DESERT PLANTS / DESERT PEOPLES ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SONORAN DESERT TEACHER INFORMATION INTRODUCTION Sonoran Desert People This tour includes a series of activities that help students understand the many ways people of the Sonoran Desert use native plants. The activities primarily focus on the uses of plants by the Tohono O’odham (Papago), the Yoeme (Yaqui), and the Hohokam (prehistoric ancestors of the Tohono O’odham). Tohono O’odham and Yoeme people not only lived in the Sonoran Desert long before European Settlers but they developed extensive uses of Sonoran Desert plants. Today, there are Yoeme and Tohono O’odham villages in and around Tucson and students of both cultures attend most area schools. Also, Tucson’s heritage is rich with Hispanic culture. Having lived in the Sonoran Desert for over a hundred years, many people of Hispanic descent also developed uses for native plants. What is Ethnobotany? Ethnobotany is the study of people’s use of plants. The word is derived from ethnology – the study of people, and botany – the study of plants. Regardless of where people live in the world, they have turned to their immediate environment for materials to aid in survival. Perhaps the most abundant and diverse materials in nearly every ecosystem around the world come from the plant kingdom. Thus, as long as people have been in existence, they have been using plants as food, fiber, shelter, tools, arts, and medicines. Ethnobotany examines and records these uses. Ethnobotany tends to focus on indigenous people’s use of native, uncultivated plants. However, the study does include all people’s uses of plants, including the use of some cultivated plants such as corn, cotton, and squash. Adapting to Life in the Sonoran Desert To understand how people come to utilize the plant resources of a place, it is important to understand the place – the environment in which they live. The Sonoran Desert is a land of extreme temperatures, high evaporation, low rainfall, and little open water. In general, the Sonoran is a low desert, with an average elevation of approximately 2000 feet. Temperatures often exceed 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer yet rarely stay below freezing for more than a day in winter. Rainfall varies from less than 4 inches in the western Sonoran Desert to 13 inches in other locations. Rainfall varies from less than 4 inches in the western Sonoran Desert to 13 inches per year in other locations. Tucson’s rainfall averages 11-12 inches per year. Anything and anyone living in this desert must learn to survive in these extreme conditions. Native people of the Sonoran Desert adapted to the hot, dry environment by taking advantage of every possible survival opportunity. The diversity of plants in the Sonoran Desert has invariably contributed to the success of the desert’s indigenous cultures. Ethnobotanists who have examined people’s use of plants in the Sonoran Desert point out that there is a wide range of plants that can be used for food, fiber, medicine, shelter, tools, and other useful objects. Of the over 2,500 species of plants in the Sonoran Desert, it is estimated that nearly 30% (or 750 species) have been documented as being used in some way by the various desert cultures.

How Do People Use Plants? Plants, in all their diversity and abundance have provided cultures with the majority of their food, fiber, medicine, shelter, and tool materials for thousands of years. In the Sonoran Desert, people used plants in nearly every aspect of survival. While most of the plant uses presented in this tour are presented as historical, many plants are still in use today. Plants still provide materials for food, fiber, medicine, shelter, tools, games, musical instruments, art, etc. but there are often modern ‘replacements’ for some of the materials involved, such as metal buckets replacing baskets for collected saguaro pulp or metal awls instead of bone or agave awls. Each activity and plant used in this tour is described as it was used or prepared traditionally.

