1 Continued)

34 A.K.M. Abdus Sabur

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erosion and 9,000 hectares of cultivable lands are banished in river. This makes most of the affected people homeless for uncertain period. River erosion is, thus, no less dangerous than other sudden and devastating calamities (Ahmed 1992).

Earthquake Except for a number of sporadic and mild earthquakes, there has not been a major earthquake in Bangladesh in its recent history. However, Bangladesh is situated close to three fault zones in Assam, Tripura and sub-Dauki, which makes it a potent earthquake zone. In 150 years, Bangladesh has experienced seven large tremors. In July 1999, in the off-shore island of Maheshkhali, there was a tremor of 19 seconds duration and the level of intensity was 5.2 on the Richter scale. This killed seven people, destroyed 100 thatched/earthen houses and injured about 200 people (Matin and Taher 2000). The point that needs to be emphasised is that Bangladesh has not faced any large earthquake since the country has developed large urban centres (Ansary 2009). Besides, Bangladesh remains vulnerable to a wide variety of hazards. These include drought, arsenic contamination, salinity intrusion, tsunami, fire, infrastructure collapse, landslide and others. Like flood, drought has been a part of life in Bangladesh from time immemorial. Arsenic contamination is a relatively new phenomenon and it is taking an ever deteriorating turn. While the Asian tsunami has spared Bangladesh, it also generated significant concern in the country. With rapid pace of industrialisation and urbanisation, hazards like fire and infrastructure collapse are increasing in terms of both number and ferocity. Thus, Bangladesh is faced with a wide variety of potential disasters. The ongoing process of climate change adds a new dimension to the country’s risks and vulnerabilities. Bangladesh is likely to be one of the most vulnerable countries of the world in the face of climate change. In more concrete terms, climate change could substantially increase the frequency and intensity of natural disasters mentioned above. Current indications are that floods, cyclones, storm surges and a host of other natural disasters are likely to become more severe, more frequent and affect more areas and people in Bangladesh. More ominous, they will also start to occur outside of their established seasons (Ali 1999; Government of Bangladesh 2010a). In the World Disasters Report, 2003, published by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Bangladesh is identified as one of the three most disaster-prone countries in the world. It has suffered 170 large-scale disasters between 1970 and 1998 (Tanner et al. 2007). On the basis of the past experiences and future projections, in 2005, a World Bank study has ranked Bangladesh as the most climate-vulnerable country in the world (Beck 2005, vi).

Disaster Management in Bangladesh: Emergence and Development Modern disaster management, both in theory and practice, emerged during the period following the emergence of Bangladesh in 1971. During the initial period, the focus of disaster management efforts have been concentrated on immediate consequences, such as relief and rehabilitation measures. Major activities, such as disaster risk management through scientific prognosis and pre-disaster preventive and

