TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
Final Thesis
Emilia Järvinen
DEMONSTRATING THE ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES THROUGH MATHEMATIC PROCEDURES
Supervisor
Senior Lecturer Eeva-Liisa Viskari
Commissioned by
Sustainable future NGO – Tampere (Kestävä tulevaisuus ry – Tampere)
Tampere 2008
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
Järvinen Emilia
Demonstrating the Environmental Issues of Developing Countries through Mathematic Procedures
Final Thesis
38 pages
Supervisor
Senior Lecturer Eeva-Liisa Viskari
Commissioned by
Sustainable future NGO – Tampere (Kestävä tulevaisuus ry – Tampere)
June 2008 Keywords
calculations, developing countries, environment, mathematics, demonstration
ABSTRACT
The aim of this thesis was to gather up information, plan mathematical assignments and thus demonstrate the environmental issues in developing countries for students. The main issues such as global warming, air pollution, water and wastewater issues, waste issues and energy issues are covered in this study in two approaches; the theoretical part in which a reader can familiarize herself into environmental issues in the developing countries and the mathematical part which demonstrates some calculations related to the environmental issues covered in the theory.
This thesis is made for Sustainable Future NGO –Tampere to be used as an introductory material into the environmental issues in the developing countries.
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
Järvinen Emilia
Kehitysmaiden ympäristöongelmien havainnollistaminen matemaattisten tehtävien avulla
Tutkintotyö
38 sivua
Työn ohjaaja
Lehtori Eeva-Liisa Viskari
Työn teettäjä
Kestävä tulevaisuus ry -Tampere
Kesäkuu 2008 Hakusanat
kehitysmaat, ympäristöongelmat
TIIVISTELMÄ
Tämän
tutkintotyön
tarkoituksena
on
kehitysmaiden
ympäristöongelmien
havainnollistaminen laajalti kootun materiaalin pohjalta. Pääaiheita olivat ilmaston lämpeneminen, ilman saasteet, vesi- ja jätevesi, jätteet sekä energia. Niitä on havainnollistettu kahdella eri tapaa. Teoreettisessa osassa lukija voi tutustua kehitysmaiden ympäristöasioihin ja matemaattisessa osassa laskutehtäviin, jotka liittyvät läheisesti kuhunkin aihepiiriin.
Tämä tutkintotyö tehtiin Kestävä tulevaisuus ry- Tampereen pyynnöstä ja sitä tullaan käyttämään kehitysmaiden ympäristöongelmia esittelevänä materiaalina.
FOREWORD
I would like to thank all the teachers who have been guiding me and my classmates on this great journey and especially the head of the degree program Marjukka Dyer who has believed in us and given us a great support. A special thank you goes also to my supervisor Eeva-Liisa Viskari, who has not only given a great teaching through out the studies but also in my final thesis process.
For providing the topic I would like to give thanks to the Ketu Ry and its representatives, as well as their supporting authority Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. This was a very interesting and fruitful co-operation.
Thank you classmates for the great group spirit, I’ve really enjoyed having you by my side all throughout these four years. And last but not least my beloved husband to be, who has been brave enough to walk this road by my side.
Tampere June 2008
Emilia Järvinen
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
WHO
World health organization
HCl
Hydrochloric acid
C
Capita
CO2
Carbon dioxide
SO2
Sodium dioxide
DCB
Dichlorobenzene
TCB
Tetrachlorobiphenyl
EU
European Union
ppm
parts per million
USD
United States Dollar
TAMPERE POLYTECHNIC Environmental Engineering
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT FOREWORD TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 7 2 GLOBAL WARMING ...................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 The Theory of Global Warming ..................................................................................................... 8 2.2 The Global Warming and the Developing Countries ..................................................................... 9 2.3 Calculations .................................................................................................................................. 10 2.3.1 The Sea Level Rise and the Maldives ....................................................................................... 10 2.3.2 Analysis of CO2 Emissions ....................................................................................................... 11 3. AIR POLLUTION.......................................................................................................................... 13 3.1 The Theory of Air Pollution ......................................................................................................... 13 3.2 Air Pollution Prevention............................................................................................................... 13 3.3 Calculations .................................................................................................................................. 14 3.3.1 Spreading Calculations of a Power Plant .................................................................................. 14 3.3.2 Coal Powered Power Plant Emissions....................................................................................... 18 4 WATER AND WASTEWATER ISSUES ...................................................................................... 20 4.1 Water Scarcity .............................................................................................................................. 20 4.2 Water Pollution............................................................................................................................. 20 4.3 Wastewater Issues ........................................................................................................................ 21 4.4 Calculations .................................................................................................................................. 21 4.4.1 Sufficiency of Water.................................................................................................................. 21 4.4.2 Population Growth Estimation .................................................................................................. 22 5 WASTE ISSUES ............................................................................................................................. 24 5.1 Waste Management Problems in the Developing Countries ........................................................ 24 5.2 Sustainable Waste Management................................................................................................... 25 5.3 Calculations .................................................................................................................................. 26 5.3.1 Required Landfill Area Estimations .......................................................................................... 26 5.3.2 Neutralization of HCl with Soda Ash (Waste Incinerator) ....................................................... 27 6 ENERGY ISSUES........................................................................................................................... 29 6.1 Energy Consumption and the Environment ................................................................................. 29 6.2 Sustainable Energy Management ................................................................................................. 29 6.3 Calculations .................................................................................................................................. 30 6.3.1 Replacing Coal with Solar Power.............................................................................................. 30 6.3.2 Energy Savings with Efficient Refrigerators............................................................................. 32 7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................................................ 35 8. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 36 9. ADDITIONAL READING ............................................................................................................ 38
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1 INTRODUCTION The idea for this thesis emerged from the need for a general guide that combines environmental issues in developing countries and the mathematical aspect of those issues. The aim was to produce material and mathematics assignments for students to demonstrate environmental issues in developing countries.