Intellectual Property Rights The information and knowledge inherent in people’s use of plants did not come about without great price. Time, trial, and error brought cultures to their intimacy with the plants in their environment. Some may have died in efforts to understand the medicinal use or edibility of a particular plant. People likely struggled in their environment until someone discovered the particular use of a plant to aid in a survival need. Indigenous cultures evolved in their environment learning to utilize their native plants over thousands of years. European humans, more recently, encountered natives to gather and “record” this information that was formerly passed on through story, song, and active participation over hundreds or sometimes thousands of years. Many books have been published and man plant uses “picked-up” from the indigenous cultures who shared their almost sacred knowledge with interested outsiders. There has recently been concern about outsiders making a profit from this information without regard to where and from whom this information was derived. Too often, the individuals or groups have not received credit or compensation for their invaluable role. Although many natives freely shared their information and knowledge in the past, it was likely done without realizing the degree to which the information would be publicized or, in some cases, abused. Today, such information and knowledge is now recognized as belonging to its originators. There is an effort among native individuals and groups to play a much larger role in the release and publication of this information. The term “intellectual property right” refers to cultures and individuals who have ownership over tribal tradition and information. Ethnobotanists have also come to recognize this and in turn have made efforts to share royalties and credit with involved individuals and native nations. Some have had documents translated into the native languages of the involved cultures. As traditional oral transfer of knowledge wanes, this written record may help preserve and pas down knowledge among tribal members in their own language. NATIVE DESERT PLANTS FOR FOOD The food plants covered at this station are cholla, saguaro, prickly pear and mesquite. These are perhaps some of the most common food plants that were (and still are to an extent) used by the people of the Sonoran Desert. Some of these foods are prepared and eaten today by a wide variety of native food enthusiasts and items such as prickly pear jelly and “nopalitos” (the pad of prickly pears) are commonly found in local grocery stores. Historically (and prehistorically), most of these plants were used as food by the Yoeme, but were relied on to a much greater extent by the Tohono O’odham. Although the Tohono O’odham practiced agriculture for hundreds of years, they have relied on hunting and gathering wild, native foods of the desert. While planting of crops occurred in the late summer, wild foods were gathered almost year round. Some years, however, when the rainy season was late and planting was delayed, the Tohono O’odham lived entirely on wild desert foods that were gathered or hunted. After food was gathered, it was stored to last throughout the year. The end of the O’odham year (around May), was the driest time of the year and food often became scarce. One of the names for the moon of May was ko’ohk macat, “the painful moon”, because it was then that people were most likely to feel hunger. The New Year began with the monsoon rains of July after the saguaro fruit harvest. It was a time for planting crops and renewal. (Note that plant names are followed in parentheses by Latin species names, as well as the name in Spanish and O’odham.) Cholla (Cylindrountia species, choya, ciiolim) Buckthorn cholla provides the buds that are harvested and eaten by humans. A bud is the beginning sprout of a new flower. Fresh buds are soft and lack sharp spines. In spring, the buds are harvested just before the flowers bloom using tongs made from saguaro ribs. The spines have to be removed (the fruits may be piled on ground and brushed with branches of a bush like creosote or they may be quickly roasted over a flame to burn off spines). Then, the buds are roasted in a pit or sundried. They may be eaten as a vegetable or added to salads, stews and soups. Or, they may be stored in clay jars (traditionally) for up to a year, then soaked in water before cooking. Cholla buds provide some iron and a lot of calcium to those who eat them. About 50 baked buds provide more calcium than two 8 oz. glasses of milk and as much iron as 1 cup of broccoli or green beans.

Saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea, saguaro, ha:sañ) Saguaro fruits become ripe usually throughout the month of June. During the harvest, saguaro fruit are gathered from the tops of the tall saguaro using a long pole made of two saguaro ribs lashed together (called a kuipad). At the top of this pole is a stick attached cross-wise at an angle to help in knocking off the fruits. Once the fruit are gently knocked to the ground, the pulp (including seeds) is scraped into a basket. The fruit can be eaten fresh, but it can also be sun dried and eaten like candy or stored. The pulp can be soaked in water, then heated for 1-2 hours. Next, the remaining pulp and seeds are strained out. The remaining juice is then boiled down into a syrup. The syrup has many uses: to make jam, drinks, candies, and the traditional fermented beverage navai’t. About 20-30 pounds of fruit produce one gallon of syrup. The leftover pulp and seeds are dried out and the seeds are removed from the pulp. The seeds may then be sorted and later used to make into cakes or grind into flour. The pulp can be boiled with some syrup and made into jam or jelly. Historically, the syrup, drink and jam were stored in clay jars called ollas in which they could last for up to a year. Each fruit can have as many as 2000 seeds! To be digestible to humans, the seeds must be ground into a meal (using a mano and metate). Prickly Pear (Opuntia species, nopal, ‘i:bhai naw) a. Prickly pear fruit are ripe in July and August. They are harvested using tongs made from saguaro ribs. The fruit may be peeled and eaten fresh or dried, or its juice can be made into syrup or jelly. To make syrup, fruit pulp was traditionally mashed, strained and