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preparedness measures taken in disaster-prone areas in anticipation of known hazards, were almost nonexistent. The same implies to long-term reconstruction and rehabilitation of the disaster-ravaged regions and their populace. In the subsequent period, disaster management in Bangladesh has undergone a process of significant transformation. In this regard, the devastating floods of 1988 and the cyclone of 1991, and Bangladesh’s failure to adequately respond to these disasters played a significant role in shaping the future of disaster management in Bangladesh. The floods of 1988 caused unprecedented damage to the physical infrastructure, crops, livestock and the economy as a whole, while the human casualty remained below 2000 (see Table 1; for a detailed account of damage, see Shah 1999). The cyclone of 1991 claimed the lives of over 138,000 people (see Table 1), in addition to large-scale damage to the physical infrastructure, crops, livestock and the economy as a whole amounted to US$1.4 billion (UNCRD-CIRDAP Seminar Phase III 1992). In contrast, a cyclone of similar intensity in the US killed only 18 people the next year (Chowdhury et al. 2008). In spite of consecutive disasters of very high magnitude, Bangladesh’s failure to adequately respond to such disasters and the successful instances of disaster management in the outside world, particularly in the developed countries, served as a powerful impetus for a process of radical transformation of disaster management in Bangladesh. Subsequent period has been marked by persistent efforts on the part of the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) in collaboration with the country’s development partners and the NGOs, to develop an effective mechanism for disaster management. Such efforts were concentrated basically on three fronts. First, concerted attempts were made to develop appropriate disaster management theories and concepts that would facilitate successful disaster management in Bangladesh. In this regard, adaptation of relevant theories and concepts successfully tested elsewhere deserved utmost attention. In the course of time, the focus has been shifted from the relief and rehabilitation measures of the past towards adaptation of a holistic approach that embraces the processes of hazard identification and mitigation, community preparedness and integrated response efforts, and a host of similar forward looking measures. Second, cautious and careful but persistent efforts were employed to create a legal framework capable of managing and more importantly, facilitating creative interaction among prevailing theories, practices and institutions involved in dealing with the highly difficult and complex tasks and challenges of emergency nature emanating from the process of disaster management. All these resulted in the introduction of the Standing Orders on Disaster that still remains the basic legal instrument for regulating and facilitating disaster management. Third, inexhaustible efforts were employed to create institutions capable of carrying out Bangladesh’s literally gigantic tasks of disaster management. In this regard, moulding a wide variety of existing institutions in order to make them serve the purpose of disaster management has always been of significant importance. At all levels, institutional capacity building remained at the centre of attention. All these began with a modest venture, a short-term project titled ‘Assistance to Ministry of Relief in Coordination of Cyclone Rehabilitation’ was undertaken following the 1991 cyclone. In the process of the implementation of the project, the need for a specialised permanent disaster management body was recognised and ultimately, this resulted into the creation of the Disaster Management Bureau (DMB) in April 1993 by the GoB. DMB, currently under the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management (MoFDM), remains the principal organ that coordinates and channels disaster management activities. The creation

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of the DMB has been accompanied as well as followed by efforts at developing a disaster management mechanism (DMM) with state-of-the art concepts and theories, a flexible and responsive legal framework and a dynamic and effective institutional structure.

Disaster Management Mechanism: Concepts and Theories, Legal Framework and Institutional Structure Theoretically, DMM would mean a wide range of means, instruments, processes, systems, rules, manner of acting and the likes of achieving disaster management. However, as already indicated in the preceding section, discussions on the prevailing DMM in Bangladesh would be limited to three broad issues, namely, concepts and theories, legal framework and institutional structure. This would allow us to be brief and concise while presenting an overall picture. Thus, the following exploration of DMM in Bangladesh would revolve around these three broad issues.

Concepts and Theories The period since the early-1990s witnessed a process of paradigm shift in disaster management approach from conventional response of relief and rehabilitation to a more holistic approach of comprehensive risk reduction culture and ensuring the resilience of the communities to known hazards. This has been reflected on the concepts and theories that came to dominate the thinking as well as practical efforts of the GoB, on disaster management (Government of Bangladesh 2010a, 2010b). In the process, disaster is defined as an event, natural or man-made, sudden or progressive, that seriously disrupts the functioning of a society, causing human, material, or environmental losses of such severity that the affected community has to respond by taking exceptional measures. The disruption is on a scale that exceeds the ability of the affected society to cope with, using only its own resources. Articulation of such a broad definition of disaster implied that traditional relief and rehabilitation measures would fall far short of disaster management. The concept of acting after the occurrence of disaster has been replaced by the concept of total disaster management. It came to include all aspects of planning of and responding to disaster. It refers to the management of both risks and consequences of disaster, and includes both—prevention and preparedness measures taken in disaster-prone areas in anticipation of the known hazards—often referred to as ‘pre-disaster’ measures—and long-term rehabilitation. The second one also included recovery and development (Government of Bangladesh 2010a). The disaster management vision of the GoB is to reduce the risk of people, especially the poor and the disadvantaged, from the effects of natural, environmental and human-induced hazards, to a manageable and acceptable humanitarian level, and to have in place an efficient emergency response system capable of handling large-scale disasters. Among the disadvantaged, women and children are of prime concern. Over the years, gender mainstreaming in disaster management has emerged as a significant point. One of the predominant ideas, in this regard, is to promote gender equality and the empowerment of the women within the disaster management framework (Government of Bangladesh 2010a).