During the process I have constantly been keeping in mind the point of view that this thesis can be used as an introductory material for students, who will familiarize themselves with development work, as well as guideline for a person who is planning to start a project or such in the environmental field in developing countries.
The main focus of this thesis lies with the five major environmental issues; global warming, air pollution, water and wastewater issues, waste issues and energy issues. Every section includes typical examples and discussion on the issue.
Environmental issues in developing countries have risen into the awareness since they go very much hand in hand with the humanitarian aspects that have been on the focus for decades. Through better environmental management many diseases and environmental strains can be diminished and through well planned development many mistakes made in the past can be avoided.
Especially with the knowledge we currently have on the global warming the environmental issues have become crucial issue also and maybe even more so in the developing countries. This is due the fact that the developing countries due to their location and climatic conditions are the first to suffer from the consequences of global warming.
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2 GLOBAL WARMING Global warming as such is not an unusual event; the earth’s temperature and climate are constantly changing from an ice age to a hotter periods and back to ice age again. But the issue that is causing concern is the pace the shift that is happening at the moment. We are experiencing the fastest shift in history of humankind and many studies have shown that the rapid pace is actually a result of human activities. /1/
2.1 THE THEORY OF GLOBAL WARMING Global warming and climate change usually go hand in hand when discussing the events happening to out climatic conditions but it is wise to keep these two terms apart. Global warming is to be used when it is a matter of global conditions and in this case warming of the globe whereas climate change is a more local and describes the regional climatic conditions. /2/
Mainly due to human activities greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) prevent the heat from escaping into the space. So basically the more greenhouse gas there is in the atmosphere the more heat there will be to increase the global warming. The increase in the greenhouse gases has been measured around 34 per cent between the time before industrial revolution and the year 2000. All in all this has lead into an increase of 0.6 ±0.2 °C in earth’s temperature during the 20th century. /3/
Melting of glacial ice and mountain snow covers is one of the results of global warming. The melting waters then conclude into sea level rise and loss of valuable fresh water reservoirs. This can lead to flooding in many low lying areas while some areas are loosing their valuable source of fresh water. Changing climatic conditions can also conclude into severe environmental hazards like heat waves and storms, also
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FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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agricultural activities are bound to lose in the changing conditions. Some species of flora and fauna are also going to be affected by the global warming; many species will lose their natural habitat and face extinction. On the other hand some species gain more areas to spread on but this has a down side also; it is a great threat that malaria and other vector-borne infectious diseases will spread into larger areas and start a massive disease wave./2/
2.2 THE GLOBAL WARMING AND THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Global warming is no good news for the developing world. Developing countries are the first to tackle these issues since they are already situated in the area where most extreme climatic conditions apply so the problems they are tackling as we speak will get even bigger if the global warming continues at the same rate as expected. Already existing extreme drought will get even more extreme and in some places there is flooding and excess water, for instance 1 meter sea level rise can submerge some island nations such as 80 per cent of Maldives. Extreme weather conditions are a big problem in developing countries lowering the profitability of agriculture and in extreme conditions bringing hazards like storms, tsunamis and so on. This causes a strain in the economy which already is at a critical stage; how can they find money to help the victims of these hazards if they barely find money to run the nation in a normal state. /2, 4/
A great problem lies also in the fact that a developing country has a need to develop and usually with development comes consumption of natural resources and energy but the follow up of these are emissions which then conclude into the global warming in one way or another. So the developing countries are in a difficult situation in deciding at what rate and which methods the development is going to take place. /11/
Very much discussed issue is also that is it right for the industrialized countries to demand the developing countries to keep their emissions low while most of the
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FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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damage has been caused by the industrialized countries during the industrialization. /3, 5/
2.3 CALCULATIONS
2.3.1 THE SEA LEVEL RISE AND THE MALDIVES How much land based ice can melt before the Maldives reside completely below the sea level?