boiled. To make jam, pulp would be cooked down with the syrup. The sweet and juicy fruit provide a lot of calcium and vitamin C. The flowers can be used to make a gruel. b. Young green pads are harvested in spring when the first new plant growth occurs. The spines on the new pads are not yet as hard and sharp as when they are older. When the pads are still bright green and soft, they are broken off at the joint with tongs. The outer skin is often peeled off revealing the tender inner pad. The pads are usually sliced and then cooked like any other green vegetable. They can also be pickled and stored. The pads, singed of their spines, are also used as feed for cattle during drought. It is now believed by researchers that the natural pectin contained in prickly pear pads helps in lowering low-density lipoprotein, “bad” cholesterol. Velvet Mesquite (Prosopsis velutina, mesquite, kui) Mesquite pods ripen in August when they are picked directly from the tree or be harvested from the ground beneath the tree, but they must be clean and not wet from rain. Next, the pods are dried. Then, they are ground into flour that can be used in breads, cookies and cakes, as well as soups. A metate and mano are used to grind the dried pod – we’ll see one at our next stop. The resulting flour is high in calcium, iron and zinc. It could be stored in the form of small, hard cakes. It is used for cereals, breads and beverages. Whole pods can also be boiled for atole, a healthful drink; fermented, it produces a mildly alcoholic beverage. Providing protein and carbohydrates, mesquite flour would often sustain a family through the long winter, living on gruel, until spring. A woman would spend a full day gathering and grinding enough mesquite to feed one person for five days. GAMES AND MUSIC IN THE DESERT Games Making a living in the desert requires patience and hard work. It requires knowledge of when certain plants are blooming and fruiting, when and where game animals are available, and endless other details about the environment. There is a time for planting, hunting, building, and traveling. Yet with all the work to be done, people of the desert still found time for FUN! Once food, water, and shelter were secured, desert people, like people all around the world, invented games, toys, and other activities for recreation and “play”. In addition to serving as entertainment, games such as running and throwing were often invented to practice and perfect skills needed in hunting or battle. Many games among indigenous peoples were thus played to develop skills such as speed, agility, and accuracy. Other games (such as games of chance) often appear to be played

just for fun. However, even betting and guessing games, as well as other sports, help develop social skills such as negotiation, self-control, and cooperation. Most of the games traditionally played among the Tohono O’odham and other desert cultures involved the use of objects which were derived from plant materials. The abundance and variety of desert pants as well as the ability of plant parts to be cut, shaped, painted, and woven made them natural sources for toys and game items. Many of these play objects correlate to objects in well know games such as dolls, balls, hoops, and dice items which historically were also derived from natural plant products. Just as some games in other cultures are traditionally played by either boys or girls, there are games among the O’odham that were (and still are) either girl’s games or boy’s games. There are also games (involving betting) that are only played by adult men. Stick-Dice Game The stick-dice game (gins, pronounced geents) is played with four flat sticks, 4 inches by 10 inches long, called ginskud (geentskoot). The sticks may be made from saguaro ribs or palo verde branches. The game is played by holding the sticks in a bundle, tapping the bottom of the sticks on a flat rock, and then using the rock to throw the sticks upward. The object is to get the most points according to how the sticks land. When playing a complete game, players may decide how to select a winner – either by the first person to reach 20 points or whoever has the most points after a specific amount of time. Players may keep track of points by moving pebbles around a rectangle marked on the ground. One way of keeping score is:  If all fours sides land outside (unpainted) – 2 points  If all four sides land inside (white side) up – 1 point  If the sticks land mixed – 0 points Note that there are other options for game pieces and score-keeping. Music Music and song are important in both Tohono O’odham and Yoeme cultures. Their music is obviously inspired by nature and the creator; songs are full of references to plants, animals, and the earth. Over the years, musical instruments were created to accompany O’odham and Yoeme songs. As with the development of musical instruments worldwide, the O’odham and Yoeme created percussion, wind, and string instruments. Most songs sung and played by both cultures are religious in nature. Many of these songs are sung only at certain times of the year and only during certain ceremonies. Some songs or instruments are only sung or played by certain genders. Some songs are more playful and celebratory. The Yoeme live locally in the Sonoran Desert and musical instruments are a very important part of their tradition and culture. Prior to settling in Arizona, the Yoeme lived in southern Sonora, Mexico. Southern Sonora is a part of the Sonoran Desert, but the environment is somewhat different from the desert around Tucson. Still, many of the plants used in making musical instruments are the same or similar to those of the desert peoples. Like the Tohono O’odham, the Yoeme have incorporated the use of desert plants into nearly every aspect of their lives. Gourd Rattle Rattles were used to make rhythm and were made from various sizes and shapes of gourds (such as Lagenaria siceraria). It was believed that rattles could be used to call or drive away spirits and Native Americans often carried them as part of their costumes for celebrations. A gourd was a ready-made rattle because the seeds rattled when dried. However, the seeds were often removed and the gourd was filled with beans or small stones that would make more noise. A wooden handle was then secured at the end and the gourd was often painted or decorated.