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Disaster management involves the management of both risks and consequences of disaster that would include prevention, emergency response and post-disaster recovery. Involvement of local government bodies is an essential part of the strategy. Community involvement for preparedness programmes remains a major focus. Self-reliance is considered the key to preparedness, response and recovery. The disaster management strategy as articulated by Bangladesh, over time, is holistic and comprehensive to the extent that it integrates the tasks of disaster management with those of the broader development strategy of the country. In the process, the tasks of disaster management and those of broader and long-standing socioeconomic development became intertwined and interwoven (Rego and Roy 2007). Foregoing understanding of disaster and its management prompted the division of the venture of disaster management into four distinct phases (Government of Bangladesh 2010b). These are normal phase, alert and warning phase, disaster phase, and recovery phase. Each of these phases entails a specific set of tasks to be accomplished. Normal Phase: A period when there is no immediate threat to disaster. It is the time for long-term actions required in anticipation of the impact, at some unknown time in the future, of known hazards. Alert and Warning Phase: The period from the issuing of an alert or public warning of an imminent disaster threat to its actual impact, or the passage of the threat and the lifting of the warning. The period when precautionary measures are taken. Disaster Phase: The period during which direct impact of a natural calamity is felt. Disaster phase is long in case of slow onset disasters (droughts, normal monsoon flood) and short in case of rapid onset disasters (flash flood, cyclone, earthquake, fire, industrial accident, landslide, etc.). It is an emergency period and measures required are mostly of emergency nature. Recovery Phase: The period, following the emergency phase, during which actions are to be taken to enable victims to resume normal lives and means of livelihood, and to restore infrastructure, services and the economy in a manner appropriate to long-term needs and defined development objectives. In the above framework, disaster management is also a normal time venture and overall plans of national development are undertaken and executed, taking into account the long-term tasks of facing known disasters. Traditional relief and rehabilitation of the disaster victims remain a rather small part of disaster management. Recovery phase remains long-standing and perhaps, the most crucial phase in the process of disaster management. At this phase, disaster mitigation includes both structural as well as non-structural mitigation. Both are taken seriously in practical terms. As a part of structural mitigation measures, GoB has constructed, among others, 2,895 cyclone shelters and 200 flood shelters (Government of Bangladesh 2011). However, the maintenance of those structures remains a difficult undertaking. The instances of lapses or even negligence have also been observed. Non-structural mitigation has given emphasis on legislation and policy, disaster preparedness training, public awareness, advocacy, a variety of capacity-building measures, and so on. In this regard, a crucial point has been the emphasis on an integration of structural mitigation with non-structural ones (Government of Bangladesh 2011). In evaluating the prevailing disaster management approach, a critical point deserves special attention. Most disaster responses can be characterised as command and control structure—one that is top down and with logistic centre approach. This, often, causes the lack of community participation which, on occasions, results in failures in meeting the appropriate and vital humanitarian needs, unnecessary increase in requirement for external resources, and general dissatisfaction over performance. These India Quarterly, 68, 1 (2012): 29–47

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limitations underscore the need for revitalising the Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) (discussed in details in Pandey and Okazaki 2011). It promotes a bottom-up approach working in harmony with the top-down approach, to address the challenges and difficulties. To be effective, local communities must be supported into analysing their hazardous conditions, vulnerabilities and capacities as they see themselves. In order to build disaster-resilient communities, they need to be empowered. Thus, capacity building at the community level is increasingly being considered as an effective approach to achieving sustainability in disaster management at the grass-root level (ibid.). For millennia, people in Bangladesh have tried to face natural disasters being organised at the community level. So, CBDM, in a way, constitutes going back to the basics. Prevailing disaster management concepts, theories and strategies put utmost importance on their improvement in the light of the concrete challenges faced at the ground level during each of the disasters as well as the development of relevant concepts, theories, techniques, technology, knowledge, and so on, at home, and elsewhere in the world. In this regard, enhancing overall disaster management capacity remains a crucial point. In the light of the already achieved developments, a National Disaster Management Policy is being formulated to define the national perspective on disaster risk reduction and emergency management, and to describe the strategic framework, and national principles of disaster management in Bangladesh. It will be strategic in nature and will articulate the broad national objectives and strategies in disaster management.