Solution:
The highest point of Maldives if 2.4 meters above the sea level. The area of the seas of the world is approximately 361,132,000 km2. The amount of water needed to wipe out all of Maldives is thus:
Δh =
Vwater Aseas
Where; h = height V = volume A = area
Vwater = Aseas * Δh 361,132,000km 2 * 2.4m 1000km / m = 866,000km3 =
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As ice is less dense than liquid water, the volume needs to be converted to ice volume:
Vice = Vwater *
ρ water ρ ice
Where; V = Volume
ρ = Density Vice
866,000km 3 *1.000kg / l = 0.9167kg / l = 945,000km 3
This amount of ice is approximately 443,000 km2 of Greenland ice (average thickness 2,135 meters) or about 26% of Greenland’s ice. /6, 7, 8/
2.3.2 ANALYSIS OF CO2 EMISSIONS One 100 MW coal power plant emits 84.1 tonnes of CO2 per hour. Analyze the effect on atmosphere and also the effect of global power production.
Solution:
Earth’s atmosphere weighs 5.1480*1018 kg, or 5.1480*1015 tonnes. The effect of the CO2 emissions of the plant to the atmosphere is (the formula is simplified as the effect of the CO2 on total mass and average molar mass are negligible):
ΔppmCO2 Δt
=
rateCO2 matmosphere
*
M avg (atmosphere) M (CO2 )
*1000000 ppm
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Where; ppm = Parts per million t = Time rate = Emission rate m = Mass M = Molar mass ΔppmCO2 Δt
=
8.41tonnes / hour 28.97 g / mol * *1000000 ppm 5.1480 *1015 tonnes 44.01g / mol
= 1.1 * 10 −9 ppm / hour = 9.4 *10 −6 ppm / year Analyzing this result in global scale: Total change Number of plants = One plant' s effect 1 ppm / year = 9.4 *10 −6 ppm / year = 106,000 plants Total power = 106,000 plants *100 MW / plant = 11TW
11 TW of power produced with coal would rise the CO2 level by 1 ppm/year. Currently 3.8 TW of energy is produced using coal, which would account for 0.35 ppm rise in the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere annually.
Analysis on glacial records suggests that the average temperature is linear to the CO2 level, suggesting about 9°C rise for 100 ppm change. This would indicate 1°C rise for a change of 11.1 ppm in CO2 level. All coal power plants would thus account for 1°C rise in temperature in 11.1 ppm/0.35 ppm = 32 years. Current average temperature does not follow the statistics, but this might be a temporary anomaly. /9, 10/
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3. AIR POLLUTION The most of the air pollutants in developing countries come from transportation, power plants and biomass burning. According to the estimations by WHO 800 000 people die annually due to air pollution related issues and majority of these cases are situated in the major cities in Asian countries. /11, 12/
3.1 THE THEORY OF AIR POLLUTION In large cities of some developing countries the air pollution is mostly caused by the traffic. Other producers of air pollution are power plants and biomass burning. These pollutants have an impact on people’s health as well as nature around such as forests and crops thus they are harming not only the nature itself but also affecting the natural resources the people are utilizing. Air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels includes carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, lead, hydrocarbons and particulate matter. These pollutants together with emissions from the industries amount to the global warming as well as ozone depletion. /13/
3.2 AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION Tackling the problem of air pollution at the stage the developing countries are is both cheaper and more efficient than if it is considered after the development has already taken place. Though some major cities for example in China already have tremendous problems with air pollution, imagine how big they could be if nothing was done to them and the tackling would start after China is fully developed. Instead if the development is lead towards sustainable methods there are to be less problematic issues in the air quality. /13/
Easiest way to tackle the air pollutants is preventing them from being made in the first place by using methods and equipment that do not produce harmful pollutants or
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FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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at least produce less of them. For example the decision makers can promote the usage of busses and trains instead of private cars. Secondary prevention method is collecting the pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere. This method can be used for instance in factories by filtering the emissions before they are released. /14/
3.3 CALCULATIONS
3.3.1 SPREADING CALCULATIONS OF A POWER PLANT A power plant burning 10 tonnes of coal with 2.5% sulfur content per hour has effective stack height of 150 m. A study requires an approximation of distance of maximum concentration when the wind speed is 2 m/s and sky is clear at night.