Gourds originally came from the tropical regions of the Old World (Africa and Asia). They have been in the Americas for so long however, that it is not known when or how they arrived. It is known that gourds are one of the earliest plants to be cultivated by humans. The gourd plant is a long running vine. It often grows on the ground but can be trained to climb trellises, buildings, or nearby trees. The gourd is actually the fruit of the vine. The hard outer shell retains its shape and is very durable once it is dry. Because of their durability and variable shapes and sizes, gourds are cultivated as ornamentals and utensils. In addition to musical instruments, they have been used as containers, dippers, and bowls. Gourd Drum The Yoeme use drums to provide the rhythm and, with rasps an rattles, make the background music for ceremonial dances. Drums are always played with drum-sticks, not hands. Brasil Rasp A rasp was carved from a piece of wood and used to accompany singing and dancing. Yoeme rasps are made from brasil wood (Haematoxylon brasiletto) from Sonora, Mexico, the area from which they originate. The brasil is a medium-sized, woody plant that grows in the lowland “thorn forests. It is not a desert plant but is found on the dry hills and mesas where the Sonoran Desert meets tropical vegetation. Brasil occurs from Sonora to Central and South America. Its trunk has deep grooves in it and it has many twisting branches. It often grows in very thick stands. Its yellow flowers bloom mainly in the spring and fall, but will also blossom after a good rainfall. Brasil is especially known for its wood that is deep red in color. It makes excellent firewood and is also used to build houses and fences. It is said that a red dye can be made from the wood. Reed Flute The Yoeme make a flute from the giant reed (cane or carrizo) (Arundo donax). It is a tall grass that grows near wet areas such as streams, springs and irrigation ditches. It typically grows in thick stands and can reach a height of 6-15 feet tall. Its tall, hollow “stems” have long leaf blades growing out at the joints along the stem. It has large plume-like flowers. It looks similar to bamboo, which is also a grass). The giant reed is not native to the area but was introduced from the Mediterranean region. It now occurs throughout the southwestern U.S., Mexico, and Central and South America. In addition to its musical use, the hollow reed tube is used by several groups of Native Americans for games. Other uses include making mats, screens, containers, and boats. TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING FOR CULTIVATION NATIVE CROPS The new Native Crops Garden focuses primarily on the agricultural techniques and strategies utilized by the prehistoric indigenous group the Hohokam. The Hohokam inhabited Central and Southern Arizona from approximately A.D. 1 to A.D. 1450. They developed special methods to farm in the desert. There are two separate gardens bisected by a pathway. Each garden demonstrates a different gardening strategy necessitated by environmental limitations (i.e. prevalence of water). The eastern garden demonstrates floodwater farming. This form of agriculture was more common in areas lacking perennial flowing water. A series of check dams and terraces (trincheras) were created along natural drainages, on hills and in floodplains. The check dams helped to hold back rainwater and prevent it from flowing downslope. The trincheras decreased the slope and allowed the water to sink into the ground instead of running off. Our floodwater garden has approximately a 3 foot grade, sloping west where our terraces of crops are planted. Crops had to be relatively drought resistant, since they were dependent on rainfall. Trincheras would change with the seasons (from erosion) and need to be reworked The western garden focuses upon the larger scale agriculture practiced along the Gila and Salt rivers in Central Arizona and areas of the Santa Cruz basin. Along these rivers, the Hohokam created weirs (gates) made from mesquite branches that could swing out into the rivers and force flowing water up and into their large canals. Smaller canals came off the main canal to feed fields of crops. In the Salt River Valley the Hohokam created over 1000 miles of canals that sustained approximately 50,000 inhabitants at its height circa 1200. Our garden