Legal Framework The creation of a legal framework to regulate the activities of gigantic proportion that involves disaster management in Bangladesh is not an easy undertaking. The task was entrusted to the DMB in the early 1990s. The DMB with the guideline of the MoFDM and the involvement of entire disaster management community prepared the Standing Orders on Disaster (Government of Bangladesh 2010b) which with the approval of the GoB in 1997 became a legal instrument. The Standing Orders, a vast document of over 55,000 words, remain the most detailed and the main legal instrument of disaster management in Bangladesh. Since the instrument determines the role and responsibility of the Office of the Prime Minister, other important and relevant Ministries, government departments and elected bodies to the grass-root level in disaster management, all other concerning rules and regulations remain sub-ordinate to the Standing Orders. The Standing Orders have been prepared with the objective of making the concerned persons and institutions understand their duties and responsibilities regarding disaster management and implement them properly. With these objectives in mind, the document begins with the definition of disaster and disaster management. Further it classifies different types of known disasters. In addition to defining disaster management, the Standing Orders clearly delineate four phases of disaster management as mentioned above and clearly spells out the specific set of tasks that each of these phases entails to be accomplished.2 The Standing Orders also meticulously list all the institutions to be entrusted with the task of disaster management starting from the national apex bodies to the grass-root level in details. Similarly, it determines detailed roles and responsibilities of all these institutions in each of the four phases of disaster management.3 India Quarterly, 68, 1 (2012): 29–47

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The Standing Orders is not a static one. During the period in between 1997 and 1999, the Standing Orders have been revised several times to make these responsive to the challenges ahead. Further, the DMB was assigned to review and revise the Standing Orders. The job was done by the DMB through a series of consultations, workshops, etc., involving the entire disaster management community. Following approval on the part of the GoB, the final version of the Standing Orders on Disaster has been published in April 2010 (Government of Bangladesh 2010b). However, scope for further review and change still remains. Meanwhile, a process of enacting a Disaster Management Act is in progress. The Standing Orders on Disaster are a legal instrument, but not law per se as the Standing Orders are not passed by the parliament. The Act would be passed by the parliament and thus, would be a law. It is expected to serve as the legislative tool of regulating disaster management in Bangladesh. As the technical arm to the MoFDM, DMB is assigned to oversee the process of drafting the proposed Disaster Management Act. It is also being done by the DMB through a series of consultations, workshops, etc., involving the entire disaster management community. The process is at its final stage.4 Until Disaster Management Act is enacted, the Standing Orders on Disaster would continue to remain the single-most important legal instrument regulating all the institutions involved in disaster management and their activities at all levels.

Institutional Structure Since the very onset of modern disaster management, the GoB has emerged as the primary actor in the venture. Despite Bangladesh’s high degree of reliance on the assistance from the development partners in terms of disaster management and an increasingly active role of NGOs in the process of development, the role of the GoB remains pivotal. More importantly, the GoB also remains responsible for providing a framework of legal and institutional structures that are conducive to the working of all involved in disaster management, including the NGOs and the development partners. Hence, our discussion on the institutional structure would be focused basically on the government institutions. Nonetheless, considering the crucial role played by the NGOs and the development partners of Bangladesh in disaster management, our discussion would also touch upon the NGOs and the development partners. The prevailing institutional structure was initiated along with the creation of DMB in 1993. It was a part of the surge in strengthening and institutionalising disaster management that followed the floods of 1988 and the cyclone of 1991. In the prevailing institutional framework, the MoFDM is the focal point of the GoB for disaster-related issues. It has the responsibility for coordinating national disaster management efforts across all agencies. The DMB assists the MoFDM with all necessary information during all the four phases of disaster management. As a technical arm to the MoFDM, DMB overviews and coordinates all activities related to disaster management from national to the grass-root level. It is also entrusted to maintain an effective liaison with government agencies, donors and NGOs to ensure maximum cooperation and coordination in all aspects of disaster management. The DMB also has the responsibility to create public awareness on the severity and risks associated with natural and human-induced hazards. All Ministries, Divisions/Departments and Agencies prepare their own Action Plans in respect of their responsibilities for efficient implementation. The National Disaster Management Council (NDMC) and Inter-Ministerial Disaster Management Coordination Committee (IMDMCC) created in 1993 ensure India Quarterly, 68, 1 (2012): 29–47