Solution
The concentration (C) at given point from the stack can be solved using PasquillGifford estimation. The x axis is in the wind’s direction and y the horizontal normal for x. Z is the altitude from ground level. The formula is as follows:
C ( x, y, z , H c ) = (m& / 2πσ yσ z u )[e
− (1 / 2 )( y / σ y ) 2
][e − (1 / 2 )(( z − H e ) / σ z ) + e − (1 / 2 )(( z + H e ) / σ z ) ] 2
2
Where H c = effective height of emissions (physical stack height, H s , plus the plume rise, Δh, m u = mean wind speed affecting the plume, m/s m& = emission rate of pollutants, g/s
σ y , σ z = dispersion coefficients or stability parameters, m C = concentration of gas, g/m 3 x, y, z = coordinates, m The concentrations are approximated at ground level (z = 0) so the equation can be simplified: C ( x, y ,0, H c ) = (m& / πσ y σ z u )[e
− (1 / 2 )( y / σ y ) 2
][e − (1 / 2 )( H e / σ z ) ] 2
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For this calculation, only the distance in the direction of the wind is used (y = 0), so the equation can be further simplified as:
C ( x,0,0, H c ) = (m& / πσ yσ z u )[e − (1 / 2 )( H e / σ z ) ] 2
Before the dispersion coefficients can be read from graphs, a stability category needs to be selected. The categories are selected from following table: Day Incoming solar radiation Surface Wind Speed at 10m (m/s) 6
Strong Moderate Slight A A-B B A-B B C B B-C C C C-D D C D D
Night Thinly Overcase Or > 4/8 Low cloud E D D D
< 3/8 Cloud F E D D
In the A-B, B-C and C-D categories, the coefficient factors should be the average of A and B values, B and C values and C and D values, respectively. When the category is determined, the coefficient factors can be read from following graphs:
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10000
1000
σ(z), meters
A B C
100
D E F
10
1 100
1000
10000
100000
Distance, x, m eters
10000
1000 σ(y), meters
A B C
100
D E F
10
1 Distance, x, meters
The given circumstances were night time, no clouds and 2 m/s wind, which correspond to category F. The emission rate of sulfur dioxide can be calculated as follows:
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering m& = m& coal * p sulfur *
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M SO2 MS
2.5% 32 g / mol * 100% 16 g / mol = 0.50tonnes / hour 1,000,000 g / tonnes = 0.50tonnes / hour * 3600s / hour = 138.9 g / s = 10tonnes / hour *
To estimate the distance of maximum concentration, the concentration at distances of 0.1, 1.0, 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 50 and 70 kilometers are calculated. Values of and for the distances are needed, and they can be read from the figures above: x (km) 0.1 1 5 10 20 25 30 50 70
σy (m) 4.1 33.9 145.7 270.9 500.9 609.8 715.6 1117.4 1495.0
σz (m) 2.3 14.0 34.2 46.4 60.3 64.9 68.8 79.2 86.1
Now the concentrations for the distances can be calculated. Take 5 km by example: 2 138.9 g / s * e −1 / 2 (120 m / 32.2 m ) π *145.7 m * 32.2m * 2m / s = 9.41 *10 −6 g / m 3
C (5,0,0, H e ) =
The values for all distances: x (km)
C 0,1 1 5 10 20 25 30 50 70
0 5.18 * 10-18 9.41 * 10-6 6.21 * 10-5 1.01 * 10-4 1.01 * 10-4 9.81 * 10-5 7.93 * 10-5 6.50 * 10-5
As can be seen from the calculated values, the maximum concentrations of about 1.01*10-4 g/m3 are between distances of 20 and 25 kilometers. /15/
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3.3.2 COAL POWERED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS
Approximate the emissions of a 100 MW coal powered power plant.
Solution:
Assume a power plant with high 30% efficiency and burning high quality “Esskohle” coal. The coal includes about 90% carbon and 1% sulfur and heat content 35.4 MJ/kg.