emulates the smaller scale canal networks that were constructed in the Tucson area along the Santa Cruz River. This irrigated garden has a small feeder canal that allows us to periodically flood our small plot. The gardens are bounded on the north by faux ruin walls simulating the remnants of a Hohokam structure (constructed using cob construction techniques) and bound on the south by 3 ft. ocotillo fencing. A portion of this ruin wall on the west end may be set up for use as a bench for seating. Inside this semicircle bench will be an horno (agave roasting pit). Being situated behind our low ruin wall/ bench will hopefully dissuade children from playing in it and limit the risk to visitors of stepping into this shallow hole. The Tucson Basin Hohokam cultivated beans, corn, squash and cotton mainly through floodwater farming in the floodplains of rivers, mouths of arroyos, and meandering streams supplemented by hand-dug short irrigation ditches. Rock terraces and check dams on hillsides captured and directed rainfall runoff. The Hohokam grouped companion plantings on the same mounds to afford shade, trellis and weed control. Corn provides a trellis for bean vines. Bean plants provide nutrients in the soil for corn and squash. Large squash leaves keep the soil cool and moist. Gardening tools were made from hardwoods and broken pottery pieces. Cultivated fields provided more than just plants for food. Snares were set to trap rabbits. Trapped fish were collected from flooded fields. Cultivated foods made up 20% of the Hohokam diet, while 80% consisted of wild plants and animal products. Different plants were grown during different seasons (based on temperature, rainfall, etc.). Some areas were left fallow at times, because crops needed to be rotated to ensure healthy soil. Thus, the Native Crops Garden at Tucson Botanical Gardens will look different at different times of year. Advantages/disadvantages of farming (over hunting/gathering) Advantages  20% of the Hohokam diet was supplemented with cultivated foods.  The Hohokam did not need to travel as much to hunt/gather food.  Less land was needed to produce more food.  Farming resulted in a steady food supply all year long.  Farming was less dangerous than hunting.  Farmers did not have to farm all day; they could work at something else as well. Disadvantages  Farming required a source of water,  More tools were required (and tools were made of sticks and stones).  Crops change seasonally.  Farming required a schedule of planting, tending and harvesting crops. Typical crops cultivated by the Hohokam Tepary Beans (Phaseolus acutifolius, frijoles, bawi) Although tepary beans are planted and grown as a crop, they are native to the Sonoran Desert. The plant can be found growing wild in southern Arizona canyons at elevations between 3,000 and 6,000 feet. The tepary bean is an annual plant which means it only lives for one year. Tepary plants close their leaves during the hottest part of the day to conserve moisture; during the rest of the day, the leaves track the sun using a special hinged joint. There are several varieties of tepary beans. Traditionally, the beans were planted at the beginning of the monsoon season. Around October, the plants are ready for harvest. They are laid out and beaten or “threshed” with a stick to separate the beans from the plant. Beans are then laid in the sun to dry. Traditionally, tepary beans were stored in clay jars but today, they are typically bagged. The beans are hard and must be soaked and cooked in water for a long time to soften for eating. They are high in protein and are tasty in soups and stews. A half-cup of tepary beans has the same amount of protein as two hard boiled eggs or one cup of mixed nuts.

Other beans also cultivated: lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus) red & white beans(Phaseolus vulgaris) Corn (maize) (Zea mays) Corn was the mainstay of the Hohokam diet, eaten fresh, roasted, or dried in their husks for storage. Colors varied: red, white, yellow, blue, and carmine. Squash (Curcubita moschata) Squash blossoms were boiled or fried (in deer fat) and the seeds parched; squash meat was boiled and/or roasted and eaten. The rind was removed from the squash, cut into long, thin strips of meat then dried, folded and wrapped into a bundle to store for winter usage. Cotton (Gossypium spp.) Cotton seeds were parched, ground, and formed into cakes and baked on hot stones. Fiber was spun into yarn, then woven into clothing articles.

MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE DESERT The world has served as nature’s pharmacy for humans for thousands of years. 80% of the world’s population relies mainly on traditional medicines derived from plants for their primary health car (World Heath Organization). Indigenous people around the world prehistorically, historically, and presently have sought medicinal cures from plants in their immediate environment. Some of these plants have proven to be extremely powerful and have been introduced into the “modern” world to become commonly know medicines. Aspirin, taxol (a cancer medication from yew trees), camphor, digitalis (a common heart medicine) and many other medicines are made from plants from all around the world. In the U.S., as much as one fourth of all pharmaceutical prescriptions are derived from plants. Scientists believe that plants are still an untapped resource for new medicines. Only 10% of an estimated 25,000 species of plants have already been investigated for healing properties. Many pharmaceutical companies are now providing funds for research on medicinal uses of plants around the world. Often, the scientists conducting the research will turn to the indigenous people living in a certain area and study ways they use their local plants. New and exciting medicines have already been discovered. For example, creosote is known for its antiseptic and antibiotic properties. In addition, 360 different chemical compounds have been isolated from creosote, including a substance that kills cancer cells in the laboratory. With the incredible diversity of plants still unstudied, the future for medicinal discoveries is promising. In the Sonoran Desert, people have long turned to nature’’ pharmacy for its healing properties. Both the Tohono O’odham and the Yoeme recognize “healers” within their cultures who are familiar with desert plants and their healing properties. Mexicans who have long lived in the Sonoran Desert also have “healers’ in their communities. Mexican healers, called “curanderas”, have also developed an intimate knowledge of the healing properties of plants and use native plants extensively in their cures. Desert plants have been made into teas, infusions, poultices, powders, tinctures, vapors, and smoke for medicinal uses. The potency of any specific desert medicinal plant is variable and dependent on when it is collected and how it is prepared. Often, part of the cure is the mental attitude of the patient and their faith in the healer and the cure. The more that one specific plant is used by a variety of cultures the more likely it may have real medicinal qualities. The plants selected for this activity have, for the most part, been recognized as medicinal by more than one group of people. It is therefore likely that they do have some curative properties and are not entirely reliant on the faith of the patient. The scientific community has not extensively studied

desert plants for their medicinal properties. It is a challenging and exciting area of research. Who knows, perhaps a miraculous cure for a global disease could be discovered right here in the Sonoran Desert! Treatment Cards Creosote Bush (Larrea tridentate) Creosote bush is one of the most common plants found throughout the Sonoran Desert. Many people know the creosote bush by its smell – after it rains, the smell of the creosote fills the desert air with a delightful odor. One can also rub the leaves together to obtain the distinctive creosote bush smell. The odor is due to a protective, waxy coating on the leaves which helps them to conserve water. Medicinal uses: For achy joints: heated branches should be placed on affect joints. For sore feet: hold feet in smoke of smoldering green branches. For stings and bites: the leaves should be chewed and placed directly on the bite or sting to reduce swelling Cañaigre (Rumex humenosephalus) Cañaigre can be found in sandy streambeds and fields throughout most of the Sonoran Desert. It prefers to grow in soil that is not very rocky. Cañaigre grows in the late winter and dies off when it gets hot. It has stalklike, reddish stems, which seem to grow directly out of the ground. On each of these thick stems is one large, somewhat fleshy leaf. The plant is similar to rhubarb in growth, appearance and, to some degree, taste. Medicinal uses: For sore throats and colds: the roots should be ground into a powder and eaten. A piece of root could also be held in the mouth. For sores and wounds: the roots should be ground and applied dry directly to the wound Brittlebush (Encilia farinose) Brittlebush looks a lot like a small sunflower to which it is related. It is one of the most common wildflowers in the Sonoran Desert and is most obvious in the spring when its yellow blossoms cover the landscape. It is called brittlebush because it becomes very dry and brittle and drops most of its leaves during the dry season. Its leaves are typically a light gray-green. Brittlebush stems secrete a sappy resin which can be used as a glue or chewing gum, in addition to its medicinal uses. Medicinal uses: For sores: the resin should be ground and sprinkled like a powder on the sore. For toothaches: the bark from a green twig of the plant should be peeled then heated in warm ashes. Next it should be placed in the mouth and bitten on by the bad tooth. Ailment Cards You put on your shoes and feel a sharp pain on the tip of one of your toes. You quickly pull off your shoe and look at your foot. Your toe hurts a lot, and is turning red and swollen. (Treatment: Creosote leaves should be chewed and placed directly on the bite or sting to reduce swelling.) You wake up in the morning with a scratchy throat. Your nose is runny and your head feels stuffy. (Treatment: Cañaigre roots should be ground into a powder and eaten. A piece of root could also be held in the mouth.) You have a dull ache in your mouth. It feels worse when you try to chew. The gum area around one of your molars is red and swollen. (Treatment: Bark from a green twig of the Brittlebush plant should be peeled then heated in warm ashes. Next it should be placed in the mouth and bitten on by the bad tooth.)