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coordination of disaster-related activities at the national level. Coordination at the sub-national level is done by the Disaster Management Committees at the respective levels, while the DMB renders necessary assistance to them by facilitating the process. A series of interrelated and interdependent institutions, at both national and sub-national levels have been created to ensure effective planning and coordination of disaster management. National Level Institutions The following three institutions are responsible for policy formulation and coordination of Disaster Management at the national level: 1. National Disaster Management Council (NDMC); 2. Inter-Ministerial Disaster Management Coordination Committee (IMDMCC); 3. National Disaster Management Advisory Committee (NDMAC). NDMC, headed by the Prime Minister, includes all the relevant ministers, secretaries (top-most official in the ministry just next to the Minister), three Chiefs of Armed Forces and Principal Staff Officer, Armed Forces Division. It is the apex policy-making body at the national level. Its responsibilities include the formulation of policy and plans, examining recommendations of the IMDMCC and NDMAC and issuing guidelines and directives for their implementation, approving the Standing Orders on Disaster ensuring coordination amongst civil administration, Defence Forces and the NGOs, and a host of other related tasks. NDMC remains at the apex of disaster management institutional framework. IMDMCC, headed by the Minister for Food and Disaster Management, includes all the relevant secretaries, Principal Staff Officer, Armed Forces Division, Secretary General, Bangladesh Red Crescent Society and the head of a number of other relevant government departments. It is the apex implementation and monitoring body at the national level. Its responsibilities include the implementation of the policy and decisions of the NDMC, monitoring the disaster management–related plans, coordination and evaluation of the activities of the government agencies and a host of other related tasks. Thus, while NDMC is involved mostly in policy-making, the tasks of the IMDMCC are mostly in the field of implementation and monitoring. NDMAC, headed by an eminent person in the field of disaster management nominated by the Prime Minister, includes representatives from a wide diversity of background. These are Members of Parliament from disaster-prone areas, representatives from government agencies, Universities, NGOs, donor organisations, business, banking, armed forces and a host of other relevant professionals from within as well as outside the government. In contrast to NDMC and IMDMCC, it is headed by a non-government person and includes a wide variety of members from outside the government. It is the apex advisory body at the national level. Its responsibilities include advising the NDMC, MoFDM and DMB on technical management and socio-economic aspects of disaster management, promoting workshop, training, research, forum for discussion by experts with a view to devising solution to problems relating to disaster management, preparing recommendation for relevant agencies, and so on. The tasks of NDMAC are, thus, basically of advisory nature. Beside these three apex national bodies, there are a large number of institutions active at the national level in a wide variety of areas in the broader field of disaster management. The following list would help us to have a glimpse of the nature and activities of these institutions:

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A.K.M. Abdus Sabur 1. Cyclone Preparedness Program Implementation Board (CPPIB), headed by the Secretary, MoFDM, is assigned to review the preparedness activities in the face of initial stage of an impending cyclone. 2. Disaster Management Training and Public Awareness Building Task Force (DMTPABTF), headed by the Director General of DMB, is assigned to co-ordinate the disaster-related training and public awareness activities of the Government, NGOs and other organisations. 3. Focal Point Operation Coordination Group of Disaster Management (FPOCG), headed by the Director General of DMB, is assigned to review and co-ordinate the activities of various departments/agencies related to disaster management and also to review the Contingency Plan prepared by concerned departments. 4. NGO Coordination Committee on Disaster Management (NGOCC), headed by the Director General of DMB, is assigned to review and co-ordinate the activities of concerned NGOs in the country. 5. Committee for Speedy Dissemination of Disaster Related Warning/Signals (CSDDWS), headed by the Director General of DMB, is assigned to examine, ensure and find out the ways and means for the speedy dissemination of warning/signals among the people.