The amount of coal burned per hour is: Output power Efficiency * Heat content 100 MW * 100% *1MJ / MWs = 30% * 35.4 MJ / kg = 9.42kg / s = 33.9tonnes / hour
Coal burning rate =
CO2 produced per 1 tonne of coal is (assuming all carbon burns): M(CO2 ) M (C ) 44.01g / mol = 1tonne * 90% * 16.00 g / mol = 2.48tonnes
mCO2 = mcoal * carbon content *
The same formula applies to SO2 also:
M(SO2 ) M (C ) 64.06 g / mol = 1tonne *1% * 16.00 g / mol = 0.040tonnes
m SO2 = mcoal * sulfur content *
The rates at which carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide are emitted to atmosphere are:
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering rateCO2 = ratecoal *
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mCO2 mcoal
= 33.9tonnes / hour *
2.48tonnes 1tonne
= 84.1tonnes / hour rate SO2 = ratecoal *
m SO2 mcoal
= 1.4tonnes / hour
Thus the power plant emits CO2 at 84.1 tonnes/hour rate and SO2 at 1.4 tonnes/hour rate. /16/
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4 WATER AND WASTEWATER ISSUES Water as it is the necessity of life is very important in the developing countries. The climatic conditions and location of developing countries are usually challenging. Another problem arises with pollution of the water resources and thus pure water is a rare luxury. /17/
4.1 WATER SCARCITY Lack of adequate water supply is evident as we speak. Worldwide 1.5 billion people lack safe drinking water. There is a vast amount of water in the world but the problem is that most of it is in the oceans as saltwater and thus can not be utilized as drinking water. The problem with the remaining freshwater is that it is not distributed evenly due to differing geographical and climatic conditions. The problem is evident especially in developing countries which are commonly located in the dry areas of the world. /17/
4.2 WATER POLLUTION One of the most evident results of water pollution is people suffering or even dying from the diseases caused by it. It is estimated that 3.4 million people die from waterborne diseases each year. /18/
Water pollution is usually caused by infectious bacteria, inorganic and organic chemicals or excess heat. Common sources of water pollution in developing countries are untreated sewage discharges, power plants and agriculture. /18/
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4.3 WASTEWATER ISSUES Untreated wastewaters are causing many problems in the developing world for both public health and the environment. Valuable freshwater resources are being polluted and various diseases are transmitted through untreated wastewaters. For example in China only 10 per cent of wastewaters are being treated before discharging them into the nature, typically into rivers. /18/
Untreated wastewaters transmit bacteria, viruses and chemicals which cause illnesses and may also release nitrogen and phosphorous which cause eutrophication and oxygen depletion in the water bodies, also methane and nitrous oxide can be produced which are major contributors in global warming. /19/
As in many other environmental issues the lack of knowledge and poor infrastructure are the issues having a major impact on the problems at hand. With simple solutions and attention many lives could be protected.
4.4 CALCULATIONS
4.4.1 SUFFICIENCY OF WATER A watershed with drainage area of 2000 ha has annual rainfall of 853 mm. The expected evaporation loss is 304 mm/year and loss to groundwater is 76 mm/year. Estimate the population that can be served from the lake, assuming 200 L/(day * capita) of water is needed.
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Solution:
Using mass balance: R (rainfall excess) = P( precipitation) − E (evaporation) − G (loss to groundwater ) R= 854mm − 304mm − 76mm = 474mm Convert R from mm to cubic meters (volume) and further to liters:
1m 10000m 2 * 2000ha * 1000mm 1ha 6 3 = 9.48 *10 m
R = 474mm *
= 9.48 *10 6 m 3 * 10 3 L / 1m 3 = 9.48 *10 9 L Compute the people that can be served: Annual usage per capita =200 L /(c * day ) * 365day = 7.3 * 10 4 L / c 9.48 * 10 9 L 7.3 * 10 4 L / c = 130,000c
No. of people served =
/20/
4.4.2 POPULATION GROWTH ESTIMATION Estimates of population growth are needed in many areas of environmental management. For example when planning a waste treatment plant, water treatment plant or any other such project where population growth needs to be taken into account.
Estimate the population of a 10000 people city after 10 years, assuming a 5% annual growth rate.
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
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Solution:
dp = kp p dt Where; p = Population t = Time kp = Population growth factor Integrating this equation yields: p2
t
dp 2 ∫ p = ∫t k p dt p1 1
ln p 2 − ln p1 = k p (t 2 − t1 ) kp =
ln p 2 − ln p1 t 2 − t1
The geometric estimate of population is: ln p = ln p 0 + k p (t − t 0 ) p=e =e
ln p0 + k p ( t −t 0 ) ln 10000 people +
5% / year *10 100%
= 16500 people /20/
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FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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5 WASTE ISSUES Waste production in the developing countries has increased dramatically due to technology and development spread from the industrialized countries and with the ongoing population growth and lack of proper waste management the problem is evident. Without proper waste management and funding developing countries have not only health and environment related problems but it can damage the image of the country and thus hinder the tourism and market appeal which many developing countries are very much dependent on. /21/
5.1 WASTE MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Different waste related problems in developing countries can be divided in technical, financial, institutional, economic and social constraints. Technical constraints include the lack of research and development, technical expertise and waste management planning. These issues lead to unstructured management which can lead to failed projects in the long run; wrong methods with poor cost-effectiveness and wrong solutions for that particular area can be chosen without proper expertise. Financial constraints are a major problem in developing countries in general and waste management is not the first place to direct the financial resources available. Also funds directed in the development of waste management are problematic since they run out eventually and that is when the project stops also since no constant income is available for the project. /21/
Institutional problems occur due to lack of effective legislation and unstructured system of the agencies working in the area of waste management. Different agencies can be working in the field unaware of each other tackling the same problems when if working together under a proper management they could be more cost-effective. Lack of economic development hinders the resources and thus fails to support the
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sustainable development of waste management systems in developing countries. Closely connected with economical development is also technical development which enables machinery and equipment needed in waste management and if not there expensive equipment needs to be bought from outside and that is often not even an option due to the lack of money. Social constrains include lack of education and knowledge on how the poor management of the waste impacts on the peoples health. Also poor image of waste management leads to people not appreciating waste handling and thus it is hard to find educated work force on this field. Also cultural differences and language barriers can hinder the development of adequate waste management when working with an outside organization. /21/
5.2 SUSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT Main issues to be taken into account when starting a waste management plan for developing countries are cultural differences, resources available and adequate planning and management of the project. Cultural climate of the country the waste management plan is made for has to be taken into account; this can be conducted by studying the already available information or making surveys among the people in the area. Collaboration with local schools can be initiated to enable better understanding on the matter and how important the waste management is and what is the benefit for the people in that area. Also more precise education can be started to teach the locals how to operate the system properly and especially how it is sustained in the future as well. /21, 22/
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5.3 CALCULATIONS 5.3.1 REQUIRED LANDFILL AREA ESTIMATIONS Estimate the required landfill area for a community with a population of 260,000. Assuming that the solid waste generation rate is 3.5 kg/(capita*day), compacted specific weight of solid wastes in landfill is 490 kg/m3 and the average depth of compacted solid wastes is 20 m.