DESERT PLANTS FOR FIBER Cacti vs. Succulents Succulents are plants that store water in their leaves or stems. Storing water is an important adaptation for plants in the desert. All cacti are succulents, but not all succulents are cacti.  Cactus pads are modified stems.  Cactus spines emerge from a part on the pad or stem called an areole, while non-cactus succulent spines are an extension of the body of the plant.  Cacti are native to North and South America, while succulents can grow naturally all over the world. Agave Agave leaves produce long fibers which were braided to make ropes, and woven for nets, sandals and sleeping mats. If you carefully remove the spine at the end of a leaf, keeping the fibers attached, you have an instant “needle and thread.” Agaves are also a food source. Agave plants are chosen just before flowering, when the stored energy (sugar content) is greatest. The agave is pried out of the ground, and then the leaves are cut off, leaving a whitish melon-sized core or heart. The heart is baked for several days in an underground pit (horno). The heart can be eaten after baking or it can also be pounded into cakes that are dried for storage. Agave sweeteners and syrups can also be made. CAUTION: Raw sap in agave hearts is toxic, so the heart must be cooked before eating; handling cut leaves can cause contact dermatitis. Some types of agave root can be used, fresh or dried, to make soap and dried root powder in tea relieves arthritis. Yucca Yuccas provided both food and materials for early peoples. The reddish, banana-like fruit of Yucca baccata can be eaten raw when ripe, or baked; it was also dried and stored. The seeds were ground into meal. The roots are used in basketry, responsible for the reddish-brown colors in Tohono O’odham basket designs. Yucca fibers were used as well, for basketry, cordage, brushes and woven into a stiff fabric. The flowers and stalks of Yucca elata were cooked and eaten; the flowers boiled and the stems peeled and baked like an agave. The fiber of its leaves was made into rope and cloth. Yucca leaves are split and chewed, the tough fibers separating and softening to create a disposable brush used to paint pottery. The roots of both plants contain saponin, a detergent-like substance. They were pounded and soaked in water to release the soap, which was used for washing clothes and hair and ceremonially to bathe ritual participants. Twisting Fiber into Cordage Directions (for a right-handed person) 1. Get a piece of fiber and fold it in half. Hold the folded end with the finger and thumb of your left hand. 2. Take the top fiber and twist it away from you by rolling between your finger and thumb. Do several twists until it kinks. 3. Bring the bottom fiber up behind the top twisted fiber until it is now the top fiber. 4. Twist what is now the top fiber by rolling between your finger and thumb. Do several twists until it kinks. 5. Repeat. To view an instructional video of the reverse wrap method of twisting fiber, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TpAQihS2at8&feature=related. SOURCES Tucson Botanical Gardens ethnobotany notebooks “Agriculture and Wild Foods of the Tucson Basin Hohokam” prepared by Nancy Reid for TBG, Feb. 2001. Tucson Botanical Gardens Native Crops Garden document Tohono Chul Park – Ethnobotany: Harvesting the Desert Wild Food of the Sonoran Desert book in the “kitchen” ethnobotany notebook