These organisations play the leading role in disaster management at the national level. They have specific duties and clearly defined jurisdiction to discharge their duties at each of the four phases of disaster management (their duties and jurisdiction are clearly defined in Government of India 2010b). Sub-national Level Institutions Each of the administrative units down to the grass-root level has its own disaster management committee with a clearly defined set of tasks. Following is a brief account of the sub-national level institutions: 1. District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC), headed by the Deputy Commissioner (DC),5 is assigned to co-ordinate and review the disaster management activities at the district level. 2. Upazila6 Disaster Management Committee (UZDMC), headed by the Upazila Nirbahi Officer (UNO),7 is assigned to co-ordinate and review the disaster management activities at the Upazila level. 3. Union8 Disaster Management Committee (UDMC), headed by the Chairman of the Union Parishad,9 is assigned to coordinate, review and implement the disaster management activities of the concerned union. 4. Pourashava10 Disaster Management Committee (PDMC), headed by Chairman of Pourashava is assigned to co-ordinate, review and implement the disaster management activities within its area of jurisdiction. 5. City Corporation Disaster Management Committee (CCDMC), headed by the Mayor of City Corporations, is assigned to co-ordinate, review and implement the disaster management activities within its area of jurisdiction. These aforementioned organisations play a crucial role in disaster management at the field level and also have specific duties and clearly defined jurisdiction to discharge their duties at each of the four phases of disaster management (for details see Government of India 2010b). India Quarterly, 68, 1 (2012): 29–47

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Development Partners and the NGOs Bangladesh’s development partners have always been important actors in disaster management. They provide crucial assistance to the disaster management efforts during all the four phases of the venture. During the emergency period they provide bulk of the resources for relief and rehabilitation. The same implies to the long-term recovery phase. Institutions that Bangladesh’s development partners channel their disaster management assistance through vary. First of all, most of the developed countries have their own agencies for development cooperation. These include Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID); Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA); Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA); Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA); Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA); Department for International Development (DFID), UK; United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and others. Besides the developed countries, oil-rich countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are also a significant source of assistance for disaster management. For instance, Saudi Arabia, a GCC country, made the highest donation of US$100 million for the victims of super cyclone Sidr (The Daily Star 2008). International and multilateral organisations like United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), World Health Organisation (WHO), Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank, Islamic Development Bank (IDB) and others also play a vital role in the disaster management through providing financial assistance. Bangladesh’s development partners and a wide variety of institutions under their disposal as depicted above provide assistance not only through the government agencies but also through a large number of NGOs active in Bangladesh. Traditionally, the NGOs play a significant role in disaster management (Buckland 1998). There are over 26,000 registered NGOs in Bangladesh (Asian Development Bank 2011a). Registration is not mandatory unless the NGO wishes to engage in transactions with the Government. So, there are a large number of unregistered NGOs in the country (Asian Development Bank 2011b). Bangladesh’s NGOs like Grameen Bank, Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) and Association for Social Advancement (ASA) are renowned worldwide. Besides, there are also a large number of foreign NGOs active in Bangladesh. Some of these are as follows: ActionAid Bangladesh, Care, Caritas Bangladesh, Concern Bangladesh, Concern Universal, Damien Foundation, Handicap International, Helen Keller International, Leprosy Mission International, Pathfinder International, Plan International Bangladesh, Practical Action, Save the Children USA, Save the Children UK, Save the Children, Sight Savers Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind, Swedish Free Mission, and Terre Des Hommes (Asian Development Bank 2011a). It is estimated that NGOs currently work in about 78 per cent of the villages in Bangladesh (Asian Development Bank 2011b). In Bangladesh, there could be hardly any NGO that is not involved, in one way or the other, in disaster management. As depicted above, Bangladesh has developed a rather vast institutional framework to deal with disaster management. While the government institutions play the pivotal role, they are assisted by the country’s development partners and numerous NGOs. Over the years, these diverse elements have developed a significant degree of cooperation among themselves and an impressive degree of synchronisation of their activities. DMM, currently operative in Bangladesh, developed in the process of and following the paradigm shift in disaster management from conventional response of relief and rehabilitation to a more holistic India Quarterly, 68, 1 (2012): 29–47

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approach of comprehensive risk reduction culture and ensuring the resilience of the communities to known hazards. DMM that evolved over time remains vibrant and dynamic. It is undergoing constant improvement in the light of the concrete challenges faced during each of the disasters as well as the development of relevant concepts, theories, techniques, technology and knowledge.