Solution:
Determine the daily solid wastes generation rate in tons per day: Generation rate =Population * Generation rate per capita 260000 people * 3.5kg /(capita * day ) 1000kg / tonnes = 910tonnes / day =
The required area is determined as follows: Generation rate / day Average density 910tonnes / day = 490kg / m 3
Volume required / day=
= 1860m 3 / day
Area required / year =
(Volume required / day ) * (365 day / yr ) Average depth
1860m 3 / day * (365day / yr ) 20m 2 = 34000m / year =
Area required / day =
(Volume required / day ) Average depth
1860m 3 / day 20m 2 = 93m / day =
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The actual area requirements are greater than calculated because of buffer zone, roads and offices. This allowance varies usually from 20% to 40%. If an allowance of 30% is used, the daily area requirement becomes: (Volume required / day ) * (100% + Allowance%) 100% 2 93m / day * (100% + 30%) = 100% 2 = 120m / day
Actual area required / day =
/20/
5.3.2 NEUTRALIZATION OF HCL WITH SODA ASH (WASTE INCINERATOR) Waste incinerator burning a certain mass of hazardous dichlorobenzene (C6H4Cl2) per hour uses solid soda ash (Na2CO3) to neutralize the HCl produced. If the dichlorobenzene is replaced with equal amount of tetrachlorobiphenyls (C12H6Cl4), how much more soda ash needs to be used?
Solution:
Oxidation of dichlorobenzene as balanced stoichiometric reaction: C 6 H 4 Cl 2 + 6.5O2 → 6CO2 + H 2 O + 2 HCl Therefore, for 1 g of dichlorobenzene (DCB, molar mass 147 g/mol), the amount of HCl produced is:
⎛ ⎞⎛ 2mol HCl ⎞ 1g ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.0136mol HCl produced ⎝ 147 g / mol DCB ⎠⎝ mol DCB ⎠ Oxidation of tetrachlorobiphenyl as balanced stoichiometric reaction: C12 H 6 Cl 4 + 12.5O2 → 12CO2 + H 2 O + 4 HCl Therefore, for 1 g of tetrachlorobiphenyl (TCB, molar mass 290 g/mol), the amount of HCl produced is:
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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⎛ ⎞⎛ 4mol HCl ⎞ 1g ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.0138mol HCl produced ⎝ 290 g / mol TCB ⎠⎝ mol TCB ⎠ ‘The amount of nitric acid does not change significantly (1.5%) and neither does the amount of base needed. /15/
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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6 ENERGY ISSUES Developing countries are constantly seeking a way to develop in order to secure the financial situation or even the basic survival of their people. As they develop more they need also more energy. And as more energy is needed more pollution and loss of natural resources is created. Also as in many other cases the population growth only adds up to the challenge.
6.1 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT The increased consumption of energy means inevitably increased load for the environment. This can be seen either in utilization of natural resources or the pollution that comes when the energy is derived from its source and utilized. For example in some areas of Africa the forests are diminishing drastically due to firewood needed in the households nearby and emissions released when creating electricity or heat contribute to the climate change and other environmental problems. /22/
Over the past few decades the energy consumption in the developing countries has risen over fourfold and it is estimated that it will continue to increase in the future too. /23/
6.2 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY MANAGEMENT Though the developing countries are all the time facing the problem of how to combine development and environmental issues there is a way to find a sustainable solution after all.
Renewable energy sources have recently proven effective solutions in developing countries. For example in some Asian countries like China, India and Nepal have
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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started to shift wood burning to biogas in households and managed to save the forests in those areas. Another example can be found in the countryside of India where solar power turned out to be a cheaper solution than building lines for electricity due to long distances and also the prices of the panels came down due to the market size. /22/
6.3 CALCULATIONS
6.3.1 REPLACING COAL WITH SOLAR POWER How long would it take to save initial costs of a solar power plant if a 500 kW coal plant with efficiency of 20% was to be replaced with solar power?
