Babies can tell us what they prefer by where they look…
Time spent looking
“Preference technique”: babies presented with 2 different stimuli
Baby is assumed to look longer at things it prefers
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Piagetian Theory - Assumptions
Development proceeds in stages Schemas: Knowledge is organized Change in Schemas – Assimilation – Accommodation
The constructive nature of cognition
Sensorimotor Stage
Birth to Age 2 Learning through 5 senses Goal-directed actions Object permanence – Mental representation
Preoperational Stage
Ages 2-7 Operations - defined Deferred Imitation What kids can’t do: – Non-reversible operations (one-way logic) – Difficulty with conservation – Egocentrism & Theory of mind
Animism
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Concrete Operational Stage
Ages 7-11 Child is capable of mental operations What kids can do: – – – –
Ages 12+ Abstract thought – Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Adolescent egocentrism & imaginary audience Metacognition Not all individuals reach this stage
Major criticisms of Piaget’s theory
Many cognitive skills occur at earlier ages than Piaget suggested Overestimation of adults’ abilities It’s not clear development occurs in stages Theoretical ideas are vague & abstract
Alternatives
– Information-Processing – Vygotsky (social and cultural influences)
Child’s temperament The daycare debate – Current evidence: no effect of high quality day care
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The Work of Erikson Psychosocial
theory of development Developmental crisis Eight stages
Erikson’s Stages: Preschool
1.
Trust vs. Mistrust (first year of life)
2.
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 years)
3.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)
Erikson’s Stages: The School Years
4.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years puberty)
5.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)
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Erikson’s Stages: Beyond School 6.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)
7.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
8.
Integrity vs. Despair (old age)
Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement Exploration = “Has the person engaged in an active search for identity?” Commitment = “Has the person made a commitment to, e.g., values, school, career path, identity?” Commitment: YES
Commitment: NO
Exploration: YES
Identity Achievement
Moratorium
Exploration: NO
Identity Foreclosure
Identity Diffusion
Evaluating Erikson
Well-accepted contributions: – Personal development is lifelong – Emphasis on social and cultural interactions
Challenges: – Sharp transitions between stages? – How do transitions occur? – Difficult to test scientifically
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Moral Development
Two important precursors Empathy Perspective-taking
Lawrence Kohlberg
Looked at responses to moral dilemmas – 3 levels Preconventional Conventional Postconventional
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory
Reasoning about hypothetical situations Inconsistency across different dilemmas Gender differences – Gilligan Doesn’t generalize across cultures
Summary of Development (1) Biological, cognitive, and social changes occur throughout the lifespan (anything that psychologists study can be approached developmentally). (2) Developmental psychologists have develop special techniques to learn about what babies know. (3) Piaget suggested that cognitive development occurs in stages; we construct a different reality based on our current cognitive level. (4) Attachment is an important part of our development of self. (5) Erikson suggested our sense of self develops from a series of conflicts. (6) The development of morality may occur in stages, but the reasoning behind a decision determines a person’s level, not the decision itself.