Conclusion Bangladesh remains one of the most disaster-prone countries of the world as it has been from time immemorial owing to its geographical location, land characteristics, multiplicity of rivers, the monsoon climate and coastal morphology. It is exposed to a wide variety of natural disasters, such as tropical cyclones and storm surges, floods, tornadoes, river/coastal erosion, earthquake, droughts, torrential rains, epidemics and arsenic contamination. Historically, its people have faced natural disasters in a rudimentary way, being organised at the community level with virtually no assistance from the state. State came to play an increasingly prominent role in disaster management only following the independence of Bangladesh in 1971. This resulted in the onset of modern disaster management wherein Bangladesh’s development partners and NGOs came to play a crucial role. Subsequently, disaster management has undergone a complex process of development. While it received its impetus from concrete challenges faced at home, it also received inputs from developments, institutions and policies outside Bangladesh. In terms of its focus, disaster management has undergone a qualitative transformation. From its initial focus on relief and rehabilitation activities, disaster management has developed into a complex venture that includes tasks starting from disaster prediction and preparedness to long-term recovery and reconstruction as well as future disaster risk management. It may be mentioned that even before the adaptation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the UN, Hyogo Framework of Action, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), SAARC Framework for Action (SFA) and Agenda 21, GoB introduced specific programmes to institutionalise disaster management. National Plan for Disaster Management 2010–2015 has been approved by the GoB on 7 April 2010. However, its previous version, National Plan for Disaster Management 2008–2015, has been initiated before the renowned international initiatives as mentioned above. The emergency response programme, rehabilitation activities and cyclone preparedness programme of Bangladesh are widely recognised by the international community (Government of Bangladesh 2010a). Now, Bangladesh is the signatory to the MDGs, Hyogo Framework of Action, UNFCCC, SFA and Agenda 21, and committed to implement the recommendations for comprehensive disaster management. Over time, Bangladesh has developed an effective system of disaster management. This included state-of-the-art theories and concepts designed to contextualise and further develop the understanding of disaster, disaster management and a whole gamut of ways and means for dealing with disaster. Theories and concepts, articulated, thus, were expected to guide the whole venture of disaster management. The system of disaster management also included the creation of a flexible and rapidly responsive legal framework capable of managing and more importantly, facilitating creative interaction among prevailing theories, practices and institutions involved in disaster management. Finally, the most crucial component of the system has been a dynamic institutional structure capable of effectively carrying out the gigantic tasks of disaster management. While the government institutions

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play the pivotal role, they are assisted by the country’s development partners and numerous NGOs. In the process of accomplishing the concrete tasks of disaster management, these diverse elements have developed a significant degree of cooperation among themselves and an impressive degree of synchronisation of their activities. By now, Bangladesh has not only adopted a holistic and comprehensive approach to disaster management but also moved to institutionalise a dynamic and effective disaster management system. At the operational level, Bangladesh has successfully integrated the tasks of disaster management with those of the broader socio-economic development. In the process, disaster management and development in Bangladesh are gradually being integrated. In the light of the above, there is a degree of satisfaction in Bangladesh among the concerned circles regarding the prevailing system of disaster management. Nonetheless, there is hardly any complacence about this. Prevailing system of disaster management puts utmost importance on its constant improvement and perfection in the light of the concrete challenges faced during each of the disasters as well as the development of relevant concepts, theories, techniques, technology and knowledge at home and elsewhere in the world. In this regard, enhancing overall disaster management capacity of the country remains a crucial point. It is with these objectives in mind that the disaster management establishment in the country is employing inexhaustible efforts at accomplishing tasks like enacting the Disaster Management Act and formulating the National Disaster Management Policy. Notes 1. Bangladesh’s development partners are foreign countries and international/multilateral organisations which are involved in the process of development in Bangladesh as partners in development cooperation. 2. It has been explored in details in the previous section (concepts and theories). 3. Institutional framework would be explored in details in the next section. 4. Learned through personal interaction with the officials from the DMB. 5. Chief Executive of the district. 6. Upazila = sub-district. 7. Chief Executive of the Upazila. 8. Union Parishad (Council) is the lowest tier of the local government. Usually, it consists of a few villages. 9. Unlike the DC and the UNO who are government officials, Chairman of the Union Parishad is an elected official. 10. Pourashava = municipality.