Solution:
First approximate the running costs of the small coal plant.
Assuming a coal price of 107.78 USD/t including transportation for Esskohle coal (35,380 kJ/kg).
At first the needed coal burning rate is calculated: Pplant = efficiency * u coal *
Where; P = Power u = Energy content m = Mass t = Time
Δmcoal Δt
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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Pplant Δmcoal = Δt efficiency * u coal 500kW * 1kJ / kWs 20% * 35,538kJ / kg = 0.070kg / s =
= 6.1t / day
The coal costs of the power plant are:
Δmoney Δmcoal * pricecoal = Δt Δt = 6.1t / day * 108.78USD / t = 660USD / day
The infrastructure for running a coal plant requires many personnel and the plant also requires frequent maintenance. Assuming the coal costs credit for 30% of the total running costs, we get: Δmoneytotal Δmoney coal = Δt Δt * 30% = 108.78USD / t *100% / 30% = 2200USD / day
The cost of solar panels is 50%-60% of the total installed price, and photovoltaic solar panels cost approximately 4.80 USD/peak watts. The land the solar panels reside on adds a bit to the costs, so assuming solar panels cost 40% of the total price. The solar plant does not provide constant amount of energy so the peak power needs to be higher than the power of the coal plant, doubling the power should be safe bet. The costs of the solar plant are thus:
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
pricetotal =
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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price panel * Ppeak
panel price% 4.80USD / W *1,000,000W *100% = 40% = 12,000,000USD
The solar plant has virtually nonexistent running costs. Now we can compute the time it takes to save the price of the solar plant:
Δmoney *t Δt pricetotal * Δt t= Δmoney 12,000,000USD * day = 2200USD * 365day / year = 15 years
pricetotal =
After 15 years the solar plant has paid back the building costs. It is also likely that the price of coal will rise in the near future, and carbon dioxide emissions may be penalized. Solar thermal plant would likely pay itself back faster, but has constant running costs. /16, 24, 25/
6.3.2 ENERGY SAVINGS WITH EFFICIENT REFRIGERATORS If 100,000 people using refrigerators in EU energy label class E were to change to those in energy class A+, approximate the drop in power usage.
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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Solution:
The EU energy label is determined by the energy efficiency index alpha, Ia. For A+ class device, the value must be between 30 and 42. For class E, the range is 110-125. The index is calculated with formula: Ia =
AC *100 SC a
where AC = annual energy consumption of appliance SC a = standard annual energy consumption of appliance
The standard annual energy consumption is determined with formula:
SC a = M a *
25 − Tc ⎛ ⎞ * FF * CC * BI ⎟ + N a + CH ⎜ Vc * 20 ⎠ Compartmen ts ⎝
∑
where Vc = the net volume (in litres) of the compartmen t Tc = the design tem perature (in º C) of the compartmen t M a , N a = appliance type specific constants FF , CC , BI , CH = appliance feature specific constants
For simplified calculation, assume every household of approximately 4 persons has a fridge-freezer (Ma = 0.777, Na = 303) with 200 liter fridge at +4ºC and 50 liter freezer at -22ºC with no special features (FF,CC,BI = 1, CH = 0). Thus the standard annual energy consumption:
25 − 4 25 − (−22) ⎞ ⎛ + 50 * SC a = 0.777 * ⎜ 200 * ⎟ + 303 20 22 ⎝ ⎠ = 549kWh / year
To approximate the real annual energy consumption, take average values for the energy classes, 36 for A+ and 117.5 for E. The real consumptions are thus:
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering AC A+ =
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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I a A + * SC a
100 36 * 549kWh / year = 100 = 198kWh / year 117.5 * 549kWh / year 100 = 645kWh / year
AC E =
If there is one appliance per household and 4 persons per household, for 100,000 people there are 25,000 households and thus 25,000 appliances, so the annual total energy consumptions and average power requirements are:
∑ AC
A+
= 25,000 *198kWh / year = 4,950,000kWh / year = 560,000W = 560kW
∑ AC
E
= 25,000 * 645kWh / year = 16,125,000kWh / year = 1,840,000W = 1,840kW
The power savings would be thus 1,840 kW – 560 kW = 1,280 kW = 1.3 MW. /26/
TAMK UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES Environmental Engineering
FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Due to the growing concern on the global warming and many other environmental issues the need for professional knowledge on these issues has risen notably. Especially in the areas where development is causing tremendous increase in pollutants and excessive use of natural resources, controlled measures and effective management of these issues is necessary.
In this thesis the major environmental issues of developing countries along with the mathematic problems presented were gathered to form a compact introductory package to these issues. The calculations were chosen variably to present the environmental issues thoroughly. Some of the calculations present common problems such as ice melting and its consequences and some are more management related and needed in controlling large entities such as population growth estimation. As this is just an introductory material only some of the most important calculations were included. For further exploration on these calculations I recommend the references 15 and 20 as well as the books presented in the additional reading section.