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Ali, Anwar. (1999, August). Climate change impacts and adaptation assessment in Bangladesh. Climate Research (Vol. 12). Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://v3.weadapt.org/placemarks/files/227/c012p109.pdf Ansary, M.A. Status of earthquake risk mitigation in Bangladesh. Retrieved 18 July 2009, from http://www3.ntu. edu.sg/wssi/Proceeding%20Report/Country%20Report/Bangladesh.pdf Asian Development Bank. (2011a). Overview of NGOs and civil society: Bangladesh. Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Civil-Society-Briefs/BAN/CSB-BAN.pdf ———. (2011b). A study on NGOs in Asia: Bangladesh. Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://www.adb.org/ngos/docs/ NGOBangladesh.pdf Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://www.bbs.gov.bd/Home.aspx Beck, T. (2005, April). Learning lessons from disaster recovery: The case of Bangladesh. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Buckland, Jerry. (1998). From relief and development to assisted self-reliance: Non-governmental organisations in Bangladesh. Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, 8(August). Chowdhury, G. Hossain, Chowdhury, Mridul and Kushchu, Ibrahim. (2008). Prospects of using m-technologies for disaster information management in Bangladesh and other LDCs. Retrieved 10 November 2008, from http://www.mgovernment.org/resurces/euromgov2005/PDF/25_R373CG.pdf Datta, Anjan and Banik, J.K. (1999). Natural disasters, vulnerability and livelihood: An investigation into the Bangladesh scenario. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG). Government of Bangladesh. (2008, April). Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh: Damage, loss, and needs assessment for disaster recovery and reconstruction. A Report Prepared by the Government of Bangladesh assisted by the International Development Community with financial support from the European Commission. Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://www.dmb.gov.bd/reports/AssessmentReport_CycloneSidr_Bangladesh_2008(World bank).pdf ———. (2010a). National Plan for Disaster Management 2010–2015. Disaster Management Bureau, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management, April. Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://www.dmb.gov.bd/reports/npdm_ final.pdf ———. (2010b, April). Standing orders on disaster. Disaster Management Bureau, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management. Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://www.dmb.gov.bd/reports/sod_final.pdf ———. (2011). DM in Bangladesh: Disaster management practice. Disaster Management Bureau (DMB), Ministry of Food and Disaster Management. Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://www.dmb.gov.bd/practice.html International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2010). Plan 2009–2010: Bangladesh. Retrieved 2 June 2011, from http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWFiles2008.nsf/FilesByRWDocUnidFilename/MYAI-7LFB 8K-full_report.pdf/$File/full_report.pdf Matin, Nilufar and Taher, Muhammad. (2000, July). Disaster mitigation in Bangladesh: Country case study of NGO activities. Report for research project NGO, Natural Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness Projects: An Assessment and Way Forward, ESCOR Award No. R7231. Retrieved 1 January 2009, from http://www. benfieldhrc.org/disaster_studies/ngo_initiatives/country_case_studies/Bangladesh%20study%20pdf.pdf Pandey, Bishnu and Okazaki, Kenji. (2011). Community based disaster management: Empowering communities to cope with disaster risks. United Nations Centre for Regional Development, Japan. Retrieved 3 June 2011, from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan020698.pdf Rego, Loy and Roy, Arghya Sinha. (2007). Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into development policy, planning and implementation. Asian Development Bank. Retrieved 19 July 2009, from http://www.adb.org/Documents/ Events/2007/Small-Group-Workshop/Paper-Rego.pdf Shah, Shekhar. (1999, 6–8 July). Coping with natural disasters: The 1998 floods in Bangladesh. Prepared for the 1999 World Bank Summer Research Workshop on Poverty and Development, Washington, DC. Retrieved 1 January 2009, from http://66.102.1.104/scholar?num=100&hl=en&lr=&q=cache:55P9orw84qgJ:www.worldbank.org/ poverty/wdrpoverty/stiglitz/Shah.pdf++Bangladesh+%22Disaster+Management%22

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A.K.M. Abdus Sabur was Research Director and Head, International Studies Division, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS); 1/46, Old Elephant Road, Ramna, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh.

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