For students studying the environmental issues this thesis can be used as an introductory material as well as course material in the mathematics and physics courses. Since the calculations are related to the environmental issues they easily combine the technical studies and the professional studies into a complete entity. In development cooperation projects this thesis can also easily be used as an introduction on the environmental issues of developing countries and the mathematical part can be used in environmental management and specialist commissions.
Gathering up information and writing this thesis has given me a great overall understanding of these issues as well as the fact that it combined nicely many topics dealt in my study program. I hope that the reader can get the same understanding from it and get inspired for some additional knowledge hunt as well.
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FINAL THESIS Emilia Järvinen
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8. REFERENCES
1. HOUGHTON et al. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-01459-6 2. GRINNING PLANET. “Climate Change” vs. “Global warming” [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.grinningplanet.com/2007/01-02/globalwarming-vs-climate-change.htm 3. HARALD WINKLER. Climate Change and Developing Countries [online]. South Africa, 2005. Available from: http://www.erc.uct.ac.za/publications/Winkler%202005%20CC%20and%20DCs %20SAJS.pdf 4. GREENPEACE. Sea Level Rise [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/climatechange/impacts/sea_level_rise 5. ANUP SHAH. Climate Change and Global Warming [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.globalissues.org/EnvIssues/GlobalWarming.asp 6. RED CROSS. Restoring Clean Water in the Maldives [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.redcross.org/article/0,1072,0_440_5608,00.html 7. MICHAEL PIDWIRNY. Introduction to the Oceans [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html 8. BRITANNICA ONLINE ENCYCLOPEDIA. Greenland Ice Sheet [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/234619/glacier/65682/GreenlandIce-Sheet 9. WIKIPEDIA. Earth’s Atmosphere [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth’s_Atmosphere 10. HANSEN JAMES et al. Target Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim? [online]. [cited 1/6/2008] Available from: http://www.math.umn.edu/~mcgehee/Seminars/ClimateChange/presentations/200 80416.pdf
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11. AVIJIT GUPTA, MUKUL G. ASHER. Environment and the Developing World. England: John Wiley & Sons, 1998. ISBN 0-471-98338-1. 12. RAPIDC, Regional Air Pollution in Developing Countries Website [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.sei.se/rapidc/ 13. LAKDASA WIJETILLEKE, SUHASHINI A. R. KARUNARATNE. Air Quality Management: Considerations for Developing Countries [online]. [cited 25/5/2008]. Available from: http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937 &theSitePK=523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK=64187283&siteNam e=WDS&entityID=000009265_3970311123030?. 14. Air Pollution. Lectures and course material TAMK 2005-2006 15. JOSEPH P. REYNOLDS, JOHN JERIS, LOUIS THEODORE. Handbook of Chemical and Environmental Engineering Calculations. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2007. ISBN 0-470-13902-1 16. WIKIPEDIA. Coal [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal 17. KATKO, Tapio. Water and environmental issues in developing countries. Course Material, Tampere: TAMK, 2006-2007. 18. G. TYLER MILLER. Living in the Environment 14th Edition International Student Edition. U.S.A: Thomson Learning, 2005. ISBN 0-534-99728-7 19. MICHIEL R. DOORN et al. Wastewater Treatment and Discharge [online]. [cited 25/5/2008]. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/pdf/5 _Volume5/V5_6_Ch6_Wastewater.pdf 20. C. C. LEE, SHUN DAR LIN. Handbook of Environmental Engineering Calculations 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007. ISBN 0-07-147583-4 21. HISASHI OGAWA. Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries [online]. Kuala Lumpur: WHO [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/swm-fogawa1.htm 22. HELENA TELKÄNRANTA. Elävä Planeetta. Helsinki: Edita Prima, 2006. ISBN: 951-37-4652-6.
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23. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. Energy in Developing Countries, OTA-E-486. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office 1991 24. SOLARBUZZ. Solar Photovoltaic, PV Module, Panel Prices [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.solarbuzz.com/Moduleprices.htm 25. ENERGY INFORMATION ADMINISTRATION. Coal News and Markets [online]. Cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/page/coalnews/coalmar.html 26. EUROPEAN UNION. Commission Directive 2003/66/EC [online]. [cited 1/6/2008]. Available from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do? uri=OJ:L:2003:170:0010:0014:EN:PDF
9. ADDITIONAL READING
NILSSON, LENNART et al. Cleaner Production – Technologies and Tools for Resource Efficient Procuction. Stockholm: Baltic University Press, 2007. ISBN: 91975526-1-5 SCHNEITER, R. W. 101 solved environmental engineering problems. Belmont, CA: Professional Publications, 2000. ISBN 1-88-857761-4
